Combating poverty and building democracy through the co-productionofparticipatorywastemanagementservicesThecaseofKisumuCity,KenyaJaan-HenrikKainMichaelO.OlokoPatrikZapataMaríaJoséZapataCampos
OASIS OF KNOWLEDGE
Thefollowingreportistheproductofatwo-yearresearchprojectfundedbytheSwedishInternationalCentre for Local Democracy (ICLD) during 2014 and 2015. The transdisciplinary research groupconsistsofseverallocalwasteentrepreneurs,theDirectorofEnvironmentfortheCityofKisumu,andamixofresearchers fromengineering,sociology,publicadministration,geography,spatialplanning,agricultureandarchitecture fromthe JaramogiOgingaOdingaUniversityofScienceandTechnology(JOOUST), Maseno University, University of Victoria, University of Gothenburg and ChalmersUniversityofTechnology.NamesandaffiliationsofauthorsandprojectassociatesJutta Gutberlet, University of Victoria, Canada, [email protected] Jaan-Henrik Kain, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, [email protected] Belinda Nyakinda, Department of Environment, Kisumu, Kenya, [email protected] Nicholas Odhiambo, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Kenya, [email protected] Michael O. Oloko, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Kenya, [email protected] John Omolo, Maseno University, Kenya, [email protected],Kisumu Waste Management Services and Chairman SWM Sacco CooperativePatrik Zapata, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, [email protected] María José Zapata Campos, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, [email protected] ©2015Jaan-HenrikKain,MichaelO.Oloko,PatrikZapataandMaríaJoséZapataCamposICLDacknowledgesthefinancialcontributiontoitsresearchprogrammemadebytheGovernmentofSweden(theSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency-Sida).TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationdonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheICLDandarethoseoftheauthors.
Imageonfrontpage:Clean-upexerciseinObunga.Photo:Jaan-HenrikKain
IntroductionIn an increasingly urbanized world, a third of the globalurban population will soon live in informal settlements1.Manyoftheseareasarepoorlyconnectedtobasicservices,such as management of household waste2. Instead, anextensive informal sector of waste pickers collects andseparates household waste34. By doing so, they make asignificant contribution to improving the health ofresidentsandlocalenvironments,torecoverresources,tocreatejobsandincomeamongtheurbanpoor,andeventoreducethecarbonfootprintoftheircities.Even so, waste pickers in the informal sector representone of the most widely excluded, impoverished anddisempowered segments of society. They are exposed totoxic materials, suffer from prejudice and stigmatization,experience difficulties to create formal cooperatives orassociations, lack access to official microfinance andfunding opportunities, are susceptible to price marketoscillations, and are subject to exploitive relations withintermediaries. All these difficulties lead to persistentpoverty as well as to inconsistencies in the wastecollectionservicesprovidedbythissector5.Manywastemanagementprogramshavebeenlaunchedtoimprove these solid waste predicaments. Still, in bothpolicyandresearchthereisanincreasingconcernwiththegap that exists between knowing and doing, betweenpolicygoalsandhowtheyareachievedinpractice.Infrastructural programs have sometimes implied thesubstitution of effective local entrepreneurs by privatecorporations6. Other top-down programs have achievedinsignificant local adoption. However, some programshave reached good resultswith a focus on residents andwaste pickers as co-producers of basic services inpartnershipswithlocalgovernments.Notwithstanding, even successful programs face manychallenges. It can take decades for an innovative andalternative solution to be scaled up to other parts of thecity or other cities. Achievements can fade when thefunding dries up and “induced networks” and public-private partnerships can fail to achieve self-managementand viability. Governmental arrangements need to becreatedfortheco-productionofwastecollectionservices,suchasagreementsfortheremunerationofwastepickers,licenses to operate, and regular evacuation of transferpoints.Andsucharrangementsneedtobe integratedintothe localmunicipal structures through sustained, regularandlong-termrelationshipsandcommitments78.
