Cognitive Approach Towards Leisure and Recreation Concepts:

Word Association Test

Meltem ALTINAY ÖZDEMİR*

*Travel, Tourism and Leisure Services, Vocational School, İstanbul Arel University, Turkey

meltemaltnay@yahoo.com

Abstract

This research is aimed to reveal cognitive structures about leisure and recreation related concepts of students who are

studying in tourism programs at Istanbul Arel University and to determine misconseptions. A deliberate sampling method

was used in the research using qualitative research design. According to this sampling method, 63 (42 female, 21 male)

students who study at Culinary and Tourist Guidance Programs, Vocational School, İstanbul Arel University have been

applied Word Association Test (WAT) on 17th-18th September 2018. According to WAT, students are given key concepts

of leisure time and recreation, and they are asked to write the words that these key concepts brings to their minds within

certain period of time. The answers given by the students to concepts of leisure and recreation were created frequency tables

and concept maps using the NVivo program. As a result, 523 responses were collected from the students as total, leisure

(278) and recreation (245) responses. Cognitive perceptions of students for leisure are more dominant than recreation. The

concept of leisure is mostly associated with "resting" and "reading" words. "Traveling", "reading", "listening to music" and

"walking" are associated with the concept of recreation. Finally, it is seen that recreation usually has a cognitive perception

based on activities when leisure has a comprehensive cognitive perception in terms of tourism students.

Keywords: Leisure time, Recreation Culinary program, Tourist Guidance program, Word Association Test (WAT)

INTRODUCTION

Leisure has a centralized imporatnce within the social, cultural, economic and educational dimension of

modern cities. Leisure phenomenon of social factors including a significant period of time, affects almost

all aspects of social life. Recreation evaluated in leisure; makes it possible for people to change and renew

physically and mentally. According to Kılbaş (2010); leisure and recreational activities are in a constant

change relative to the needs of society and individual. In social structure, leisure and recreational

activities, which have a social or individual function, interact with socio-economic variables of society

and individual. First, socio-economic factors have characteristics specific to variables such as age and

gender. Individuals' social value judgments can also affect the way they view leisure and recreational

activities (Altınay, 2016).

This research aimed to determine knowledge levels about leisure and recreation by revealing cognitive

structures related to leisure and recreation concepts which have an important place in the social life of

individuals. This research has been carried out by the students who are studying in first and second

classes of Istanbul Arel University, Cooking and Tourist Guidance Programs. The answers given to

leisure and recreation concepts in the research using Word Association Test (WAT). Frequency tables and

concept maps were created using NVivo program.

1. LEISURE AND RECREATION

The concept of leisure which derives from the Latin word ‘licere’ is based on the Ancient Greek era

although it is based on primitive periods but is separated from other time varieties (D. J. McLean, 2006).

Leisure in ancient Greece; it is defined as the time spent to deal with and think about the superior values

of the world such as goodness, beauty, truth and knowledge (Aytaç, 2002). According to this definition,

leisure seems to be of great importance to the Greeks in terms of education. According to the definition

made during the Roman period, leisure is defined as being away from work and action, becoming

independent, living calm, calm and peaceful life. The Romans' view of leisure time is more utilitarian

than that of Greeks, and there are differences between the concepts of leisure time in the two periods.

Because, according to the Greeks, leisure does not have the same meaning for the Romans when

expressing concepts of aesthetic, spiritual and mental development. (Karaküçük, 2016).

When we look at the Middle Ages, the adoption of the Christian ideology, which emerged with the

collapse of the Roman Empire as a way of life, deeply affected the opinions of people on leisure. In this

period, leisure refers to work, learn, access to wisdom and transform according to social developments

(Holba, 2007). In the Industrial Revolution, which started in England in the 18th century, leisure became

more important as people started to work in factory in dissatisfied conditions and regular hours (Sarım,

1996). Changes in the social order, such as shorter working hours, longer annual leave and an increase in

retirement age necessitated the redefinition ofconcept of leisure. According to these changes, leisure is

defined as the time spent by individuals to sustain their lives (eating, drinking, sleeping and the simplest

personal cleaning) and0, time spent outside wages spent on continuity of their lives (making money,

social responsibilities) (Clawson & Kenetsch, 1971). As a result, leisure has become a factor in shaping

social building as a good quality, healthy and long life necessity (Altınay, 2016).

The recreation (Ozankaya, 1980), deriving from the word ‘recreatio’, which means renewal, rebuilding

or restructuring in Latin means activities in which people participate voluntarily with leisure and sports

purposes according to the Turkish Language Institution (Turkish Language Institution, 2018). However,

there are many definitions and explanations of recreation which covers a wide range of activities in scope.

