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Sessions 12, 13 & 15: Hobsbawm´s Nations Sessions 12, 13 & 15: Hobsbawm´s Nations and Nationalism since 1780and Nationalism since 1780

► Catalan Nationalism in Comparative Catalan Nationalism in Comparative PerspectivePerspective

► IES BarcelonaIES Barcelona► FALL 2007 PROGRAMFALL 2007 PROGRAM

► Instructor: Andrew DavisInstructor: Andrew Davis► e-mail: ad374@iesbarcelona.org e-mail: ad374@iesbarcelona.org

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►What is Nationalism?What is Nationalism?

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That depends on who you That depends on who you askask

► Nationalists (also called primordialists) argue that Nationalists (also called primordialists) argue that nations are timeless phenomena. When man nations are timeless phenomena. When man climbed out of the primordial slime, he immediately climbed out of the primordial slime, he immediately set about creating nations. set about creating nations.

► Perennialists who argue that nations have been Perennialists who argue that nations have been around for a very long time, though they take around for a very long time, though they take different shapes at different points in history.different shapes at different points in history.

► Those who follow the ‘modernization school’ see Those who follow the ‘modernization school’ see nations as entirely modern and constructed. nations as entirely modern and constructed.

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Anthony Smith Anthony Smith Nationalism and the Nationalism and the Reconstruction of NationsReconstruction of Nations

► ““For nationalists themselves, the role of the past is For nationalists themselves, the role of the past is clear and unproblematic. The nation was always clear and unproblematic. The nation was always there, indeed there, indeed it isit is part of the natural orderpart of the natural order, even , even when it was submerged in the hearts of its members. when it was submerged in the hearts of its members. The task of the nationalist is simply to remind his or The task of the nationalist is simply to remind his or her compatriots of their glorious past, so that they her compatriots of their glorious past, so that they can recreate and relive those glories.”can recreate and relive those glories.”

► ““For perennialists, too, the nation is immemorial. For perennialists, too, the nation is immemorial. National forms may change and particular nations National forms may change and particular nations may dissolve, but the identity of a nation is may dissolve, but the identity of a nation is unchanging. Yet unchanging. Yet the nation is not part of any natural the nation is not part of any natural order, so one can choose one's nation, and later order, so one can choose one's nation, and later generations can build something new on their ancient generations can build something new on their ancient ethnic foundationsethnic foundations. The task of nationalism is to . The task of nationalism is to rediscover and appropriate a submerged past in order rediscover and appropriate a submerged past in order the better to build on it.”the better to build on it.”

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Anthony Smith continued…Anthony Smith continued…

► ““For the modernist, in contrast, For the modernist, in contrast, the past is the past is largely irrelevantlargely irrelevant. The nation is a modern . The nation is a modern phenomenon, the product of nationalist phenomenon, the product of nationalist ideologies, which themselves are the ideologies, which themselves are the expression of modern, industrial society. The expression of modern, industrial society. The nationalist is free to use ethnic heritages, but nationalist is free to use ethnic heritages, but nation-building can proceed without the aid of nation-building can proceed without the aid of an ethnic pastan ethnic past. Hence, nations are . Hence, nations are phenomena of a particular stage of history, phenomena of a particular stage of history, and embedded in purely modern conditions.”and embedded in purely modern conditions.”

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The crux of the debateThe crux of the debate

►The modernization debate is The modernization debate is particularly important – as it centers particularly important – as it centers on how nations and nationalism on how nations and nationalism developed. developed.

► If nations are naturally occurring, then If nations are naturally occurring, then there is little reason to explain the there is little reason to explain the birth of nations. On the other hand, if birth of nations. On the other hand, if one sees nations as constructed, then one sees nations as constructed, then it is important to be able to explain it is important to be able to explain why and how nations developed. why and how nations developed.

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Benedict Anderson Benedict Anderson Imagined Communities: Reflections on Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalismthe Origin and Spread of Nationalism

““It is It is imaginedimagined because the members of even the because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their the minds of each lives the image of their communion.”communion.”

““The nation is imagined as The nation is imagined as limitedlimited because even the because even the largest of them encompassing perhaps a billion largest of them encompassing perhaps a billion living human beings, has finite, if elastic boundaries, living human beings, has finite, if elastic boundaries, beyond which lie other nations. No nation imagines beyond which lie other nations. No nation imagines itself coterminous with mankind. The most itself coterminous with mankind. The most messianic nationalists do not dream of a day when messianic nationalists do not dream of a day when all the members of the human race will join their all the members of the human race will join their nation in the way that it was possible, in certain nation in the way that it was possible, in certain epochs, for, say, Christians to dream of a wholly epochs, for, say, Christians to dream of a wholly Christian planet.”Christian planet.”

