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8/2/2019 Comments to MIIT on proposed Accounting Rule
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ICCTCommentsinResponsetotheProposedAccountingRuleofthePhase
ThreeFuelConsumptionStandardsforNewPassengerVehiclenChina
March2nd,2012
TheInternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation(ICCT)wouldliketothanktheManufacturingEquipmentDepartmentofMinistryofIndustryandInformation
Technology(theDepartmentbelow)fortheopportunitytoprovidecommentson
theproposedAccountingRuleofthePhase3Corporate-AverageFuelConsumption
standardsforNewPassengerCars(AccountingRuleortheRulebelow).
WecommendtheDepartment’seffortsandleadershipindevelopingChina’sfirst
evercorporate-averagefuelconsumption(CAFC)standardsforpassengercars,
includingadoptingthetargetvaluesandtestmethodsinDecember2011,and
proposingthisAccountingRule.Thecorporate-averageapproach,comparedwithbanningtheproductionofnon-compliantvehiclesasintheprevioustwostagesof
standards,providesautomanufacturerstremendousflexibilitytoreducetheircompliancecost.
WearedelightedthattheDepartmentproposes,forthefirsttime,toincludebothdomesticallymanufacturedvehiclesandimportvehiclesunderthescopeofthe
regulation.Thedramaticgrowthofimportvehicles,combinedwiththefactthatthe
majorityofimportvehiclesarelarger,morepowerfulcarandSUVmodelswith
relativelyhighfuel-consumption,meansthatimportvehiclesareplayingabigger
andbiggerroleintotalcarenergyconsumptioninChina.Includingthesevehiclesin
theupcomingcarfuelconsumptionstandardwillnotonlyclosethisloophole,italso
createsalevelplayingfieldforimportanddomesticallyproducedvehicles.
WealsowelcometheDepartment’seffortinincludingnon-conventionaltechnology
vehicles(suchasbatteryelectric,fuelcell,andplug-inhybridvehicles)intherule.
Trulyadvancedtechnologyvehiclescansubstantiallyreduceconventionalfuelconsumption,andhavegreatpotentialinoverallenergyconsumptionand
greenhousegasemissionsreductionifcoupledwithloworzeroGHGenergy
supplies.Properlydesignedtemporaryincentivesmayhelpthecommercialization
processofsuchvehicleswhiletheirproductioncostisbeingbroughtdownto
competitivelevels.(Seebelowforourcommentsandsuggestionsforimprovingthedesignofincentivesfornewenergyvehicles.)
WeunderstandthemultiplechallengesthattheDepartmentisfacinginintroducingthenewcorporate-averagecomplianceapproach,includingsettingupawholenew
accountinganddataverificationsystemthatrequiresmulti-agencycoordination,
andbelievetheAccountingRuleisanimportantstep(thoughnotafinalone)to
haveacompleteandcomprehensiveregulatoryandenforcementsystem.However,
tofullydeliverthepromiseofenergyconservationbenefitsfromtheCAFCstandard,
aneffectivecomplianceandenforcementplanthatincludesprohibitivenon-
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 3
Enforcementisacrucialcomponentinvehiclefuelconsumptionregulation,and
consideredasimportantasthestandardvaluesthemselves.Acompleteregulationshouldcomprisetargetvalues,testproceduresandmethods,implementationplan
andenforcement.
TheAccountingRuledoesnotspecifyanypenaltyfornotcomplyingwiththeCAFCstandards,butonlymentionsbrieflyintheAnnexthattheregulatoryagencywill
issueaseparateenforcementplaninthefuture.Therulealsomentionsbrieflythat
forvehiclesthatfailthepost-productionconformitytest,theDepartmentwould
publicizethetestresultsandannouncethefailedmodelstothepublic.However,
pastexperienceintheEUsuggeststhatmanufacturerswilllackincentivetoimprove
technologiesandmeetfuelconsumptionreductiontargetswithoutatrulystrong
enforcementscheme.
Evenwiththeexistingtargetvalues,andpresumingthisAccountingRulewouldbeimplementedasplannedinJulythisyear,thephase3fuelconsumptionstandards
fornewpassengercarswillnothaveanybindingeffectonmanufacturerswithoutatrueenforcementsysteminplace.Thismeansthereishighriskofcompliancedelayofthestandards,whicharesupposedtophaseinstartingthisyear(2012).