Some of these definitions are as follows. According to Kraus (1985), recreation is a volunteer activity that

renews and rests the person after compulsory work and activities (Karaküçük, 2001). Edginton and Ford

describe recreation as activities in which volunteers participate in leisure of the individual (Edginton &

Ford, 1985). According to Sağcan's definition, recreation refers to voluntary participation in activities for

fun and rest in the leisure of individuals (Sağcan, 1986). According to Bayer, recreation defines the

person as a mental and physical renewal by making, or participating in these activities, connecting,

restoring, entertaining and enjoying life (Bayer, 1992). From a different perspective, McLean, Hurd and

Rogers describe recreation as all of the activities taking place in natural parks, cities, towns, community

centers, sports fields, water parks, recreational areas and parks in global dimension through public, semi-

public and private initiatives. (D. D. McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008)

According to Bucher and Bucher, recreation is described as a sociological phenomenon, as well as social,

cultural and sportive activities that are appropriate for self, self-enjoyment making it a social personality

by getting rid of daily life and interacting with other people (Bucher & Bucher, 1974). Parallel to this,

Zorba means that recreation is important not in satisfaction of needs of an individual but in motivation of

society. Because individuals are considered as a part of society; recreational activities seem to be closely

related to society (Zorba, 2007).

Since the concept of recreation has a very wide range, no clear classification can be made. In the

literature, however, recreational activities have been tried to be categorized. These are classified

according to purposes including social, cultural, artistic, sportive, tourism and rest purposes (Karaküçük,

2001; Mirzeoğlu, 2003). Another classification is classified according to the action type that supports

active and passive participation. In addition to this classification, Mieczkowski classifies recreation both

openly and closedly in spatial terms (Mieczkowski, 1990). Another classification that Mirzeoglu has done

is classification of age, number of participants, time, space used and tsociological content and special

functions as commercial, social, international, aesthetic, physical and forest recreation (Mirzeoğlu, 2003).

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1. Aim of The Study

People want to get rid of their routine life standards, get new experiences outside the routine routine to be

physically, mentally and emotionally renewed and participate in various leisure activities to get rid of

their daily pleasurely in the activity (Akoğlan Kozak, 2017). In addition to this definition, when leisure

and recreation literature is examined, it is seen that different definitions are made within framework of

certain rules for leisure and recreation. However as the scope of the two concepts is broad, it affects the

definition of what is accepted and understood by all.

There is a certain awareness of these two concepts which are considered to be indispensable parts of life.

But as leisure and recreation are different definitions in literature, difference of each individual’s

participation in leisure and enjoyment activities cause cognitive differentiation. This differentiation also

leads to the difficult formation and uncertainty of cognitive structure of two concepts. That is why this

difficult form of cognitive structure arises from the fact that people can not fully relate conceptual

structures of subjects to their minds. For this reason, it is difficult for people to explain cognitive

structures of any subject. Gilbert et al, say that these structures can be explained by people’s thoughts on

key concepts (Gılbert, Boulter, & Rutherford, 1998).

For this reason, it was aimed to understand concepts of leisure and recreation in the research, to make

concept analysis and show scientific validity using Word Association Test and NVivo program. In this

direction, it was thought that students who study in the tourism-oriented programs of the vocational

school had information about leisure and recreation concepts and so conceptual framework of these

concepts has been researched.

2.2. Sample

Investigations aimed at examining cognitive perceptions express that it is difficult for individuals to

explain the cognitive structures that occur in the result of learning on any topic and these structures can

only be explained by revealing people's thoughts on key concepts (Keskin & Örgün, 2015; Yücel Güngör,

Doğan, & Güngör, 2017). For this reason, Word Association Test (WAT) was applied on January 17th-

18th to determine ideas of leisure and recreation of students in tourist guidance and cookery programs of

vocational school.

2.3. Data Collection Method

The research is based on a descriptive model attempts to describe and explain what events, objects,

entities, institutions, groups, and various fields are. Since the cognitive structure is a network (Tokcan &

Yiter, 2017) that describes relationships between concepts in memory at a certain level, descriptive

scanning model provides the opportunity to understand and group them well and their relationships are

determined (Selçuk, Palancı, & Kandemir, 2014). Word Association Test (WAT) was used as the data

collection tool in the study. This technique which is generally used in the field of science (Akpinar, 2016;

Ayaz, Karakaş, & Sarıkaya, 2016; Bahar & Özatlı, 2003; Kırtak Ad & Demirci, 2012; Köseoğlu & Bayır,

2011; Nakiboğlu, 2008; Özata Yücel & Özkan, 2010; Özatlı & Bahar, 2010; Polat, 2013) has recently

been used in social areas such as education (Çiftçi, 2009; Ekici, Gökmen, & Kurt, 2014; Ekici & H.,

2014; Eren, 2012; Işıklı, Taşdere, & Göz, 2011) and tourism (Keskin & Örgün, 2015; Keskin, Örgün,

Akbas Tuna, & Tuna, 2016; Keskin, Örgün, & Akbulut, 2017; Yücel Güngör et al., 2017).