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Michael Hechter. Containing NationalismMichael Hechter. Containing Nationalism

► ““State-building nationalismState-building nationalism is the nationalism is the nationalism that is embodied in the attempt to assimilate or that is embodied in the attempt to assimilate or incorporate culturally distinctive territories in a incorporate culturally distinctive territories in a given state. given state. It is the result of the conscious It is the result of the conscious efforts of central rulers to make a multicultural efforts of central rulers to make a multicultural population culturally homogeneouspopulation culturally homogeneous. Thus, . Thus, beginning in the sixteenth century and beginning in the sixteenth century and continuing into the twentieth, the rulers of continuing into the twentieth, the rulers of England and France attempted fitfully perhaps, England and France attempted fitfully perhaps, and with more or less success - to foster and with more or less success - to foster homogeneity in their realms by inducing homogeneity in their realms by inducing culturally distinctive populations in each culturally distinctive populations in each country's Celtic regions to assimilate to their country's Celtic regions to assimilate to their own culture…. own culture….

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Michael HechterMichael Hechter

… …Since the rationale for state-building Since the rationale for state-building nationalism is often geopolitical - to secure nationalism is often geopolitical - to secure borders from real or potential rivals - borders from real or potential rivals - this kind this kind of nationalism tends to be culturally inclusiveof nationalism tends to be culturally inclusive. . HoweverHowever, much less liberal means of skinning , much less liberal means of skinning a culturally homogeneous cat have been a culturally homogeneous cat have been resorted to in history, as well. resorted to in history, as well. Central rulers of Central rulers of a given culture also can unify their country by a given culture also can unify their country by expelling culturally alien populationsexpelling culturally alien populations (as in the (as in the Spanish Spanish ReconquistaReconquista), or by exterminating ), or by exterminating them (often the fate of the indigenous peoples them (often the fate of the indigenous peoples of North America). of North America).

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Hechter’s TypologiesHechter’s Typologies

► ““Peripheral nationalismPeripheral nationalism occurs when a culturally occurs when a culturally distinctive territory resists incorporation into an distinctive territory resists incorporation into an expanding state, or attempts to secede and set up its expanding state, or attempts to secede and set up its own government (as in Quebec, Scotland and own government (as in Quebec, Scotland and Catalonia).”Catalonia).”

► ““Irredentist nationalismIrredentist nationalism occurs with the attempt to occurs with the attempt to extend the existing boundaries of a state by extend the existing boundaries of a state by incorporating territories of an adjacent state occupied incorporating territories of an adjacent state occupied principally by co-nationals (as in the case of the principally by co-nationals (as in the case of the Sudeten Germans).”Sudeten Germans).”

► ““Finally, Finally, unification nationalismunification nationalism involves the merger involves the merger of a politically divided but culturally homogeneous of a politically divided but culturally homogeneous territory into one state, as famously occurred in territory into one state, as famously occurred in nineteenth-century Germany and Italy.nineteenth-century Germany and Italy.

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StateState

►Post-feudal form of political organizationPost-feudal form of political organization►Stable boundariesStable boundaries►Characterized by administrative and Characterized by administrative and

legal orderlegal order►Claims binding authority on its citizens Claims binding authority on its citizens

and territoryand territory►(monopoly of legitimate use of force)(monopoly of legitimate use of force)►Compulsory organization Compulsory organization

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NationNation

► Sentiment of solidaritySentiment of solidarity► Belongs to the realm of valuesBelongs to the realm of values► No agreement on what these values areNo agreement on what these values are► Religion, ethnicity, language, history, common Religion, ethnicity, language, history, common

future future goalsgoals► Memories of a common political destiny Memories of a common political destiny

(capitalism?)(capitalism?)► Modern process. 19th century. Linked with Modern process. 19th century. Linked with

democratization processes.democratization processes.► A new basis of legitimacy to the political A new basis of legitimacy to the political

organization State. organization State.