EnforcementofacorporateaveragestandardismorecomplicatedthaninthePhase
IandIIper-vehiclefuelconsumptionstandards,whichprohibitproductionofnon-
conformingmodelsbynotgrantingtype-approvalcertificates.Thestandardsapply
toamanufacturer’sentirefleetforaregulatoryyear,andcomplianceisjudgedupon
thesales-weighted(orproductionvolume-weighted)averagefuelconsumptionof
themanufacturer.Thissystemrequiresanewenforcementmethodeffectiveafter
theproductionorsalesofthevehicles.
TheUnitedStatesandtheEuropeanUnion,aswellasothermajorvehiclemarketsin
theworldthathaveadoptedacorporateaveragestandardsystem,allhave
establishedrelativelystringentandstrongenforcementprogramsfortheirlight-dutyvehiclefueleconomyorGHGemissionsregulationsthatfeatureoneormore
non-compliancepenalties,includingbothfiscalandnon-fiscalmeasures.Table1
belowsummarizesenforcementapproachesinvariousregions.
Table1.Enforcementschemesinvariousregionsthathaveadoptedcorporateaveragefuel
efficiencyorGHGregulation
Region
Enforcement scheme
Fiscal: civil penalty orpayment to the
government to offset
excessive emissions
Non-fiscal: voiding of
certificate
Non-fiscal: publishing
name of manufacturer
U.S. x x
EU x
Japan x x
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 4
Canada x x
S. Korea x
Asshowninthetable,fiscalpenalties(orcivilpenalties)areadoptedbyallregions
andareconsideredthemosteffectivewayofpenalizingnon-compliance.Althoughimplementingfiscalpenaltiesmaycreateanadditionalrevenuestreamforthe
government,thatisnotthegoal.Instead,theprimarygoalistoincreasethecostofviolatingthestandardstothemanufacturer,sothatthemanufacturerwillchooseto
comply.
Thisdeterminesthebasicprincipleforsettingthemagnitudeofafiscalpenalty:the
marginalpenaltyshouldbehigherthanmanufacturers’marginalcompliancecost.Ideally,inorderforallmanufacturerstocomply,thepenaltyshouldbehigherthan
thehighestcompliancecostamongallmanufacturers1.Andthebottomlineis,the
penaltyrateshouldbesethigherthanatleastthecompliancecostofthemajorityof
manufacturers.
IntheUSandEU,regulatoryagencieshaveconductedcomprehensiveresearchto
evaluatecosttomanufacturersofmeetingthestandards.Astudycommissionedby
theEuropeanCommission2showsthatthecurrentlyproposedpenaltyrateof€95
perexcessgramperkilometerishigherthantheaveragemarginalcompliancecost
ofallmajormanufacturersinEurope.WerecommendthattheDepartmentconducts
similarstudiestoassessthecostofcomplianceforChinesemanufacturersasabasisfordetermininganeffectivelevelofpenalty.Ifadetailedanalysiscannotbe
undertaken,theDepartmentmayconsideradoptingthehigh-endofthepenalty
leveladoptedbyothercountries,liketheEuropeanlevelof€95perexcessivegram
perkilometer—roughlyequivalentto1,860 yuanperexcessive0.1liter/100kmoneachvehicle.
Theauthoritytoimposenon-compliancepenaltiesisgrantedbylegislationintheEU
andUS.WeunderstandthatinChinathereisnosuchlegislativelygrantedauthority,
andrevisingthelawtograntthisauthoritymaybealengthyprocess.However,we
believethatsuchauthorityisnecessarytoanyeffectiveenforcementofthestandard
andurgetherelevantagencytomakealleffortstopursueit.Whilepursuingthis
authority,theDepartmentmayconsiderimposingotherpunitivebutnon-fiscal
penalties,suchasvoidingthetypeapprovalcertificatesandbanningtheproduction
ofhighfuelconsumptionmodelsproducedbyamanufacturerinthenextregulatory
yearifthatmanufacturerfailstomeettheCAFCtargetforoneyear.