KisumuWith 600,000 inhabitants, Kisumu shows rapidurbanization rates (2.7% yearly). It has a planned citycenterandalargeperi-urbanfringeofunplannedinformalsettlements. In these settlements, 60% of the populationlivewithverypoorhousingconditionsandareexposedtofrail service delivery, unclear legalities, and poor policydesign.Householdwasteisrarelycollectedexceptbyafewpublic clean-up exercises organized by NGOs or CBOs.However,privatewastepickersandcollectorsincreasinglyofferalternativestothefailingpublicsector.From 2007 to 2009 the Kisumu Integrated SustainableWasteManagementPlan(KISWAMP)wasimplementedbyUN-Habitat, Swedish International Development Agency,ILO,theCityofKisumuandotheractors.Theplanincludeddevelopment of a city waste management strategy,promoting public-private partnerships in municipal
service delivery; strengthening micro-enterprises andcommunity-based groups to provide waste managementservices;building thecapacityof themunicipalcouncil toeffectivelyimplementthestrategyaswellassomestart-upmachinery. Today, waste collection efficiency is still at20% in Kisumu and informal settlements are largelyneglected9.
Nyalenda,oneofKisumu’sinformalsettlements.Photo:Jaan-
HenrikKain
The new development program Kisumu Urban Project(KUP)ispartiallyrecoveringKISWAMPthroughitsKisumuIntegratedSolidWasteManagementStrategy.ThroughthisstrategyKUPaimstodevelopasanitarylandfill,reviewtheKISWAMP strategies and continue supporting Kisumu’sCityandCountywastemanagementpolicies.
ResearchquestionsInformed by the case of Kisumu City and its informalsettlements, this project explores the challenges andpotential solutions for the co-production of participatorywaste management services in informal settlements. Thequestionsguidingtheprojecthavebeen:• HowaremunicipalwastemanagementprogramssuchasKISWAMP translated into practice in informalsettlements?
• What are the difficulties encountered in the co-productionofparticipatorywastemanagementservices?
• Howcansuchdifficultiesbeovercome?
MethodologyTheprojectcombines thestudyof the formalactivitiesoftheCityofKisumuwherewastemanagementpolicieshavebeen implemented (KISWAMP) with parallel studies ofinformal and bottom-up activities by waste pickerentrepreneurs.Itinvolvedmorethanfortyinterviewswithlocal, national and international actors; field visits andobservationsinmanydifferentpartsofthecity;analysisofdocuments;threeparticipatoryworkshopswithpublicandprivate practitioners, researchers, civil society andresident associations; focus group discussions withresidentsandwastepickersinObungaandNyalenda(May2014, August, 2014 and October 2015); five clean-ups inObunga and two in Nyalenda; and scholarly seminars todiscuss and contextualize the findings (Kisumu, August2014 andOctober2015;Managua, January2015andSãoPaolo,April2016).
Fieldworkandfindings
Field work was carried out across Kisumu through themanydifferentactivities listedabove, andwasstartedupbyavisitattheKachokdumpsite.
At the Dumpsite “Kachok”. The Manager, Thomas Orinda
and Belinda Nyakinya, Director of Environment, City of
Kisumu and part of the research team, is in conversation,
whilewasteworkers listen in thebackground.Photo: Jaan-
HenrikKain
ParticipatoryinstitutionalworkshopsTwo participatory institutional workshops were held toinitiatetheproject inMay2015. InAugustthesameyear,two workshops were held with inhabitants andassociationsinNyalendaandObungainformalsettlementsto identifyanddiscuss challengesandopportunities foramoresustainablewastemanagementinKisumu’sinformalareas.
Theresultsfromthesefourworkshopscanbesummarizedasanumberofchallengesandopportunities:
KisumuislocatedatabayofLake
Victoria.TheCitybusinessdistrictis
closetothesouthernshore.
InformalsettlementsinKisumu.B:
Obunga,D:Manyatta,H:Nyalenda.
TheKachokdumpsiteislocated
justabovetheletterHinthemap.