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Relationship between State Relationship between State and Nationand Nation

►Nation-state: Nation-state: state boundaries and state boundaries and national identity correspondnational identity correspond

►The state claims a nation: US and The state claims a nation: US and FranceFrance

►Most likely when both S-B and N-B Most likely when both S-B and N-B take place at the same time take place at the same time

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Peripheral nationalismPeripheral nationalism

►Against the state, sometimes claim for Against the state, sometimes claim for statehoodstatehood

► Is secessionism the solution?Is secessionism the solution?►The problem with secessionism is that The problem with secessionism is that

if the legitimacy of a state depends on if the legitimacy of a state depends on identity, there is no limit to statehood identity, there is no limit to statehood claimsclaims

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Towards state-nationsTowards state-nations

►One state, multiple national identities One state, multiple national identities – what does that mean in practice?– what does that mean in practice?

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Eric HobsbawmEric Hobsbawm

► Eric Hobsbawm falls into the "historicist" or Eric Hobsbawm falls into the "historicist" or "modernist" school of nationalism along with "modernist" school of nationalism along with Ernest Gellner and Benedict Anderson. They Ernest Gellner and Benedict Anderson. They posit that nations and nationalism are posit that nations and nationalism are products of modernity and have been created products of modernity and have been created as means to political and economic ends. as means to political and economic ends.

► This school stands in opposition to the This school stands in opposition to the primordialists, who believe that nations, if not primordialists, who believe that nations, if not nationalism, have existed since early human nationalism, have existed since early human history. history.

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Hobsbawm cont…Hobsbawm cont…

► Hobsbawm defines nationalism as "primarily Hobsbawm defines nationalism as "primarily a principle which holds that the political and a principle which holds that the political and national unit should be congruent" national unit should be congruent"

► Nations are a modern construction and that Nations are a modern construction and that they are not unchanging social entities. they are not unchanging social entities.

► The development of nations as "situated at The development of nations as "situated at the point of intersection of politics, the point of intersection of politics, technology and social transformation" and technology and social transformation" and he argues that they must be seen as such. he argues that they must be seen as such. In other words…In other words…

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Hobsbawm also argues Hobsbawm also argues that…that…

►Nationalism is NEW. Results form a Nationalism is NEW. Results form a particular and historically recent period. It is particular and historically recent period. It is not primordial or unchanging social reality.not primordial or unchanging social reality.

►Nations do not make states, but the other Nations do not make states, but the other way roundway round

►Built from above, reproduced from below in Built from above, reproduced from below in terms of assumptions, hopes, needs, terms of assumptions, hopes, needs, longings, and interests of ordinary politics.longings, and interests of ordinary politics.

► It has undergone several transformations.It has undergone several transformations.

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Eric Hobsbawm cont…Eric Hobsbawm cont…

► The modern nation was created by the The modern nation was created by the unification of various people into a unification of various people into a common society or community, which common society or community, which takes the 19th century nation-state form, takes the 19th century nation-state form, forged out of disciplinary institutions such forged out of disciplinary institutions such as the school, the army or the factory.as the school, the army or the factory.

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Eric Hobsbawm cont…Eric Hobsbawm cont…

►He claims that nations have He claims that nations have traditionally been understood as traditionally been understood as top-down constructions and argues top-down constructions and argues that they must also be looked at that they must also be looked at from the bottom up. Building on this from the bottom up. Building on this idea, he argues 3 main points.idea, he argues 3 main points.

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Hobsbawm’s 3 main pointsHobsbawm’s 3 main points►1) Ideologies of states are not guides to 1) Ideologies of states are not guides to

how the people feel – we cannot take the how the people feel – we cannot take the literary statements of the elite to represent literary statements of the elite to represent the past feelings of ordinary citizens. the past feelings of ordinary citizens.

►The spread of nationalism must be The spread of nationalism must be analyzed from below and not just as it is analyzed from below and not just as it is imposed from a above. The sense of imposed from a above. The sense of belonging fostered by the state rarely sets belonging fostered by the state rarely sets down roots without a popular proto-down roots without a popular proto-nationalist soil.nationalist soil.

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Hobsbawm’s 3 main points Hobsbawm’s 3 main points cont…cont…

► 2) we cannot assume that most people place 2) we cannot assume that most people place national identity above other identities which national identity above other identities which constitute the social being; Nationalist feeling constitute the social being; Nationalist feeling always interpenetrates with the remainder of always interpenetrates with the remainder of the set of identifications which constitute the the set of identifications which constitute the social being.social being.

► 3) that national identification changes over 3) that national identification changes over time. time.

► In short – we need to understand the bottom-up In short – we need to understand the bottom-up realities as much as the top-down realities as much as the top-down constructions.constructions.