1Inpractice,itisextremelyhardforsomemanufacturersthattargetnichemarketsandbuilda
limitedproductlinetomeetthestandardsdesignedforthemajorityofthefleet.2 SupportfortherevisionofRegulation(EC)No443/2009onCO2emissionsfromcars
Servicerequest#1forFrameworkContractonVehicleEmissions,Nov.2011.Figure4onpage13.
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 6
AdvancedTechnologyVehicleIncentives
NewEnergyVehicle(NEV)incentives,suchasthoseprovidedinthisAccounting
Rule,willprovidethegreatestbenefitiftheyencourageenergyefficient,fullperformanceadvancedtechnologyvehicles.Toaccomplishthatgoal,wesuggest
thatinthisRuletheDepartmentaccountforNEV“tanktowheels”energyusage,varyNEVmultipliersonthebasisofvehiclerange,andonlyprovidemultipliersto
advancedbatteryvehicles.Lookingtothelongterm,werecommendthatinthe
forthcomingPhase4standardsetting,theDepartmenttransitiontoafullwell-to-
wheelsaccountingofenergyuse,andeliminatetheuseofmultipliersentirely.These
stepswillencouragethemostefficientNEVsandavoidorlimittrade-offswith
conventionalvehicletechnologyimprovements.
Morespecifically,weencouragetheDepartmenttofirstincludetank-to-wheels
energyconsumptionforbatteryelectricvehiclesandhydrogenfuelcellvehiclesinthePhase3AccountingRule,consistentwiththetreatmentofothervehicles,rather
thanassigningthesevehiclesadefaultvalueofzero.ThecurrentUSvehiclefueleconomylabelingsystemandtheJapanese2020fueleconomyregulationcompliancesystemhaveprocedurestoconvertbatteryelectricityorhydrogen
energyconsumptiontoanequivalentamountofpetroleumenergy(seeTechnicalAppendixAforexamples).ThisapproachwouldprovidesignificantcreditsforNEVs
whilealsocreatinganincentiveforefficientoperation.
Second,wesuggestthattheDepartmentindexproposedmultipliersforbattery
electricvehicles,hydrogenfuelcellvehiclesandultralowfuelconsumptionvehicles
(vehicleswithfuelconsumptiononthecombinedNEDCcyclenottoexceed2.5
Liter/100-km)inthePhase3AccountingRuletorange.Rangeisakeyperformance
criterion,asrecognizedinCalifornia’sZeroEmissionVehicleprogram,andwillbenecessaryforglobalcompetitivenessintheadvancedtechnologyvehiclemarket.
Californiarequireszeroemissionvehiclestoreachatleasta50-mile(81km)
minimumrangetobeeligiblefortheZEVcredits3.Inprinciple,thelowerscorescouldbesetbasedonthemostcommontypeofpureelectricdrivevehicleavailable
now.Themediumscorescouldbesetbasedonthetoprunnerswiththehighest
pureelectricdriverangeavailableinthecurrentmarket,whilethehighestscore
couldbereservedforfuture“toprunners”withevenhigherelectricdriverange
thanthecurrentbest.
Wealsoencourageanadditionalcriteriontospecificallyexcludelead-acidbattery
vehicles,whichdivertresourcesfromdevelopingtheadvancedbatteriesnecessaryforgloballycompetitiveadvancedtechnologyvehicles.TheCaliforniaAirResources
3TheCaliforniaAirResourceboardhassetathresholdforZEVcreditsat50milesrangeonthe
UrbanDynamometerDrivingSchedule,whichwillapplywhenthelatestrulerevisionsbecome
effectivein2018.Thisminimumrangeisbasedonanassumptionthatvehicleswitharangeunder50
mileswillnotmeetcustomerexpectations.California’sZeroEmissionVehicleprogramusesrangeas
akeycriterionforissuingcredits,withcreditvaluesincreasinguptoarangeof350miles.CARB.
2011.ZEVISOR.p.36.
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 7
Board(CARB)hasdefinedanadvancedbatteryas”abatterywithaspecificenergy
of…atleast50W-hr/kgfor1999andsubsequentcalendaryears.”4AsimilarminimumspecificenergyrequirementshouldbeincludedinthePhase3Accounting
Rule.AsshowninthebatterydensityfigureintheTechnicalAppendixB,advancedtechnologiessuchaslithium-ionbatterieswouldmeetthisdefinitionandlead-acid
batterieswouldnot.