Source:Citieswithoutslums–UN-
Habitat(2003)10
ParticipantsintheinstitutionalworkshopsCityofKisumuKisumuCountyWardrepresentativesUniversities (JOOUST, Maseno University, Chalmers andUniversityofGothenburg)NGOs (Urban matters, Practical Action, Pamoja Trust,UmandeTrust,MillenniumCityInitiatives)WastePickersandwasteentrepreneursObungaResidentsAssociationNyalendaResidentsAssociationCBONetworksNationalEnvironmentManagementAuthority(NEMA)KisumuUrbanProject(KUP)
Resultsfromtheinstitutionalworkshops:
Challenges OpportunitiesCollectionandtransportationofwaste PromotionofPro-PoorPartnershiparrangementsHeavyfocusondisposal TheCitytotransportwastefromTransferStationsLimitedentrepreneurialskills Promoteofthe3Rs(Reduce,Reuse,Recycle)Non-recognitionbylocalcouncil SensitizationandawarenesscreationPoorattitudestowardswaste TrainingonentrepreneurialskillsNonenforcementofsolidwasteregulations LawenforcementbytheCityHealthofthewastepickers Motivationandrecognitionofthewastepickers
WastepickerorganizationsWe conducted more than forty interviews withcommunity-based organizations, micro-enterprises ofwastepickers,NGOsandotheractorsprovidingservicesofwastecollectioninKisumu.Interviewswereconductedinsitubythemultidisciplinaryresearchteamduring2014.
Plastic waste turned into handbags, TemaTema, Bamato
CBO.Photo:Jaan-HenrikKain
IndividualwastepickersIndividual waste pickers were approached through twofocusgroupdiscussions.Itbecameclearthatwastepickingoften is the only possible livelihood for those who havelosttheirjobs,hadanaccident,lostparents,orcomefromnon-functional families. Most of them are introduced towastepickingby friends, relatives or felloworphans. Forthem,waste issomethingthat isused,andunwanted,butwhenlookeduponmoreclosely,consistsofpartsthatcanbeusefulorsold:clothes thatcanbeused, left-overs thatcan be eaten, and plastics, metals and glass that can besold.
Wastepickersatdumpsitecarryingtheirrecyclables.Photo:
PatrikZapata
Pickingwasteisnotrecognizedasajob,orevensomethinggood, by the community at large even though they cleanthe city. Apart from the stigma linked towaste picking –theyarenamed“scavengers”bothamongthemselvesandby the community – the major problem for the wastepickers is that they earn too little. This, in turn, createsother problems, such as difficulties to pay for properhousing, equipment and health care. With no access tostoragespace,itisdifficulttogetagoodpriceforthewasteas they are forced to sell when they cannot carry theirwaste any longer. The storage problem also brings asecurityproblem,thewastecanbestolen.RecognitionfromtheCityandformingoforganizationsorcooperativesamongthewaste-pickerswouldhelptosolvemanyproblems.Withorganisation,theycouldstorewasteand form a middle hand towards the buyers, and thuscreate a more secure and just link between the wastepickersand themarket.Theycould then jointlynegotiatethe prices and secure a better income. This could meanopportunities to getbetter equipment and transportationmeans.
TheresidentsofObungaandNyalendaObunga and Nyalenda are somewhat differentneighbourhoods.Nyalendaismorecentrallylocated,whileObungaismoreruralandhasmorefluxofhabitantswithlandlords living elsewhere. Still, the major problem forbothplacesisalackofsiteswherewastecanbecollectedfor transport to the dumpsite. There used to be skips(containers)especially inNyalenda, that thecityemptied,but that does not work anymore. Many still throw theirwaste where the skips used to be, which creates illegaldumpsitesintheresidentialarea.InObunga,lackoftoiletsand sewers, coupledwithpoordrainage, turn theditchesintohazardoussourcesofdiseaseandstench.Solidwasteoftenblocksthe flow,whichcreatesevenmoreproblems.Waste lying around, or flying around onwindy days, is aconstantannoyance.
Solidwasterisingabovenormalgroundlevel.