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Hobsbawm 1780 - 1830Hobsbawm 1780 - 1830

►NATIONALISM AS NOVELTYNATIONALISM AS NOVELTY

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1st stage: French (and 1st stage: French (and American) RevolutionAmerican) Revolution

► Nation was mainly a political concept – the body of Nation was mainly a political concept – the body of citizens whose collective sovereignty constituted citizens whose collective sovereignty constituted them a state which was their political expressionthem a state which was their political expression ..

► French Declaration of Rights 1795: ‘Each people is French Declaration of Rights 1795: ‘Each people is independent and sovereign, whatever the number of independent and sovereign, whatever the number of individuals who compose it and the extent of the individuals who compose it and the extent of the territory it occupies. This sovereignty is inalienable’. territory it occupies. This sovereignty is inalienable’.

► It was not yet ethnic or language oriented, It was not yet ethnic or language oriented, represented common interest against particular represented common interest against particular interestsinterests, , common good against privilegecommon good against privilege. Difference . Difference between Americans from England was neither between Americans from England was neither language nor ethnicity.language nor ethnicity.

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11stst Stage cont… Stage cont…

► In France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French In France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French state preceded the formation of the French people. people. Hobsbawm considers that the state Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, and not French made the French nation, and not French nationalismnationalism, which emerged at the end of the , which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair.

► At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some only half of the French people spoke some FrenchFrench, and between 12% to 13% spoke it , and between 12% to 13% spoke it "fairly", according to Hobsbawm. "fairly", according to Hobsbawm. 2.5% of 2.5% of Italians spoke ‘Italian’ at unification.Italians spoke ‘Italian’ at unification.

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1st stage cont…1st stage cont…

►This first form of nationalism he terms This first form of nationalism he terms revolutionary-democraticrevolutionary-democratic

►revolutionary-democraticrevolutionary-democratic is inclusive is inclusive and institutionaland institutional

►Only later does Only later does (ethnic) nationalist(ethnic) nationalist discourse develop - exclusive and discourse develop - exclusive and cultural. cultural.

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1st stage cont…1st stage cont…

►In 19In 19thth century Europe (and 20 century Europe (and 20thth century third world) the century third world) the revolutionary-democratic one was a revolutionary-democratic one was a ‘liberating’ and ‘unifying’ because it ‘liberating’ and ‘unifying’ because it aimed to extend the scale of human aimed to extend the scale of human units rather than restrict and units rather than restrict and separate on the lines of current separate on the lines of current European ethnic nationalism. European ethnic nationalism.

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►Why did nationalism Why did nationalism appear? Economics and appear? Economics and

Social DarwinismSocial Darwinism

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EconomicsEconomics► Linked to the emergence of free trade Linked to the emergence of free trade

liberalism. Emergence of the so-called liberalism. Emergence of the so-called ‘national economies’.‘national economies’.

► ““The division of humanity into autonomous The division of humanity into autonomous nations is essentially economic”. The state nations is essentially economic”. The state guarantees contracts and property rights, guarantees contracts and property rights, provides fiscal policies of a vast territory, provides fiscal policies of a vast territory, protectionism against foreign competition.protectionism against foreign competition.

► Debates about the most efficient SIZE of the Debates about the most efficient SIZE of the state. Formal criteria for state building and state. Formal criteria for state building and maintaining. Social Darwinism. ‘Balkanization’ maintaining. Social Darwinism. ‘Balkanization’ still derogatory.still derogatory.

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Social DarwinismSocial Darwinism► Nationalism is the result of a process of Nationalism is the result of a process of

expansion (and therefore it is a heterogeneous expansion (and therefore it is a heterogeneous political unit). Perfectly ‘natural’ for some political unit). Perfectly ‘natural’ for some nationalities and languages to disappear. nationalities and languages to disappear.

► JS Mill argued ‘Nobody can supposed that it is JS Mill argued ‘Nobody can supposed that it is not more beneficial for a Breton or a Basque of not more beneficial for a Breton or a Basque of French Navarre to be…a member of the French French Navarre to be…a member of the French nationality, admitted on equal terms to all the nationality, admitted on equal terms to all the privileges of French citizenship….The same privileges of French citizenship….The same remark applies to the Welshman or the Scottish remark applies to the Welshman or the Scottish highlander as members of the British nation’highlander as members of the British nation’

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What is the effect of What is the effect of creating nations?creating nations?

► Nation as PROGRESSNation as PROGRESS► Democratizing politics (as opposed to no Democratizing politics (as opposed to no

democracy and absolute monarchy), democracy and absolute monarchy), turning turning subjects into citizens tends to produce a subjects into citizens tends to produce a populist consciousness.populist consciousness.

