Yuliana Zakiyah (0203515062)Ernidawati (0203515098)

CODES

• The term ‘code’ can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication (It can actually be used for system used by a single person, as when someone devises a private code to protect certain secrets).

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Charles A. Ferguson (1959) Diglossia is relatively stable language . Language situation , in which in the addition of primary dialect . Of the language there is a divergent highly codified superposed variety which is learn largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purpose .

The term diglossia was introduced into the English language literature On sociolinguistic By Charles A. Ferguson (1959). In order to describe the situation found in places like Greece , the Arabic-speaking world In general ,German speaking Switzerland and the island of Haiti –a list which can easily be extended (A . Hudson 1994)

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Diglossia is enduring societal arrangement , and extending at least beyond a three generation period such as two language each have their secure phenomenologically legitimate and widely implemented functions .

E.g. One language is used in one set of circumstances and the other entirely different set and such difference is felt to be normal and proper.Fishman gives examples such as Biblical Hebrew and Yiddish for many Jews, Spanish and Guarani in Paraguay, and even Standard English and Caribean Creole.

• Exists in a speech community where two codes perform two separate sets of functions

• Superposed variety (H) OR HIGH• Other varieties - dialects (L) OR LOWExamples:1. Arabic (H) and colloquial Arabic (L)2. Standard German (H) and Swiss German

(L)3. Standard French (H) and Haitian Creole (L)

Example: ARABIC

(H)

Church & Mosque Sermons

Political speeches

University Lectures

News broadcasts

Newspaper editorials and poetry

Example: ARABIC

(L)

Giving instructions to waiters, servants and clerks

In conversation with familiars

Radio soap operas

Captions on political cartoons and folk literature

• Existence of a large body of literature in a language that is similar to or the same as the indigenous language

• Literacy in the community is usually restricted to a small elite

• Involves centuries in establishing the first and second conditions

• Regard H as superior to L leading to denying the existence of L

Examples:1. Educated Arabs deny using the

L variety of Arabic2. Haitian Creole speakers

claiming they speak only French

• Believe that the H variety is more logical, more beautiful and better able to express important thoughts

DIGLOSSIA

Primary Dialect

A very divergent dialect

(non Primary)

L dialect

H dialect

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FERGUSON’S NINE RUBRIC OF DIGLOSSIA

Diglossia

FUNCTION

Ex:Sermon in mosquesSpeech in parliamentUniversity lectureNews broadcasts

Conversation with family and friends

Radio soap opera Folk literature Instruction to

workers

PRESTIGE

The superiorElegantLogical

Expressive

The inferiorNon elegant

LITERATY HERITAGE

Ex:ConstitutionLawPoetryScriptureAcademic books

ACQUISITION

LEARNEDTHROUGH FORMAL

EDUCATION

ACQUIRED THROUGH EVERYDAY

COMMUNICATION

STANDARDIZATION

RULES FOR VOCABULARY, PRONUNCIATION, AND GRAMMAR ARE ESTABLISHED.

THOSE RULES ARE CODIFIED IN DICTIONARIES, PRONUNCIATION GUIDES, AND GRAMMAR BOOKS.

NO FIXED RULES

NO CODIFICATION

STABILITY

Ex:In delivering a lecture, a university lecturer mixes dialects he/she uses.

GRAMMAR

- I need a pencil

- I have many cars

- She is beautiful

- I do not understand

- I went there

yesterday

- Where do you go?- I need pencil- I have many car- She beautiful- I don’t understand/

I not understand I not understand- I go there

yesterday- You go where?

LEXICON

IMPARED VOCABULARIES- Alphabet= Abc- Concerned with =

About- Advertisement = Ad- Desserts= Afters- Police = Cop- Postman = Postie- Telegram = Wire- Issue =

Problem- Man = Guy- Criminal = Crook- Address = Handle

PHONOLOGY

- Going to = gonna = /ɡʌnə/

- Want to = wanna= /wɔnə/

- Have to = hafta = /hæftə/

- Used to = useta = /justə/

- Got to = gotta = /ɡɑdə/- Do you = dya = /djə/- Would you = wouldja

= /wʊʤə/- What do you do =

Whadaya=/wʌdəjə/- Kind of = kinda =

/kɑɪndə/

In many countries, the globalization of English has introduced a third significant language, so that triglossia and polyglossia is starting to emerge so that changes in one are refelected changes.

Diglossia find the diglossia levels in several regional languages in Indonesia such as Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, etc.

undak usuk basa

In Sundanese

basa cohag (coarse variety), basa loma (range for others), basa sedeng (medium range or

middle), basa lemes (fine variety)

In Java ngoko language (the lowest

level), krama (middle), krama inggil (high level)

• Monolingualism, that is, the ability to use only one language, while billingualism is having an effectively equal control of two native languages. There are two kinds of bilingualism: stable bilingual & unstable bilingual.