Photo:MaríaJoséZapata
Listofkeyintervieweesandfieldvisits:AssociatedGrindersBamatoCleanKisumuGeneralInvestmentGasiaPoaKachokDumpsiteKibuyewasterecyclersMigosiTemaTemaWomenGroupTichK’OumaUrbaneSolutions
Resultsfromfocusgroupswithindividualwastepickers:
Challenges Opportunities/solutionsNotearningenough Organisation,i.e.cooperativeHealthproblems -selltogetherPricefluctuation -findcommunalstorageTransportation TransportationStorage BetterinformationtopeopleStigma SupportfromcityEquipment Equipment
From the focus groupdiscussionswith the residents it isclear thatmuch needs to be done. In Nyalenda, clean-upactivities, organized by the areaWard office, are carriedout with some frequency, and in Obunga with lessregularity. Many residents also appreciate that waste-pickers collect some of the waste. They are also open toprivatewastecollectors,orthattheycoordinatethewastecollectionthemselves.Moreover,theresidentsthemselvesneedtostopthrowingwasteanywhere.However,amajorproblem remains how to evacuate the waste out of thesettlement area once it is collected. To make progress,everyoneinvolvedneedtofeelconfidentthattheCitywillcollectwasteregularlyatdesignatedcollectionpoints.
FocusgroupwithresidentsinObunga.Photo:PatrikZapata.
Photo:PatrikZapataAnother problem is where households are supposed tostore the waste in their houses, especially if they wouldstarttosorttheirwaste.Plasticbagsareexpensive,andallhousesdonot have room for awaste bin or two, neitherinside nor outside. Paired with poor information andknowledgeaboutwaste,theresultoftenisthatwhatisnotneededisthrowninthenearestgutter.
To sum up, the problems with waste in Nyalenda andObungaaremany,but theyarequiteoftenrelatedto lackofco-ordination,commitmentandinformation.
Obungaclean-upsThree clean-up exerciseswere organized by the researchteam in Obunga area, where open and indiscriminatedumping and burning is mainly practiced. There is noorganized waste collection by waste pickers or even theCity. The aims with the clean-ups were to sensitize theresidentsonbetterwastemanagementpractices, tobringthe City on board to collect and transport waste fromtemporarytransferpointstothedumpsiteandtocreateanopportunityforaprivatewastepickergrouptoevolveandcontinue with waste management activities within thearea.
CleanupexerciseinObunga.Photo:MaríaJoséZapata
Theresidentslatersuccessfullyorganizedtwootherclean-upexercisesontheirownwithminimumexternalsupportto test their capacity and commitment to the process. Sofartwowastepickers’groups(StarliteasaCBOandJakmisTaka Investment as a business enterprise) have evolvedand are collecting waste from households at a fee andabout 250 residents have subscribed. As in other areaswithintheCity,theeffortsneedtobesustainedtoregisterasmanyresidentsaspossible.Participantsintheclean-upexercises included the Obunga residents, the local Wardoffice, successful private waste collectors/entrepreneursfrom Migosi and Manyatta neighbourhoods, the City’sDepartment of Environment, local NGOs and theresearcherteam.ScholarlyfindingsThe scholarly output of this study is the publication ofthreearticles:Article 1: Disentangling the complexity of solid wastemanagement in informal settlements through a systemsapproach:ThecaseofKisumu11Article 2: Socio-environmental entrepreneurship and theprovisionofcriticalservicesininformalsettlements12Article 3: Translating City plans into the informalsettlements: reframing, anchoring and muddling throughKISWAMP13Thearticlesarepresentedinthefollowingsection.
Resultsfromfocusgroupswithresidents:
Challenges Opportunities/solutionsPoorsanitation ImprovementofdrainageRoadnetwork Improveroads/UsecartsTransporttodumpsite CoordinatewiththeCityDumpingsitecost CitytotakeresponsibilityPoverty TrainentrepreneurialskillWastecollectionbags ReuseofbagsLackofeffectivebylaws Enforcebylaws
Disentangling the complexity of solid waste management in informalsettlementsthroughasystemsapproach:ThecaseofKisumu.AimandmethodologyThearticleexplainsthewastemanagementinaninformalsettlement in Kisumu. It is based on material from fieldstudies, interviews, focus groups, workshops anddocument studies. Solid waste management in Obungasettlement is shown as bundles of different actions14thatare linked to each other in a larger waste managementsystem.Anumberofweakconnectionsare identifiedandsomesuggestionsforimprovementpresented.