► It is the democratization of politics what It is the democratization of politics what makes it essential for states to “make makes it essential for states to “make Italians” or to turn “peasants into Italians” or to turn “peasants into Frenchmen”, and attach all to nation and Frenchmen”, and attach all to nation and flag. flag.

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2nd stage: 2nd stage: 1830s – 18801830s – 1880

►1st time expressed in terms of 1st time expressed in terms of community, tradition, and primordialism. community, tradition, and primordialism. Greenfield calls it ‘particularistic’.Greenfield calls it ‘particularistic’.

►the nationalists’ meaning of nation the nationalists’ meaning of nation emerges and coexists with the emerges and coexists with the revolutionary, the ‘original’ nationalism.revolutionary, the ‘original’ nationalism.

►the stress is now on pre-existing traits the stress is now on pre-existing traits rather than new aspirations.rather than new aspirations.

►Examples are Germany, Italy, Belgium.Examples are Germany, Italy, Belgium.

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Why the change?Why the change?

►Emergence of new states that needed Emergence of new states that needed a new source of legitimacy. a new source of legitimacy.

►Germany and Italy emerge as new Germany and Italy emerge as new powers, partition of a third of the powers, partition of a third of the Austro-Hungarian Empire 1867, Austro-Hungarian Empire 1867, creation of new political entities as creation of new political entities as states (from Belgium to Ottoman states (from Belgium to Ottoman successor states).successor states).

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Why the change? Cont…Why the change? Cont…

►During Italian unification, the number During Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian of people speaking the Italian language almost non-existent. language almost non-existent.

►The French state promoted the The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and unification of various dialects and languages into the French language. languages into the French language. The introduction of conscription, and The introduction of conscription, and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity.creation of a national identity.

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How is it done?How is it done?

►Proto-nationalismProto-nationalism: existing bonds : existing bonds and feelings of collective belonging and feelings of collective belonging which could fulfill the purposes of the which could fulfill the purposes of the new states and nationalist movements new states and nationalist movements and mobilize in their favor. and mobilize in their favor.

►Where it exists it makes the task of Where it exists it makes the task of nationalism easier.nationalism easier.

►What kind of traits feed proto-What kind of traits feed proto-nationalism?nationalism?

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Criteria for nationhoodCriteria for nationhood

► 1) Historic association with a current state 1) Historic association with a current state or one with a fairly lengthy and recent past or one with a fairly lengthy and recent past (England, France, Russia)(England, France, Russia)

► 2) Long established cultural elite, written 2) Long established cultural elite, written national literary and administrative national literary and administrative vernacular (Italian and German)vernacular (Italian and German)

► 3) Proven capacity for conquest (empire)3) Proven capacity for conquest (empire)

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4) What was the role of 4) What was the role of language? language?

►Did it constitute a barrier or criteria to Did it constitute a barrier or criteria to separate entities that could be separate entities that could be regarded as potential nationalities or regarded as potential nationalities or nations? Can be used as a form of nations? Can be used as a form of proto-nationalism?proto-nationalism?

►How were national languages created? How were national languages created? Dialects.Dialects.

►The choice of the language is political The choice of the language is political and has political consequences. Spain?and has political consequences. Spain?

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5) Ethnicity?5) Ethnicity?

► Is the base of an ethnic group social or Is the base of an ethnic group social or biological?biological?

►Are the new nation-states Are the new nation-states homogeneous ethnically?homogeneous ethnically?

►What is the function of ethnic (as well What is the function of ethnic (as well as language) claims?as language) claims?

►To what extent can ethnicity be used To what extent can ethnicity be used as a form of proto-nationalism? Used as a form of proto-nationalism? Used to divide social strata.to divide social strata.

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Definition of ethnicityDefinition of ethnicity

►An ethnic group or ethnicity is a An ethnic group or ethnicity is a population of humans whose members population of humans whose members identify with each other, usually on the identify with each other, usually on the basis of a presumed common basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry. Recognition by genealogy or ancestry. Recognition by others as a separate ethnic group, and others as a separate ethnic group, and a specific name for the group, also a specific name for the group, also contribute to defining it. contribute to defining it.

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Definition of ethnicityDefinition of ethnicity

►Ethnic groups are also usually united Ethnic groups are also usually united by certain common cultural, by certain common cultural, behavioral, linguistic and ritualistic or behavioral, linguistic and ritualistic or religious traits.religious traits. In this sense, an ethnic In this sense, an ethnic group is also a cultural community. group is also a cultural community.