WAT is one of the alternative measurement assessment techniques helps to determine whether the

relationships between concepts in memory are adequate and meaningful, allowing cognitive building, the

connection between concepts that make up this, the observation of the information network established in

the mind (Özatlı ve Bahar, 2010). A list of concepts associated with key concept is obtained in the mind

of the person by this method. It is assumed that answer words given by the individual calling from a long

recurring memory for a key concept indicate bonds and semantic closeness between these words in the

cognitive structure (Canbazoğlu, 2016; Köseoğlu & Bayır, 2011; Kurt, 2013; Önel & Yüce, 2016; Polat,

2013; Taştan & Kaya, 2014).

“Leisure and recreation” concepts are listed on a page 5 times as one under the other in the research. The

reason why one under the other is written 5 times is to avoid chained answer risk. Because participant is

able to write words that concept he writes as a response to the concept instead of the key concept in the

writing of the concept, and this can prevent it from reaching the purpose of the test. Because, participant

can write other words that concept he writes as an answer to concept instead of key concept in the concept

writing. This can prevent test from reaching its goal (Polat, 2013). In the study, participants were asked to

write relevant concepts that brought to mind of key concept within 30 seconds by explaining WAT. The

time period of 30 seconds was considered as appropriate time because it was determined as the most

appropriate time period in previous academic studies (Bahar, Johnstone, & Sutcliffe, 1999; Bahar &

Kılıç, 2001; Bahar & Özatlı, 2003; Çardak, 2009; Dikmenli, 2010a, 2010b; Ercan, Taşdere, & Ercan,

2010; Işıklı et al., 2011; Kempa & Nicholls, 1983; Keskin & Örgün, 2015; Özatlı, 2006; Polat, 2013).

Participants wrote words they thought were related to leisure and recreation concepts during this period.

In addition, the participant was given an extra 20 seconds as relevant sentence part (Ercan et al., 2010;

Şimsek, 2013) was more complicated and higher level than a single answer sentence (whether the answer

was scientific or not, containing different conceptual misconceptions) and played an important role in the

evaluation process.

2.4. Analysis of data

Collected data are evaluated in two ways. Scoring is done on the first evaluation. If words given by

individuals are correct, test score can be calculated by giving a score. A separate score is also given for

the desired sentence to check whether the answer given is meaningful. In the second evaluation, it is done

by frequency table consisting of answers given to key concepts. Frequency table and concept map are

created to see cognitive structure and conceptual connections (Güneş & Gözüm, 2013; Tokcan & Yiter,

2017).

The second assessment was used in this study. First, the answer papers are numbered from 1 to 63. The

number of data collected and type of responses were evaluated and classified through NVivo program.

Then, frequency table and concept map of responses given in response to key concepts were created. A

total of 526 responses were obtained from participants. Finally, after all answers are examined, concepts

related to leisure and recreation of participants are divided into categories in result of analysis.

3. FINDINGS

A total of 63 students participated in the research. According to demographic characteristics of

participants, participants are predominantly female and 18-20 years (Table 1).

Table 1. Participants' demographic characteristics

Age f % Genger f %

18-20 28 44,5 Female 42 66,7

21-23 17 27,0 Male 21 33,3

24-26 6 9,5 Total 63 100

27-29 2 3,2

30 and over 10 15,8

Total 63 100

As a result of the obtained data, 26 responses with frequencies 2 or less, which are given to leisure key

concept, are not included in the list. When Table 2 is examined, it is seen that 24 different responses with

frequencies 3 and higher appeared in response to leisure key concept. Number of repetitions of leisure key

concept responses is 278. In addition, 71 responses with frequencies 2 or less given to recreation key

concept were not included in the list. Except for these responses, there are 29 responses with frequences 3

and over given to recreation key concept. Repetition rate of these responses is 148. Total number of

repetitions is 245.