FindingsMany different types of actors are involved in the wastemanagementofObunga –peoplebut also animals, thingsand natural forces – and their actions pull the waste inmany different directions. Weak connections betweenthesedifferent actions canbe seenasdifficult challenges,butarealsogreatopportunitiesforimprovingthesystem.InObunga’swastemanagementsystem,sevenmajorweakconnectionswereidentified:
1.Reductionofwaste
Packagingmaterial–suchasplasticbags–poseaseriousenvironmentalthreatandaslivingconditionsimprove,theamount packaging waste will mushroom. Still, nothing isdonebypoliticiansandlegislatorstoreducetheamountofwastethatiscreatedinthefirstplace.Banningplasticbagsand encouraging reusable bags and recyclable packingmaterialcouldovercomethischallenge.2.Sortingatsource
Collection andmanagement ofmixedwaste is hazardousand inefficient.Waste sortedbyhouseholds improves theworkingenvironment forwastepickersandincreasesthevalueandvolumeofrecyclables, includingorganicmattercomprising more than 60% of the waste. Sorting can besupported through suitable containers, reduced fees andimproved collection for sorted waste, and sharing of thebenefitsbetweenhouseholdsandwasteentrepreneurs.
Thewholehouseholdwasteactionsystemwithsevenweakmajorconnections
1
7
5
3
2
6
4
3.Improvementoflocalwastepractices
Today,mostof thewaste is leftalongroads,passagewaysand empty lots, leaving the daily life of Obunga infestedwithallsortsofwaste.Cleanupactivitieshavebeenusedto improvethesituationbuttheeffectsaremeager.Cleanups are still appreciated and can be used to changepeople’s attitudes and actions linked to waste but theultimategoalshouldbetomakecleanupsredundant.
Wasteblockingdrainage.Photo:Jaan-HenrikKain
4.Recognitionoftherolesofwasteentrepreneurs
Experiences from other countries show that wasteentrepreneursplayimportantrolesaslocalwasteactivists.They service households, educate residents, change theirattitudes and habits, stop illegal dumping, and divertunsorted waste from landfills. These roles need to beacknowledgedbyboththecommunityandtheauthorities.
Elvis Omondi, waste entrepreneur in Kisumu. Photo: Jaan-
HenrikKain
5.ReviewtheresponsibilitiesoftheCity/County
50%ofKisumuCity’spopulationispoorwithdifficultiestotakefullresponsibilityfortheirwaste.Mostofthemdonotunderstand why their waste is not collected by the City.The authorities need to reconsider how wastemanagement is communicated, financed and carried out.Well-definedcollectionpointsatwardandneighbourhoodlevelshavetobeestablishedwheretheCity/Countytakesonresponsibilityformanaginghouseholdwaste.
Uncollected waste along main road in Kisumu. Animals
seraching for organicwaste amid faeces and toxics. Photo:
Jaan-HenrikKain
6.Transparenttariffsandprocedures
The unclear role of the City/County opens up for non-transparent and confusing tariffs and rules for unloadingwaste at collection points and the waste dump.Establishingpro-poorpartnershipswithcommunitiesandwastepickersisapriority,supportedthroughappropriatebylaws,permitsandatransparentsystemoffees.
7.Improvethemarketforrecyclables
Waste “scavengers” and waste pickers are exposed tofluctuating prices and dishonesty when selling collectedrecyclables. Existing informal networks between wastepickersshouldbeturnedintoassociationsorcooperativestosecuretheircollectiveinterests.Thiscouldbelinkedtonewrecyclingcentersininformalsettlements.