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6) Religion?6) Religion?

►Poland and Ireland cases how religious Poland and Ireland cases how religious ties can be used to mobilize national ties can be used to mobilize national consciousnessconsciousness

►Role of religious symbols and rituals? Role of religious symbols and rituals? Huge proto-nationalist component. Huge proto-nationalist component. Extent of its potential as proto-Extent of its potential as proto-nationalisms?nationalisms?

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Review: 1st and 2nd stage Review: 1st and 2nd stage

► Nation as the “body of citizens whose rights Nation as the “body of citizens whose rights as such gave them a stake in the country as such gave them a stake in the country and thereby made the state to some extent and thereby made the state to some extent ‘their own’”.‘their own’”.

► turning subjects into citizens tends to turning subjects into citizens tends to produce a populist consciousness. produce a populist consciousness.

► It is the democratization of politics what It is the democratization of politics what makes it essential for states to “make makes it essential for states to “make Italians” or to turn “peasants into Italians” or to turn “peasants into Frenchmen”, and attach all to nation and Frenchmen”, and attach all to nation and flag. flag.

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Review: 1st and 2nd stageReview: 1st and 2nd stage

►Nationalism as a function of Nationalism as a function of modernization. E. Gellner and K. modernization. E. Gellner and K. Deutsch. Deutsch.

► Ideological engineering takes place Ideological engineering takes place from above by retrieving pre-existing from above by retrieving pre-existing proto-national traits that could raise the proto-national traits that could raise the desired cohesive sentiments.desired cohesive sentiments.

►Nation and nationalism is created to Nation and nationalism is created to serve the state serve the state

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3rd stage: 1870-19183rd stage: 1870-1918

► Differs from 1st and 2nd stages of Differs from 1st and 2nd stages of nationalism in three linked traitsnationalism in three linked traits

► 1) abandonment of SIZE as criteria ”Every 1) abandonment of SIZE as criteria ”Every nation has the right of self-determination”.nation has the right of self-determination”.

► 2) ethnicity and language become central 2) ethnicity and language become central criteria of nation.criteria of nation. non-state national movements emerge non-state national movements emerge

(peripheral movements within states as well) –(peripheral movements within states as well) –Catalans, Basques, Quebecois, Flemish, anti-Catalans, Basques, Quebecois, Flemish, anti-Semitism movements.Semitism movements.

► 3) From nationalism as liberalism and 3) From nationalism as liberalism and progressive forces, to chauvinist, progressive forces, to chauvinist, xenophobic conservative movementsxenophobic conservative movements

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Karl Renner on problems of self-Karl Renner on problems of self-determinationdetermination

► in his essay of 1899, 'State and in his essay of 1899, 'State and Nation‘, he talks about the problem of Nation‘, he talks about the problem of self-determination.self-determination.

►His central insight, that His central insight, that cultural cultural nations and political orders could not nations and political orders could not be presumed to overlap in all casesbe presumed to overlap in all cases, , exposed the conceptual and political exposed the conceptual and political fragility of the idea of a nation-state. fragility of the idea of a nation-state.

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Karl Renner cont…Karl Renner cont…

►Renner accepted multinational Renner accepted multinational territories as a fact of political life, territories as a fact of political life, much as we have come to accept much as we have come to accept cultural pluralism as a fact of life in the cultural pluralism as a fact of life in the modern state.modern state.

►Renner urged the adoption of Renner urged the adoption of overlapping jurisdictions as a means of overlapping jurisdictions as a means of ameliorating the minority problems that ameliorating the minority problems that arise in any political context. arise in any political context.

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Karl Renner cont…Karl Renner cont…►The thought that 'nations' and 'states' The thought that 'nations' and 'states'

should somehow be congruent invited, should somehow be congruent invited, in his view, endless attempts by in his view, endless attempts by minority nations to secede from larger minority nations to secede from larger political entities, while majority political entities, while majority cultures would be bent on forced cultures would be bent on forced nation-building as a condition of their nation-building as a condition of their survival. survival.

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Karl Renner cont…Karl Renner cont…

►He supported separating territorial He supported separating territorial jurisdiction from cultural affiliation at jurisdiction from cultural affiliation at least opened up space for self-least opened up space for self-government and collective government and collective responsibility in certain spheres, responsibility in certain spheres, without generating endless pretexts without generating endless pretexts for national struggle. for national struggle.

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Why is Renner’s distinction Why is Renner’s distinction important for Hobsbawm?important for Hobsbawm?