Lookingtothelongterm,ICCTencouragestheDepartmenttogofurtherinthe
Phase4ruletoincludeafullwell-to-wheelsaccountingasNEVsbecomemore
common.Theinclusionofwell-to-wheelsenergyusagesupportsoverallenergy
savinggoalsbyfullyaccountingfordifferencesintheupstreamenergyneededto
producegridelectricityorhydrogenascomparedtoproducingpetroleum.Wellto
wheelsenergyaccountingwillalsohelpsupportGHGreductiongoals,andestablish
animportantprincipleforaccountingforNEVupstreamemissionsinairquality
plans.
Thereareseveralwell-to-wheelsaccountingexamplesthattheDepartmentcanadaptforthePhase4rules.CARBhasadoptedawelltowheelsGHGaccountingapproachandhasproducedtechnicalmemosonupstreamenergyconsumptionfor
theLowCarbonFuelStandard.TheUSEPAwillincludewell-to-wheelsGHGemissionsforvehiclesproducedbeyondspecifiedcapsandhaspreparedsome
relatedtechnicalanalysis.5WeexpectthattheEUwilltransitiontowell-to-wheels
aswell.TheTechnicalAppendixCprovidesexamplesofcreditsthatNEVscould
achieveunderawell-to-wheelsenergyaccountingsystemadaptedtoChina’sPhase
4rule.
WealsorecommendthatthePhase4Ruleeliminatetheuseofmultipliers.NEV
multipliercreditscanbeimprovedwithperformancecriteriaduringPhase3butshouldeventuallybephasedoutentirely.Pickingtheright“winners”fortechnology
bonusesischallenging,andthebonusescanresultinwindfallcreditsand
undermineimprovementsinothertechnologiesasNEVdeploymentsincrease.TheEUwillreducethevalueofmultipliersintheirruleeachyearstartingin2013and
sunsetthemultipliersin2015.6TheUSEPAhasproposedintroducingmultipliersin
MY2017withanannualdeclineandaMY2021sunsetbuthasnotyetdecided
whethertofinalizethesemultipliers.TheICCThascommentedtoUSEPAthat
4
CARB.1998.StaffReport1998Zero-EmissionVehicleBiennialProgramReview,July6,p45CARBandUSEPAtechnicalreportscontaininformationthatishelpfulfordeterminingpowerplant,
refineryandother“upstream”energy.Thisvaluecouldthenbeconvertedtoanequivalentliters/100
kmscorebasedonequivalentCO2emissionsasshownintheTechnicalAppendixC.SeeCARB2011.
InitialStatementofReasonsforProposedRulemaking,PublicHearingtoConsiderthe“LEVIII
Amendments”etc.December7.p136;andUSFederalRegistervol76p75013December12011.See
alsoadditionaltechnicaldocumentsfromCARB’sLowCarbonFuelStandards,andtheUSEPAmemo
“CalculationofUpstreamEmissionsfortheGHGVehicleRule”September14,2009byCraigHarvey. 6Regulation(EC)No443/2009oftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof23April2009.
Article5.
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 8
MY2017-2021multipliersshouldnotbefinalizedbutiftheyareICCTwouldagree
thataphase-outshouldbeincluded.7
Finally,theICCTnotesthatinordertofullyrealizethepotentialGHGandairqualitybenefitsofNEVs,theefficiency-orientedmeasuresrecommendedheremustbe
combinedwithothermeasuresthatreduceupstreamemissionsfromenergyproduction.
Incompletemarketconformitytest
Westronglysupporttheideaofincludingamarketsamplingconformitycheck,
proposedinthisruleinChapter7.However,theruledoesnotspecifyanydetailed
requirementsandtestproceduresforconductingthosechecks.Neitherdoesthe
Chapterspecifyanyenforcementactionsexceptforannouncingthetestresultsand
thefailedmodelstothepublic.TheDepartmentisintendingtoreleaseaseparateprovisionondetailsoftheconformitytestinthefuture.
Hereweoutlinesomekeyelementstobeconsideredinthedetailedrule,basedontheUSin-useverificationtestexperiences.Theruleshouldinclude,butnotbe
restrictedto,thefollowingelements.