Purchaserofrecyclables.Photo:Jaan-HenrikKain
ConclusionsAlthough waste management in informal settlements inKisumu is challenging, there are a number of clearopportunities. Some of them are so called ‘low hangingfruits’ that quite easily can be used to initiate asignificantly improved waste management system inneighborhoods, such as Obunga. The communities, wastepickersandCity/Countyshouldtakeimmediateaction.
Socio-environmental entrepreneurship and the provision of criticalservicesininformalsettlementsAimEnvironmental entrepreneurs play important roles forproviding waste collection services in informalsettlements. The article examines the process by whichsuch entrepreneurs evolve and succeed to consolidatetheir operations through the institutionalization of a co-productionofcriticalservices.Theentrepreneursarepartofemergingexperiences in thewastemanagementsectorthat benefit from being studied as social and solidarityeconomy1516aswellasthroughtheevolvingfieldofsocialandenvironmentalentrepreneurshiptheories17.
WastepickerinMigosiarea.Photo:Jaan-HenrikKain
MethodologyThe article is based on the stories of three waste pickerentrepreneurs in Kisumu. Characterized as social micro-enterprises,theyhavenotonlyconsolidatedandexpandedtheiroperationsininformalsettlements,butalsoextendedsocialandenvironmentalactivitiesintoformalsettlementsand business districts. In depth interviews, life-stories,observations and document analysis have been used tocollect data. The three entrepreneurs also participate asco-authors of this paper since they not only havecontributed togenerate thedata,butalso toanalysisanddiscussion.FindingsAll three micro-enterprises were born and organized ascommunity-basedsocialinitiatives.Whenfacingdeclineinactivities and engagement of participants they succeededto consolidate and expand by bringing in a strongerentrepreneurialorientationandevolvetowardsmoresolidbusinessmodels.As local social entrepreneurs they thrive in mobilizinglocal knowledge and existing resources to bridge theexistinggapintheCity’ssolidwasteservices.Byprovidinghouseholdswithwastecollectionandsafedisposalof thewaste, they ensure a healthy local environment whileproviding employment opportunities typically lacking ininformalsettlements18.Theytakeadvantageofacloseandwell-knownmarketofneighboursandrelatives,aswellasof networks of trust. Once these entrepreneurs getestablished, they can make use of their localembeddedness19togainstrengthtogrowandexpandintoothersettlements.
In thisway, theentrepreneurs succeed increating robustinstitutional structures that progressively becomeintegrated into local governance arrangements (such aslicensesorrecognitiondocumentstooperate,agreementsforregularevacuationofwastetransferpoints,orspecificpartnership arrangements). InKisumu, the establishmentof waste picker networks, the growth of licensed wastepickersinthecity,andthetighteningoftherelationswiththeCity,areallsignsofstructuraladjustmentsofahybridmode of waste management services, fitting into whatOstromhascalledco-production2021.By providing waste management services in informalsettlementsinKisumuwheretheCityispracticallyabsent,thisnewhybridanddecentralizedwastecollectionmodelhas turned intobeing the “norm”. It isnowreferred to inpolicydocumentsandbypolicyactorsasa“bestpractice”intheregion.
Meetings with the new Obunga Waste Pickers group and
SuccessfulWastePickersgroup.Photo:MichaelOloko
ConclusionsLocal waste entrepreneurs contribute significantly tosocio-environmental change in informal settlements byacting as environmental stewards (educating householdstousewastecollectionservices,organisingclean-upsandensuring a healthy environment), strengthening socialcapital(participatinginneighbourhoodassociations,NGOsand other community networks based on critical societalneeds), serving as role models for young people, andprovidingemploymenttothemostexcludedresidents.Deeply intertwined economic, social, environmental andinstitutional rationales and goals drive theseentrepreneurs, as there is amutual dependence betweenthe entrepreneurs, the state of the environment wheretheywork, theeverydaysocial lifeof theneighbourhoodswhere they live, and the social and commercialrelationships with their neighbours, friends and thecustomerstheyservice.Evenso,anumberofcriticalaspectshavetobetakenintoaccount when further examining these findings, such asthe institutionalization and normalization of theprivatizationofimportantservices,theriskofclientelisticrelationships, the erosion of collective solutions for theservicing of neighbourhoods and cities, and theabandonmentoftheleastaffluentbutmajorityofresidentsandsettlements.