►Attempts to establish objective criteria Attempts to establish objective criteria for nationhood have all failed. for nationhood have all failed.

►It will always be a subjective definition It will always be a subjective definition which involves defining a nation by its which involves defining a nation by its members consciousness of belonging members consciousness of belonging to it, and will almost always exclude to it, and will almost always exclude someone.someone.

►We must embrace multinational states.We must embrace multinational states.

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Renner RejectedRenner Rejected

►What explains this rejection of the What explains this rejection of the multinational state, and embracing of multinational state, and embracing of xenophobic nationalism?xenophobic nationalism? the existence of traditional groups the existence of traditional groups

threatened by the onrush of modernity – threatened by the onrush of modernity – against modernity.against modernity.

urbanization and emergence of novel and urbanization and emergence of novel and non-traditional classes and social strata.non-traditional classes and social strata.

unprecedented migrationsunprecedented migrations

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Renner RejectedRenner Rejected

► Instead of multinational and plural Instead of multinational and plural states as an alternative to national states as an alternative to national self-determination, the main self-determination, the main antagonist to nationalism during the antagonist to nationalism during the late 19late 19thth and early 20 and early 20thth century century is…..what?is…..what?

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Nationalism vs SocialismNationalism vs Socialism

►Working class rejects nationalism?Working class rejects nationalism?►Reaction against state nationalism. The Reaction against state nationalism. The

identification of a state with a language identification of a state with a language and the opportunities and social and the opportunities and social mobility potential bound to the use of mobility potential bound to the use of that language underlined the inferiority that language underlined the inferiority and status insecurity and resentment and status insecurity and resentment of lower middle strata. Socialism of lower middle strata. Socialism offered a way out for offered a way out for proletariat/working class.proletariat/working class.

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Nationalism vs SocialismNationalism vs Socialism

► Middle class embraces nationalism:Middle class embraces nationalism:► Reaction against socialism by middle classes. Reaction against socialism by middle classes.

Rejected by middle classes as it defended Rejected by middle classes as it defended internationalist ideas, class conflict. State internationalist ideas, class conflict. State nationalism gave them the social identity that nationalism gave them the social identity that proletarians got from their class movement.proletarians got from their class movement.

► Move to the political right predominantly one Move to the political right predominantly one of a middle class holding onto its place in of a middle class holding onto its place in society, against an increasingly hostile society, against an increasingly hostile proletariat. German and Italian fascism gets proletariat. German and Italian fascism gets its strength from middle classes.its strength from middle classes.

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But reality is complicatedBut reality is complicated

► In reality, this division was played out more In reality, this division was played out more by elites more than by average people.by elites more than by average people.

► In reality, people can hold multiple identities. In reality, people can hold multiple identities. Example of the Welsh miners, who both Example of the Welsh miners, who both rushed to enlist in the first world war, and rushed to enlist in the first world war, and later did not hesitate to demonstrate against later did not hesitate to demonstrate against unfair conditions and wages.unfair conditions and wages.

► Therefore, we cannot generalize too much Therefore, we cannot generalize too much about these distinctions, in reality they are about these distinctions, in reality they are multiple and overlapping. It is elites who multiple and overlapping. It is elites who have to clear narratives they attempt to sell.have to clear narratives they attempt to sell.

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4th stage: 1918-19504th stage: 1918-1950

► Apogee of nationalismApogee of nationalism► Contextual factors:Contextual factors:► collapse of Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman collapse of Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman

multinational empiresmultinational empires► Russian revolution made it desirable to allies Russian revolution made it desirable to allies

of WWI to play the nationalist card against of WWI to play the nationalist card against the Bolshevik card. the Bolshevik card.

► As international economy collapses, As international economy collapses, reemergence of ‘national economy’ and reemergence of ‘national economy’ and protectionism. Free trade slows to trickle.protectionism. Free trade slows to trickle.

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Treaty of Versailles resultsTreaty of Versailles results

► Nationalism of small nations was just as Nationalism of small nations was just as impatient of minorities as what Lenin call impatient of minorities as what Lenin call ‘great-nation chauvinism’‘great-nation chauvinism’

► Impracticability of Wilsonian principles – Impracticability of Wilsonian principles – replace Italian minorities in Habsburg replace Italian minorities in Habsburg empire with Slovene minorities in Italy.empire with Slovene minorities in Italy.

► Mass expulsion and genocide – Armenians Mass expulsion and genocide – Armenians and Greeks in Turkey; Hitler repatriating and Greeks in Turkey; Hitler repatriating Germans and expelling and exterminating Germans and expelling and exterminating Jews.Jews.