1) Clearpass/failcompliancemarginsforcheckingthefuel-consumptionlevelof
post-productionvehicles.Thecompliancemarginshouldbedetermined
basedonfactorssuchasrun-ineffect,andtestandproductionvariation.
Chinacertifieseachmodeltypeanditsvariants,whichmeanseachpost-
productionvehiclecorrespondstoonlyonecertifiedfuelconsumptionlevel.
Theallowablemarginshouldapplyontheexactcertifiedfuelconsumption
levelofavehicle.
TheDepartmentisintendingtousean8percentmarginforrun-ineffectand
anadditional4percentmarginfortestvariation—thesamesetofmarginsspecifiedinthefuelconsumptioncertificationtestmethods.8Forrun-in
effect,webelievetheproposedmarginiswithinthereasonablerangeoffuel
consumptionlossforvehiclesproduced20yearsago.However,wealsothink
thatrun-ineffectismuchsmalleronmodernvehiclesduetotighter
manufacturingtolerancesandtheeffectlargelydisappearsafterabout2,000miles(about3,200km).Therefore,weinprincipleencouragetheregulatory
7USEPApublishedtheirproposalinFederalRegistervol76p75013,December1,2011.ICCT’s
February13,2012commentstoUSEPAareavailableat:http://www.theicct.org/news/us-2017-25-
cafeghg-standards-comments-nprm-13-feb-2012,lastaccessedMarch2,2012.8TheChineselight-dutyvehiclefuelconsumptiontestmethodsallowmanufacturerstousevehicles
withzeroaccumulatedmilesforthetesting,andallowmanufacturerstousea0.92adjustmentfactor
onthevehiclefuelconsumptiontestresultofazero-milevehicletoreflecttherun-ineffect.But
typically,therulerecommendsmanufacturerstoruntheirvehiclesbetween3,000kmand15,000km
beforetesting.Source:TestMethodsofFuelConsumptionforLight-dutyVehicles,Docketnumber:
GB/T19233-2003.
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 9
agencytoconductteststodeterminefuelconsumptionimpactofrun-in
effectamongnewvehiclestodaybeforeadoptingthe8percentcompliancemargin.Fortestvariation,theUSEPArequiresretestsifthetestresultsdiffer
bymorethan3percent.ThisvalueissetbasedondataandexperiencesfrompastEPAfueleconomytests.Wesuggestcuttingthe4percentmargin
proposedbytheDepartmentto3percent.
2) Criteriaforsamplingvehicles.Theselectioncanbecompletelyrandom,or
targetvehiclesthathadproblemsatthecertificationstageorthatadoptnew
andadvancedfuelefficiencytechnologies.Thetotalnumberofvehicles
testedissubjecttothebudgetlimitationoftheregulatoryagency;themore
vehiclesandmodelscovered,themorecomprehensiveandinformativethe
testresultswillbe.Theregulatoryagencycanalsomandatethat
manufacturersconductlarger-scalein-usetestsattheirowncost,withthe
officialtestsservingasaspotcheck.
3) Detailedtestproceduresanddeterminationofcompliance.Theregulatoryagencyshouldsetrequirementsonnumberofvehiclestobetestedforeachmodelandvarianttype,numberofteststoberunoneachvehicle,andhow
toaveragethemultipletestresultstodeterminecompliance.
4) Enforcement.Theruleneedstospecifywhatactionsorpenalties
manufacturersmayfacefornon-compliance.Wesuggestthattheregulatory
agencyrequirerecallofnon-compliantvehiclesonlyiffiscalpenaltiescannot
beimposed,andthatthatrequirementbeeliminatedimmediatelyupon
adoptionoffiscalpenalties.AccordingtotheU.S.2012-2016modelyear
regulationforlight-dutyvehicles,failuretomeetthein-useCO2standard
mayresultinrecallliability,undertheCleanAirAct.Inothercases,EPAcanfallbackonassessingacompliancepenalty.
5) Fortheconformitytests,theregulatoryagencyshouldperformthetestsinagovernment-ownedlaboracompletelyneutraltestlab,insteadof
contractingamanufacturer’slaboralabwhosemajorclientsarethevehicle
manufacturerstoavoidconflictofinterests.Thisrecommendationalso
appliestopre-productionverificationtests,butthatisbeyondthescopeof
thisAccountingRuleandourcomments.