• People who are bilingual or multilingual do not necessarily have exactly the same abilities in the languages (or varieties), in fact, that kind of parity may be exceptional.

• Do not necessarily have exactly the same abilities in the languages.

• Have varying degrees of command of the different repertoires

• The differences in competence in the various languages might range from command of a few lexical itemsformulaic expressions (e.g. Greetings) rudimentary conversational skills excellent command of the grammar vocabulary specialized register and styles.’

• Ones must find out who uses what, when, and for what purpose if they are to be socially competent.

• The language choices are part of the social identity you claim for themselves.

• Defining different dialects and languages are difficult

• the bilingual–bidialectal distinction that speakers make reflects social, cultural, and political aspirations or realities rather than any linguistic reality

MultilingualismMultilingualism is a society that has several languages. Such communities occur because some ethnic communities that helped shape an ethnically plural society can be regarded as (plural society). (Sumarsono and Paina Partana, 2002: 76).

Societal Bilingualism – the use of two (or more) languages within a given community

E.g., the bilingual setting in India, Canada, Switzerland, Malaysia, etc.

The Formation Multi-

language

Colonization

Migration

Federation

The Various Language

in the Border Region

• Example of multilingualism exists among the Tukano of the northwest Amazon, on the border between Colombia and Brazil (Sorensen, 1971).

• The Tukano are multilingual people because men must marry outside their language group. No man may have a wife who speaks his language.

• Multilingualism is a norm in this community

• Regarded as problem• Inferiority• Being eradicated (Americanization)• Leading to language loss• Leading to diffusion (certain features spread from

one language to the other/s as a result of the contact situation, particularly certain kinds of syntactic features)

By. Ernidawati

• Switch from one code to another or mix codes to create a new code

• It can occur in conversation between speakers’ turns or within a single speaker’s turn.

• It can arise from individual choice be used as a major identity marker for a group of speakers.

Gal (1988:247) says , “ Codeswitching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights

and obligations.

• (The Maori is n italics. THE TRANSLATION IS IN SMALL CAPITALS)

Sarah : I think everyone’s here except Mere.

John : She said she might be a bit late but actually I think that’s her arriving now.

Sarah : You’re right. Kia ora Mere. Haere mai. Kei te pehea koe?[HI MERE. COME IN. HOW ARE YOU?]

Mere : Kia ora e hoa. Kei te pai. Have you started yet?[HELLO MY FRIEND. I’M FINE]

[BOKMAL IS IN SMALL CAPITALS. Ranamal in lower case]Jan : Hello Petter. How is your wife now?Petter: Oh she’s much better thank you Jan. She’s out of hospital and convalescing well.Jan : That’s good, I’m pleased to hear it. DO YOU THINK YOU COULD HELP ME WITH THIS PESKY FORM?I AM HAVING A GREAT DEAL OF

DIFFICULTY WITH ITPetter: OF COURSE. GIVE IT HERE

• A measurement of language attitudes• Technique used in social psychological studies to

investigate people’s constant evaluation of personal qualities of others based on the use of linguistic varieties.

• The use of certain language varieties carries certain social associations that affects the process of language maintenance and change.

• Ex: Lambert et al asked listeners to rate the same speaker reading out a passage in English and in French. They found that both French Canadian and English Canadian listeners rated the English guises more favorably than the French guises.

Giles and Coupland (1991:58) says, “Listeners can very quickly

stereotype others’ personal and social attributes on the basis of language cues and in ways that appear to have crucial effects on important social decisions made

about them

• Accomodation is one way of explaining how individuals and groups may be seen to relate to each other

• Giles and Coupland (1991:60) explaine speech accomodation as a multiply-organized and contextually complex set of alternatives, regularly available to communicators in face to face talk.

• 1.Rajif A. Ruansyah: monolingualism, there two billingual, what is the differences (stable and unstable)and the example?

• 2.Amida Meila : multilingualism, it’s useful or harmful for language itself?

• 3. Nova R. Farista: when should we use the code switching?

• 4.linna Endah: why does the lecture choose to use the L dialect?

• 5.Hind sha Putri: what is the relationship of two kinds of code switching and H-L variety?

• 6. Tri Okta Ervina : speech accomodation theory, divergen, convergen, speech maintenance, when do we use speech maintenance and we ellaborate it?

• 7.Rofiq Fuadi:what is the example of the mixture utterance in stability?

• 8. M. Khoirul Fuadi : billingualism and diglosia, please distinguish between them, as English teacher in the classroom, we use billingualism or diglosia, and then how do we overcome the influence of our native dialect, so that when we communicate with the students can be fluent.

• 9. Abdul Ghani: if one language has more than two varieties,can we consider it as diglosia?

• 10. Ahmad Mubais: what is the difference between code switching and diglosia?