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4th stage: 1918-19504th stage: 1918-1950

► Emergence of nationalist movements in Emergence of nationalist movements in areas that diverged greatly from Europe: 3rd areas that diverged greatly from Europe: 3rd world nationalism, anti-colonialism.world nationalism, anti-colonialism.

► There, nationalism and socialism come There, nationalism and socialism come together: national liberation against together: national liberation against oppressors.oppressors.

► Did not revolve around language, ethnicity Did not revolve around language, ethnicity or religious identity. It comes from above. or religious identity. It comes from above. What they have in common is oppressive What they have in common is oppressive colonization.colonization.

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5th stage: nationalism in the 5th stage: nationalism in the 20th century20th century

► Eric Hobsbawm argues that the current wave of Eric Hobsbawm argues that the current wave of nationalism will be shortlived.nationalism will be shortlived.

► Nationalism, he suggests, is an anachronism best Nationalism, he suggests, is an anachronism best suited to an earlier historical period dominated by suited to an earlier historical period dominated by industrialisation and print technology. industrialisation and print technology.

► Why is this? Since the 1960s, the role of national Why is this? Since the 1960s, the role of national economies has been undermined by major economies has been undermined by major transformations in the international division of labor transformations in the international division of labor whose basic units are transnational, and whose basic units are transnational, and multinational. Hence, the ongoing removal of the multinational. Hence, the ongoing removal of the flow of capital from the control of nation-state flow of capital from the control of nation-state renders nationalist ideologies obsolete (Hobsbawm renders nationalist ideologies obsolete (Hobsbawm 163-183). 163-183).

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Anthony Smith takes the Anthony Smith takes the opposite viewopposite view

►He does not think that nations have He does not think that nations have been transcended in the global era. On been transcended in the global era. On the contrary, the current wave of the contrary, the current wave of nationalism to be observed in various nationalism to be observed in various parts of the world testifies to the parts of the world testifies to the enduring nature of the national idea, enduring nature of the national idea, the way in which it responds to somethe way in which it responds to some deep-felt human need.deep-felt human need.

►What do you think?What do you think?

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Hobsbawm’s conclusionsHobsbawm’s conclusions Why Build Nations – Interest and Why Build Nations – Interest and

OpportunityOpportunity

►Interest and opportunity criteria: Interest and opportunity criteria: claim for independence, autonomy or claim for independence, autonomy or some form of political recognition and some form of political recognition and structures of their own. Nationalism as structures of their own. Nationalism as the result of interest and opportunity the result of interest and opportunity (Hobsbawm, Gellner). (Hobsbawm, Gellner).

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How do we build nations?How do we build nations?

►National discourse is created (optical National discourse is created (optical illusion) because interest and illusion) because interest and opportunityopportunity

► It works best where proto-national It works best where proto-national traits existtraits exist

►While proto-nationalism is desirable for While proto-nationalism is desirable for nationalisms, it is not essential for the nationalisms, it is not essential for the formation of national patriotism.formation of national patriotism.

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Hobsbawm: Nationalism is Hobsbawm: Nationalism is invented by elites to legitimise invented by elites to legitimise

their powertheir power►phase A was purely cultural, literary phase A was purely cultural, literary

and folkloric, and had no particular and folkloric, and had no particular political or even national implicationspolitical or even national implications

►phase B we find a body of pioneers phase B we find a body of pioneers and militants of 'the national idea' and and militants of 'the national idea' and the beginnings of political the beginnings of political campaigning for this idea - campaigning for this idea - minorité minorité agissanteagissante. .

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Hobsbawm’s conclusionsHobsbawm’s conclusions

► ‘‘My own concern in this book is more with phase C My own concern in this book is more with phase C when - and not before - nationalist programmes when - and not before - nationalist programmes acquire mass support, or at least some of the mass acquire mass support, or at least some of the mass support that nationalists always claim they support that nationalists always claim they represent.’represent.’

► ‘‘The transition from phase B to phase C is evidently The transition from phase B to phase C is evidently a crucial moment in the chronology of national a crucial moment in the chronology of national movements. Sometimes, as in Ireland, it occurs movements. Sometimes, as in Ireland, it occurs before the creation of a national state; probably before the creation of a national state; probably very much more often it occurs afterwards, as a very much more often it occurs afterwards, as a consequence of that creation. Sometimes, as in the consequence of that creation. Sometimes, as in the so- called Third World, it does not happen even so- called Third World, it does not happen even then.’then.’