Table 2. Responses and Frequency Values of Leisure and Recreation Concepts

Leisure key concept responses f Recreation key concept responses f

Resting 31 Reading 10

Reading 26 Traveling 10

Computer and Internet Games 17 Listening to music 10

Traveling 16 Walking 9

Fun 14 Swimming 8

Watching movie 14 Renewal 8

Listening to Music 14 Trip 7

Spend time with family 13 Cook 7

Social media 11 Shopping 5

Personal improvement 10 Entertainment 5

Sport 9 Watching film 5

Activity 9 Being interested in animals 5

Cinema 7 Serenity 5

Seeking 6 Activity 4

Talk to Friends 6 Talk to Friends 4

Studying 5 Resting 4

Think 5 Culture 4

Hobbies 4 Social responsibility 4

Watching TV 4 Reaction 4

Happiness 4 Energetic 3

Socializing 4 Event 3

Holiday 4 İmprovement 3

Loneliness 3 Personal care 3

Plan 3 Happiness 3

Other 39 Play game 3

Total 278 Art 3

Health 3

Love 3

Cinema 3

Other 97

Total 245

In ‘Other’ option in Table 2, frequency of collected data is two or less. The responses are as follow.

Other responses of leisure key concepts;

-Cleaning, shopping, nightlife, coffee, hiking, chat, relax, art, swimming, innovaiton, theatre, watching

video,free time, clothing, development, cooking, literatüre, depression, go outside, education, nature,

event, discover, query,dance-

Other responses of recreation key concepts;

-Basketball, bicycle, leisure time, dance, sea, change, discovery, jogging, match, meditation, park, pilates,

respect, socialize, spirituality, sport, creativity, help, green area, adrenalin, family, research, shoot,

togerherness, computer game, cycling, bowling, leisure, evaluation, decoration, studying, nature, emotional

intelligence, empathize, interaction, awareness, benefit, festival, idea, fitness, playing guitar, sun, mobility,

precision, hobby, drink coffee, surreptitious, pleasant time, personal evolution, adventure, make-up, view,

forest, picnic, relaxation, picture, healthy lifestyle, chat, sociability, sport, stress, trouble, holiday, satisfaction,

play tennis, therapy, stimulant, sleep, play volleyball, yoga, spending time with kids -

Figure 1. Participants’ Leisure Concept Word Cloud Image by Frequency of Responses

The word cloud image, which is formed by taking into account frequency values of responses given by

the participants to leisure concepts is shown in Figure 1. As seen in word cloud, it seems that words of

“resting” and “reading” are mostly repeated. Based on this data, participants are encouraged to spend their

leisure with more reading activities and to participate in leisure activities for relaxation.

Figure 2. Participants’ Recreation Concept Word Cloud Image by Frequency of Responses

When recreation key concept responses are examined, It seems that participants repeated words of

“traveling”, “reading”, “listening to music” and “walking”. On the other hand, participants are often told

that they see recreation as activity or event. Looking at above word clouds, it seems that responses given

to recreation and leisure concepts are very close to each other. And this makes right definitions that

recreation is whole of the activities taken place in leisure. Although recreation and leisure concepts

resemble each other, there are certain differences between two concepts. These differences and

similarities are seen partly in the concept map given in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Explanatory Concept Map Based on Results of the Keyword Association Test

When explanatory concept map of leisure and recreation key concepts is looked at, it is generally accepted that both

concepts are handled on the basis of activities and the responses are in that direction. Since activities of “reading,

traveling, listening to music” are the most repetitive answers of both concepts, it can be said that the participants

performed the most recreational activities during leisure. When looking at activity participation purposes, it seems

that main purpose of leisure is “resting, fun, personal improvement, seeking, think, hobbies, socializing and plan”.

Similarly it is noted that activity participation purpose of recreation is “resting, social responsibility, improvement,

personal care and health”. Looking at responses that reflect feelings and thoughts of participants, Leisure is

expressed as “happiness and loneliness” for the participants; recreation is expressed as "serenity, energetic,

happiness, love”. According to concept map, concept of recreation differs from leisure by dictionary meaning.

Participants seem to give descriptive responses to concept of recreation, while leisure can not provide a consistent

response to definition of word in the literature. The lack of a definition that Turkish Language Institution (TLI) has

RECREATION

Activities

Reading

TravelingListening to music

Walking

SwimmingTrip

Cook

ShoppingWatching movie

Being interested in animals

ActivityTalk to friends

Cultural activities

Play gameCinema

Artistic events

Activity participation

purpose

RestingSocial Responsibility

Improvement

Personal CareHealth

Feeling and thought

Serenity

EnergeticHappiness

Love

Dictionary meaning

Renewal

FunEvent

LEISURE

Activities

Reading

Computer and Internet GamesTraveling

Watching movie

Listening to musicSpend time with family

Social media

SportActivity

Cinema

Talk to FriendsStudying

Watching TV

Holiday

Activity participation purpose

Resting

FunPersonal improvement

Seeking

ThinkHobbies

Socializing

Plan

Feeling and thought

Happiness

Loneliness

made about leisure can be given as a sign of absence of a clear response defining leisure. The responses to recreation

concept in concept map show that TLI is directly related to the recreation definition.