TranslatingCityplansintotheinformalsettlements:reframing,anchoringandmuddlingthroughKISWAMPAimandmethodologyNumerousprogramshavebeen launchedtodealwith theserioussolidwastepredicaments in informalsettlements.However, in both policy and research, there is anincreasingconcernwiththedisparitiesthatexistbetweensolid waste policies and what they actually achieve inpractice.InformedbythecaseofthecityofKisumuanditsKisumu Integrated Sustainable Waste Management Plan(KISWAMP),thispaperexamineshowwastemanagementprograms are translated into practice in informalsettlements2223, what aspects are translated, which onesfadeawayandwhichonesgetstabilizedandtravelasbestpractices to other locations. City management literatureand the concepts of reframing, anchoring and muddlingthrough24are used to understand the KISWAMP and itsimplementationintotheinformalsettlements’life.KISWAMPintranslationKISWAMPranfromAugust2007to June2009, fundedbytheSwedishInternationalDevelopmentAgency(SIDA), incollaboration with the International Labour Organization(ILO), UN-Habitat and the City of Kisumu. It was a top-down, participatoryprogramaiming at strengthening thecity’s capacities, promote public-private partnerships,waste entrepreneurship, and waste transfer points. Theprogram also had the ambition to be up-scaled to othercitydistrictsandcitiesaroundtheLakeVictoria.
KISWAMPintranslationintopractice
A new development program, the Kisumu Urban Project(KUP), was initiated in 2009 and is partially picking upwhere KISWAMP ended. KUP aims to build a sanitarylandfill, review the KISWAMP strategy and continuesupportingKisumu’s City and Countywastemanagementpolicies.Framing, anchoring and muddling throughKISWAMPsucceededtodignify,orreframe,wastepickingasacriticalcommunityserviceandasadecentprofession.Waste management also gained internal status as alegitimate area of policy making within the municipality
andwas turned it intoan importantserviceworth topayfor among residents of some informal settlements.Wasteentrepreneurs supported by KISWAMP also reframeddemandsofcleanlinessinthesecommunitiesbyinitiatingclean-upsandthroughtheirregularservices.Evenso, thestigmaof informalwastepickingpersists,manyresidentsarenotenrolledyetinpayingforwastecollectionservices,andotherinformalsettlementswithlow-incomeresidentswereleftoutoftheframeofKISWAMPduetotheabsenceofsufficienteconomic,socialandpoliticalconditions.
Framing,anchoringandmuddlingthroughKISWAMP
OneofKISWAMP’s strengthswas itsability toanchorthestrategy to existing waste entrepreneurship practicespreviously supported by other programs and NGOs, andthrough that both strengthen existing entrepreneurs andrecruit new ones.Municipal officers and politiciansweretrainedtoconnecttheplanwithinthemunicipality,yetasmanymoved,KISWAMPremainedweaklyboundedtocitybudgets and decision-making processes. Trust alsobloomedamongresidentsbeingservedby thenewwastecollectionservices.However, inlower-incomesettlementswithinsufficientassetstoanchortheproject,distrustandresentment grew instead. Skips placed at the wastetransferpointssoondisappeared(soldasscrapmetal)orweremisusedandnotreplaced.Still,theskipideadidnottotally vanish as it was recovered by the new KUPprogram. As new practices or solutions cannot catch onunless they resemble familiar or earlier ideas already inmanypeople’smindsaspartofamaster-ideaorpractice25.AthirdkeyaspectintheimplementationofKISWAMPwasthe ability of the local actors in muddling through thestrategy and thepractices thatwere finally implemented.Despite the efforts made by KISWAMP to formalizeinformal waste entrepreneurship, the provision of theseservices still rely on informal and poorly paid work.Residentsalsodevelopedtheir(informalandillegal)waystomuddlethroughthepersistentlackofinfrastructureandservice provision, with consequent negative implicationsforthenaturalenvironmentandpublichealth.Finally,theKISWAMPstrategyanditsimplementationarealsoweaklyconnecteddue to an insufficient anchoring inhumanandmaterial resources. As a result of this, the initiated pro-poorpartnershipsremainedarbitraryandlooselycoupledarrangements.