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 10
The International Council on Clean Transportation is an independent
nonprofit organization founded to provide first-rate, unbiased research andtechnical and scientific analysis to environmental regulators. Our mission is
to improve the environmental performance and energy efficiency of road,
marine, and air transportation, in order to benefit public health and mitigate
climate change.
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 11
AppendixA:NEVTanktoWheelsExample
ThecurrentUSvehiclefueleconomylabelingsystemandtheJapanese2020fuel
economyregulatorycompliancesystemuse“tanktowheels”energyaccountingforbatteryelectricvehiclesasnotedinourletter.Tanktowheelscoversdirectenergy
usefromthevehiclebattery(includingexternalvehiclechargerandbatteryloses)andnottheindirector“upstream”energyusage.Theelectricalenergyusageis
convertedtoanequivalentamountofgasolineenergyusagewiththefollowing
equation.Thismethodcanalsobeusedforthegridelectricityfractionofplug-in
hybridsandforfuelcellelectricvehicles.
Gasolineequivalentfuelconsumption=NEVefficiency(inkWh/100-
km)×Electricenergyunitconversion(inMJ/kWh)÷Gasolineenergy
density(inMJ/L)
Theresults(asshownbelowinTableA-1)varyslightlyforJapanandtheUnited
States,presumablyduetoslightlyhigherethanolcontentofUSfuels,whichresultsinalowerenergycontentperliter.
TableA-1:TanktoWheelsdirectenergyusageaccounting,NissanLeafefficiencyonNEDC
testcycle(sources:multiple9)
JapanCompliance
System
USEPALabeling
System
NEVefficiency(kw-hr/100km) 13.7 13.7
Electricalenergyunitconversion(MJ/kw-hr) 3.6 3.6
Gasolineenergydensity(MJ/liter) 32.9 32.0
Gasolineequivalentfuelusage(l/100km) 1.50 1.53
9Sources:
•
NEDCefficiencycalculatedfromNissanrangeandbatterycapacity:http://www.nissan.co.uk/#vehicles/electric-vehicles/electric-leaf/leaf/pricing-and-
specifications/specifications,lastaccessedMarch6,2012.
• USEPAfueleconomyrating(inmilespergallon):
http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evsbs.shtml,lastaccessedMarch6,2012.
• Japanfueleconomyrating:Kajiwara,A.2012“OverviewofFY2020FuelEfficiencyStandardsfor
PassengerVehicles”January.Availableat
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2012/wp29grpe/GRPE-63-07e.pdf ,last
accessedMarch6,2012.
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InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation 12
AppendixB:AdvancedBatteryDefinition
FigureB-1belowshowstheperformancecharacteristicsofvariousbattery
chemistries.Specificenergy(thexaxis)istheamountofenergyperunitofweightandthusdetermineshowmuchenergycanbestoredinabatteryofagivenweight.
Theamountofstoredenergyinthebatteryinturndeterminesavehicle'srange(alongwithvehicleefficiency).Asthefigureshows,advancedbatterychemistries
suchasLi-ionhaveamuchhigherspecificenergythanleadacid.10Giventhewide
gapinperformance,avarietyof"cut-off"pointscouldbeusedtodifferentiate
advancedchemistries.The50wh/kglevel,measuredatthepacklevel,waschosen
bytheCaliforniaAirResourcesBoardasadefinitionofan“advancedbattery”11as
notedinourletter.ThisdefinitionhashadtheeffectofrulingoutleadacidandNi-
CdbatterieswhileallowingtheuseofNi-MHandLi-ionbatteries.ICCTsuggests
usingCARB’sdefinitionasanappropriatedividinglinefordeterminingwhich
chemistriesqualifyasan“advancedbattery”.
FigureB-1:Energyandpowerdensityofbatterychemistries(source:USNationalRenewableEnergyLab)
10Some"veryhighpower"Li-ionvariantshavealowerspecificenergybutarenotexpectedtobe
usedinplug-invehiclesduetohigherspecificenergydensitydemandsandlowerspecificpower
demandscomparedtonon-pluginhybrids.11CARB.1998.StaffReport1998Zero-EmissionVehicleBiennialProgramReview,July6,p4
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