In the second part of Word Association Test, the sentences that students have built for leisure and recreation

concepts are examined and are categorized according to meanings. The categorizations of the sentences used

categorization Ercan et al. (2010), Keskin and Örgün (2015) and Yücel Güngör et al. (2017) have used in their

studies. According to category, sentences are categorized as sentences containing scientific information, sentences

containing non-scientific and superficial information and sentences containing misconceptions.

Table 3. Frequency Table of Sentences for Leisure and Recreation Concepts

Sentences Containing

Scientific Information

Sentences Containing Non-

Scientific and Superficial

Information

Sentences Containing

Misconceptions

Leisure 1 39 18

Recreation 2 48 10

In the grouping of sentences containing scientific information, it was examined whether participants’ sentences were

related to both key concept and whether it was scientifically correct. If sentences of participants are related to key

concept in same sense, in the sentence and it is scientifically correct with all the other items, this sentence has been

put into this category. In the grouping of sentences with non-scientific and superficial information, contrary to words

that participants have associated with key concept, if they have set up sentences that are not scientific, used in

everyday life. In the grouping of sentences containing concept misconceptions, participants have tried to load

scientific meaning key concepts in sentences but if they have confused these concepts with different and misleading

concepts, then this sentence is categorized. Accordingly, Table 4 containing sample sentences was obtained.

Table 4. Sample Sentences

Sentences Containing

Scientific Information

Sentences Containing Non-Scientific and

Superficial Information

Sentences Containing

Misconceptions

Lei

sure

It is the type of time that

is left for rest and fun

except for daily work.

It is time for fun.

It is time for the individual to self-actualize.

People want to discover new places in

leisure time.

It is time to relax and social life.

It is time that man/woman has set

himself/herself apart.

Leisure is important as psychological.

Leisure refers to time that a person has

reserved for activity.

Leisure rests on the human soul.

Leisure improves people's relationships with

each other and gives people happiness.

Leisure is generally research.

There is no free time,

there is chance to

evaluate.

It is time period that is

limited and important.

We must leisure fully.

Rec

rea

tio

n

It is the activity that

person joins with his/her

will and allows the body

to relax mentally and

physically.

Recreation is whole of

the activities carried out

in leisure.

Recreational touring is the most recreational

activity I have ever done.

It is recreation that activities I am doing for

fun.

Recreational activities have different values

for each participant.

Recreation provides a suitable environment

for socializing.

Recreation ensures that people are at peace

with themselves.

Recreational activities allow people to

identify themselves.

It is a happiness-like activity that is similar

to leisure.

In daily life, people are activities they feel

for better and renewed.

Recreation is voluntary freedoms.

Recreation is that live

happiness.

It reacts to any event.

It is a peaceful moment.

It is everything that feeds

the soul

As seen in Table 4, sentences were made away from concepts of leisure and recreation sentences containing

misconceptions. Especially for concept of recreation, it seems that misconceptions of the concept (such as reaction)

have emerged. 18 respondents responded to concept of leisure; it is clear that leisure is not available or limited as a

result of inability to understand what leisure is and what it means. In particular, sentences containing non-scientific

and superficial information are predominantly form of evaluation of leisure and recreation. Apart from these

sentences, only 3 sentences reflect scientific information.

CONCLUSION

In this study, it was tried to determine the cognitive structures of leisure time and recreation concepts of the

participants who study in tourism programmes using Word Association Test (WAT). In the survey conducted with

63 participants, the majority were 21-23 years old and females. As a result of the research done, participants were

asked what the concepts of leisure and recreation meant, and 523 answer words were obtained from the participants.

When the words were examined, the concept of leisure was expressed mostly by “reading” and “have a rest” words

by individuals who study tourism. The concept of recreation is mostly associated with the words “traveling”,

“reading”, “listening to music” and “walking”.

In the second analysis of the study, the words related to leisure time and recreation words are discussed on the basis

of dimensions. The results obtained from the analysis are evaluated on the basis of activities, participation

intentions, feelings and thoughts. It is seen that the participants have the most recreational activities in leisure since

the activities of “reading, traveling, listening to music, watching movies and going to the cinema” are the most

repeated answers of both concepts. While it was seen that the purpose of evaluating the leisure of participants was

“resting, fun, personal development, search, think, socialize and plan”, recreational purpose is similar to “resting,

social responsibility, development, personal care and health”. Leisure in terms of emotion and thought, “happiness

and loneliness” for participants; recreation means “peace, reaction, energy, happiness and love”. According the

results of the study, generally the participants see leisure as recreational activities. For example, “resting, reading,

games, traveling, film, music, spend time with family, social media and personal improvement” are described as

recreational activities doing in leisure. The fact that the leisure time is comprehensive has led to the similar of

responses given to both concepts. Unlike leisure, the word meaning dimension is added to the concept of recreation.