ProjectconclusionsWhile it is the responsibility of theCity to providewastemanagement services to all residents, they have mainlyconcentrated their efforts within the CBD and marketareas, leaving out most residential areas. This lack haspromptedtheemergenceofprivatewastecollectorsseeinganopportunityforsocio-environmentalentrepreneurship.Local waste entrepreneurs contribute significantly tosocio-environmental change in informal settlements bycleaning up the environment, facilitating reuse andrecycling,actingasenvironmentalstewards,strengtheningsocialcapital,servingasrolemodelsforyoungpeople,andproviding employment to the most excluded residents.Still, they get low economic returns, notwithstanding theexposuretohealthrisksandsocialstigma.The implementationofKISWAMPsignifiedaconsiderablemilestone in the improvement of the provision of theseservices in Kisumu’s informal settlements. KISWAMPsucceeded to reframe waste management as a criticalservice both within the City and in some informalsettlements.Italsothrivedtoacknowledgeandstrengthenalready existing waste entrepreneurship. Yet it did notanchor sufficiently some of the new practices in theinformal settlements, such as the partnershiparrangements with waste entrepreneurs or themaintenanceofwastetransferpoints.It also neglected lower-income settlements, such asObunga, which have lagged behind with minimal or nohouseholdwasteservices.Thelifeexperiencesandgrowthofthreeprivatewasteentrepreneursstudiedmorecloselyinthisproject,definealikelypathtobetakenbyanynewemerging private waste collector. This has beensuccessfully demonstrated in Obunga through the recentemergenceofnewlocalwasteentrepreneurs,promptedbythis research project, its team and the advice of theseentrepreneurs.
RecommendationstoKisumu• Topass new regulations to promotewaste reduction,
for example banning plastic bags and other wastepackages.
• To promote reuse and recycling; and establish stablemarketsforthewastematerialsviasortingatsource.
• To develop transfer points into recycling centres toimproveconditionsforsortingofwasteandstorageofrecyclables.
• Organic component being the greatest portion endingup in the dump site requires special considerations.Sorting out of this component as close to thehouseholds aspossiblewould significantly reduce thecost of transport and improve the health of both thewasteworkersandthelocalenvironment.
• Tocontinuewithclean-upcampaignstointroducenewwastecollectionservicesininformalsettlements.
• To strengthenwaste entrepreneurs by facilitating thecreation of cooperatives or associations, trainingprogramsandaccesstocapital.
• Toevacuatewasteregularlyfromthetransferpoints.• To develop transparent tariffs and procedures for
wastedisposalatmunicipallandfillandtransferpointsviapartnershiparrangements.
• Tomonitor,viapartnershiparrangements,thecorrectperformance of the services, avoiding risks ofclientelistic relations, low performance of the service,or the abandonment of least affluent settlements andresidentsbyentrepreneurs.
• To involve Wards and neighborhood associations ininformal settlements in these partnerships for themanagement and control of the waste collectionservices
• To better anchor waste management services withinthe City via human resources, financial and legalgovernmental instruments, competences andknowledge
WasteoverflowingObunga.Photo:Jaan-HenrikKain
REFERENCES1UN−Habitat (2003) The Challenge of Slums. UN−Habitat,London.2 Hardoy, J. E., Mitlin, D. and Satterthwaite, D. (2001)Environmental Problems in an Urbanizing World: Finding
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Left:NewWastepicker’sgroupinObungaatwork.
Right:TemporarytransferpointinObungausedby
thenewwastepickers’groups
Photo:MichaelOloko