According to this dimension, recreation means renewal, amusement and activity. This knowledge is supported by

the Turkish Language Association and Oxford English Dictionary.

In the final analysis of the study, the statements that the participants of the study expressed about leisure and

recreation concepts were analyzed and grouped. When we look at the related these statements which express leisure

and recreation, it is seen that only the sentences containing emotions and thoughts and misconceptions are used.

Only three scientific sentences were taken from the participants for the concept of leisure time and recreation. Some

students have misunderstanding the concept of recreation as a reaction. Others have stated that there is no leisure. As

a result of this association, it can be said that participants can not fully perceive what leisure and recreation concepts

mean.

According to the findings of this research, the following suggestions are presented:

In many universities that offer tourism education in the world, there are courses where recreation and

leisure contents are taught. As the cognitive levels of students in the research are seen as superficially from

the scientific standpoint, options for full learning of the students should be presented in the required

courses.

The Word Association Test (WAT), which has been mostly used in the branches of science and education

sciences, can be used as an alternative measurement and evaluation tool used in different branches such as

tourism, recreation and the like as it is in this research.

Since this research is designed according to the descriptive model, WAT which is used as a single

application to detect the existing situation, can be used to determine the conceptual changes of students by

performing intermittent evaluation in different study models.

The theme of this research is the recreation and leisure sense of tourism students. Accordingly, studies on

the availability of the word association test in different subjects and learning areas within the scope of

tourism education can be made.

Since there are not many studies that measure individual cognitive networks related to leisure and

recreation concepts, different assessment scales can be used to measure cognitive perception.

REFERENCES

Akoğlan Kozak, M. (2017). Rekreasyonel Liderlik ve Turist Rehberliği. Detay Yyaıncılık, Ankara.

Akpinar, A. (2016). Factors influencing the use of urban greenways: A case study of Aydin, Turkey. Urban Forestry

& Urban Greening, 16, 123-131. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2016.02.004

Altınay, M. (2016). Kentsel Rekreasyon Alanlarında Hizmet Kalitesinin Ölçümü. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Sosyal

Bilimler Enstitüsü, Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara., 1-135.

Ayaz, E., Karakaş, H., & Sarıkaya, R. (2016). Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Nükleer Enerji Kavramına Yönelik

Düşünceleri: Bağımsız Kelime İlişkilendirme Örneği. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Fen Bilimleri

Dergisi, 37, 42-54.

Aytaç, Ö. (2002). Boş zaman üzerine kuramsal yaklaşımlar. Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12(1), 231-

260.

Bahar, M., Johnstone, A. H., & Sutcliffe, R. G. (1999). Investigation of students’ cognitive structure in elementary

genetics through word association tests. Journal of Biological Education, 33, 134-141.

Bahar, M., & Kılıç, F. (2001). Kelime İletişim Testi Yöntemi ile Atatürk İlkeleri Arasındaki Kavramsal Bağların

Araştırılması. IX. Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, BOLU.

Bahar, M., & Özatlı, N. S. (2003). Kelime İletişim Test Yöntemi ile Lise 1. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Canlıların Temel

Bileşenleri Konusundaki Bilişsel Yapılarının Araştırılması. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü

Dergisi, 5(2), 75-85.

Bayer, M. Z. (1992). Turizme Giriş, İstanbul.

Bucher, C. A., & Bucher, R. D. (1974). Recreation for today’s Society. New Jersey: Frentice-Hall.

Canbazoğlu, B. S. (2016). An Examination of Science Teachers’ Knowledge Structures towards Technology.

International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 11(5), 571-586.

Clawson, M., & Kenetsch, J. L. (1971). Economic of outdoor recreation. The John Hopkins Press. Baltimore and

London.

Çardak, O. (2009). The determination of the knowledge level of science students on energy flow through a word

association test. Energy Education Science and Technology, 1(1), 139-155.

Çiftçi, S. (2009). Kelime Çağrışımlarının Cinsiyet Değişkenine Göre Gösterdiği Temel Nitelikler Üzerine Bir

Deneme. Turkish Studies, 4(3), 633-654.

Dikmenli, M. (2010a). Biology students‟ conceptual structures regarding global warming. Education Science and

Technology, 2(1), 21-38.

Dikmenli, M. (2010b). Biology student teachers‟ conceptual frameworks regarding biodiversity. Education and

Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 130(3), 479-489.

Edginton, C. R., & Ford, M. P. (1985). Leadership in Recreation and Leisure Service Organizations. J. Wiley Sons.,

5.

Ekici, G., Gökmen, A., & Kurt, H. (2014). Öğretmen Adaylarının “Bilgisayar” Kavramı Konusundaki Bilişsel

Yapılarının Belirlenmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(3), 357-401.

Ekici, G., & H., K. (2014). Öğretmen Adaylarının “Aids” Kavramı Konusundaki Bilişsel Yapıları: Bağımsız Kelime

İlişkilendirme Testi Örneği. Türkiye Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 18(3), 267-306.

Ercan, F., Taşdere, A., & Ercan, N. (2010). Kelime Ilişkilendirme Testi Aracılığıyla Bilişsel Yapının Ve Kavramsal

Değişimin Gözlenmesi. Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi, 7(2), 136-154.

Eren, F. (2012). İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin BilişimTeknolojileri Algılarının Kelime İlişkilendirme Testi Kullanılarak

İncelenmesi. Yükseklisans Tezi, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Bilgisayar ve

Öğretim Teknolojileri Eğitimi Ana Bilim Dalı Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri, 1-97.

Gılbert, J. K., Boulter, C., & Rutherford, M. (1998). Models in Explanations, Part 2, Whose Voice? Whose Ears?

International Journal of Science Education, 20, 187-203.

Güneş, H., & Gözüm, A. İ. C. (2013). İlköğretimde İşlenen Ekoloji Konusunun 10. Sınıf Öğrencilerin Ekosistem

Ekolojisi Konusundaki Hazırbulunuşluk Düzeyleri Üzerindeki Etkisinin Saptanmasında Kelime

İlişkilendirmenin Kullanılması. Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(3), 252-264.

Holba, A. (2007). Philosophy Leisure: Recuperative Practise for Human Communication. Marquette University

Press, Milwaukee.

Işıklı, M., Taşdere, A., & Göz, N. L. (2011). Kelime İlişkilendirme Testi Aracılığıyla Öğretmen Adaylarının Atatürk

İlkelerine Yönelik Bilişsel Yapılarının İncelenmesi. Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(1), 50-72.

Karaküçük, S. (2001). Rekreasyon boş zamanları değerlendirme (Dördüncü baskı). Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi, 21-30.

Karaküçük, S. (2016). Ekorekreasyon, Rekreasyon ve Çevre. Gazi Kitapevi.

Kempa, R. F., & Nicholls, C. E. (1983). Problem solving ability and cognitive structure an explanatory

investigation. European Journal of Science Education, 5, 171-184.

Keskin, E., & Örgün, E. (2015). Kelime İlişkilendirme Testi Aracılığıyla Sürdürülebilir Turizm Olgusunun

Kavramsal. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 3(1), 30-40.

Keskin, E., Örgün, E., Akbas Tuna, A., & Tuna, M. (2016). Conceptual Analysis of Quality through Word

Association Test. Proceedings of 33rd International Business Research Conference,4 - 5 January 2016,

Flora Grand Hotel, Dubai, UAE.

Keskin, E., Örgün, E., & Akbulut, B. A. (2017). Gastronomi Kavramının Kelime İlişkilendirme Testi Aracılığıyla

Analiz. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 5(3), 255-267.

Kılbaş, Ş. (2010). Rekreasyon -Boş Zamanı Değerlendirme. Genişletilmiş 5. Bs, Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi.

Kırtak Ad, V. N., & Demirci, N. (2012). Öğretmen Adaylarının Çevre Sorunlarını Bilim Dalları ve Termodinamik

Yasaları ile İlişkilendirme Düzeyleri. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi,, 13(3), 19-

46.

Köseoğlu, F., & Bayır, E. (2011). Kelime İlişkilendirme Test Yöntemiyle Kimya Öğretmen Adaylarının

Gravimetrik Analize İlişkin Bilişsel Yapılarının İncelenmesi. Trakya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi,

1(1), 107-125.

Kurt, H. (2013). Biyoloji Öğretmen Adaylarının “Bağışıklık” Konusundaki Bilişsel Yapıları. Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya

Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 21, 242-264.

McLean, D. D., Hurd, A., & Rogers, N. (2008). Kraus’ Recreation and Leisure in Modern Society. Jones&Barlett

Publishers, Sudbury, MA.

McLean, D. J. (2006). Philosophy and Leisure. Human Kinetics (Ed.),Introduction to Recreation and Leisure içinde.

Human Kinetics, USA., 37-51.

Mieczkowski, Z. (1990). World Trends in Tourism and Recreation. Peter Lang Publishing, New York.

Mirzeoğlu, N. (2003). Spor Bilimlerine Giriş. Bağırgan Kitapevi,İstanbul.

Nakiboğlu, C. (2008). Using Word Associations for Assessing Non Major Science Students’ Knowledge Structure

Before and After General Chemistry Instruction: The Case of Atomic Structure. Chemistry Education

Research and Practice, 9, 309-322.

Ozankaya, Ö. (1980). Toplum bilim Terimleri Sözlüğü (II. Baskı). TDK, Ankara.

Önel, A., & Yüce, Z. (2016). Fen Bilgisi Öğretmen Adaylarının “Evrim” Konusundaki Bilişsel Yapılarının Kelime

İlişkilendirme Testi ile Belirlenmesi. Eğitim Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(1), 23-39.

Özata Yücel, E., & Özkan, M. (2010). Fen Bilimleri Öğretmen Adaylarının Çevre Algılarının Kelime İlişkilendirme

Aracılığıyla Belirlenmesi. E-international journal of educational research, 1(1), 1-16.

Özatlı, N. S. (2006). Öğrencilerin Biyoloji Derslerinde Zor Olarak Algıladıkları Konuların Tespiti ve Boşaltım

Sistemi Konusundaki Bilişsel Yapılarının Yeni Teknikler İle Ortaya Konması. (Yayınlanmamış Doktora

Tezi). Balıkesir Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Biyoloji Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Balıkesir.

Özatlı, N. S., & Bahar, M. (2010). Öğrencilerin Boşaltım Sistemi Konusundaki Bilişsel Yapılarının Yeni Teknikler

ile Ortaya Konması. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 10(2), 9-26.

Polat, G. (2013). 9. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çevreye İlişkin Bilişsel Yapılarının Kelime İlişkilendirme Test Tekniği ile

Tespiti. Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi, 7(1), 97-120.

Sağcan, M. (1986). Rekreasyon ve Turizm. İzmir.

Sarım, S. (1996). Emeklilerin Zamanlarını Değerlendirme Durumlarının İncelenmesi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek

Lisans Tezi. İstanbul Üniversitesi, İstanbul.

Selçuk, Z., Palancı, M., & Kandemir, M. (2014). Eğitim ve Bilim Dergisinde Yayınlanan Araştırmaların Eğilimleri:

İçerik Analizi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 39(173), 430-453.

Şimsek, M. (2013). Sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının coğrafi bilgi sistemleri (cbs) konusundaki bilişsel

yapılarının ve alternatif kavramlarının kelime ilişkilendirmesi testi ile belirlenmesi. Researcher: Social

Science Studies, 1(1), 6475.

Taştan, K. Ö., & Kaya, H. (2014). 6. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Hücre Konusundaki Kavramsal Yapıları Hakkında Nitel

Bir Çalışma. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 6(3), 737-760.

Tokcan, H., & Yiter, E. (2017). 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Doğal Afetlere İlişkin Bilişsel Yapılarının Kelime

İlişkilendirme Testi (KİT) Aracılığıyla İncelenmesi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi

Dergisi(1), 115-129.

Yücel Güngör, M., Doğan, S., & Güngör, O. (2017). Aşçılık Programı Öğrencilerinin Sosyal Medyaya Yönelik

Bilişsel Yapılarının Kelime İlişkilendirme Testi Aracılığıyla İncelenmesi (Examining Culinary Students

Cognitive Structure Towards Social Media Through Word Association Test). Journal of Tourism and

Gastronomy Studies, 5(2), 206-218. doi:10.21325/jotags.2017.124

Zorba, E. (2007). Türkiye’de Rekreasyona Bakış Açısı ve Gelişimi. Gazi Haber Dergisi, Eylül 2008, 52-55.

Internet References

Turkish Language Institution. (2018). Recreation.

http://www.tdk.gov.tr/index.php?option=com_gts&arama=gts&guid=TDK.GTS.5aa246a0d59666.614270

34.

AUTHOR

Lec. Meltem ALTINAY ÖZDEMİR

Meltem Altınay Özdemir is a lecturer in Travel, Tourism and Leisure

Services department at Vocational School, Istanbul Arel University. She

is a PhD Student in Tourism Management at Istanbul Unıversity.

Meltem’s research interests encompass recreation, tourism marketing and

tourism sociology. She is particularly interested in recreation since her

graduate. Her recent researches have focused on recreational destination

marketing; destination image and personality; recreational importance of

geological areas; the importance of traditional handicrafts in terms of

creative tourism; service quality in urban recreation areas. Meltem’s

current research includes cognitive structures towards leisure time and

recreation and recreational image of destinations.