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©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) CONTENTS DESALINATION AND WATER RESOURCES COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in Thermal Desalination Systems - Volume 1 No. of Pages: 406 ISBN: 978-1-84826-421-2 (eBook) ISBN: 978-1-84826-871-5 (Print Volume) Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in Thermal Desalination Systems - Volume 2 No. of Pages: 386 ISBN: 978-1-84826-422-9 (eBook) ISBN: 978-1-84826-872-2 (Print Volume) Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in Thermal Desalination Systems - Volume 3 No. of Pages: 380 ISBN: 978-1-84826-423-6 (eBook) ISBN: 978-1-84826-873-9 (Print Volume) For more information of e-book and Print Volume(s) order, please click here Or contact : [email protected]
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Page 1: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CONTENTS

DESALINATION AND WATER RESOURCES COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in Thermal Desalination Systems - Volume 1 No of Pages 406 ISBN 978-1-84826-421-2 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-84826-871-5 (Print Volume) Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in Thermal Desalination Systems - Volume 2 No of Pages 386 ISBN 978-1-84826-422-9 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-84826-872-2 (Print Volume) Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in Thermal Desalination Systems - Volume 3 No of Pages 380 ISBN 978-1-84826-423-6 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-84826-873-9 (Print Volume) For more information of e-book and Print Volume(s) order please click here Or contact eolssunescogmailcom

DESALINATION AND WATER RESOURCES (DESWARE) International Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Al-Gobaisi D MK Members Al Awadhi A Ali Al Radif Adil Al-Mutaz I S Al-Sofi M Andrianne J Awerbuch L Balaban M Beraud-Sudreau D Birkett James D Blanco J Bodendieck F Borsani R Bushnak A A Capilla A V Catanzaro E Damak S Darwish M Ali Delyannis Eu E Dempsey J El-Din S El-Mahgary Y El-Nashar A M El-Sayed Y M Finan M A Furukawa D Genthner K Germana A Ghiazza E Glade H Goto T Grabow W OK

Hammond R P Hanbury W T Harris A Harrison D Hassan A M Hodgekiess T Husain A Ismat K Karabelas AJ Kesou A Krause H P Kubota S Kumar A Kurdali A Laborie J Leitner G F Lennox F H Lior N Ludwig H Lukin G Magara Y Makkawi B Malato S Mandil MA Marquardt W McArthurN Meller F H Mewes V Michels T Miyatake O Morin O J

Morris R Nada N Ohya H Peluffo P Rao G P Rautenbach R Reddy K V Saal D Sadhukhan HK Sage AP Sarkodie-Gyan Thompson Sommariva C Strathmann H Temperley T Tleimat B Todd B Tony F Tusel G Belessiotis V Veza J M Vigneswaran S Wade N M Wang S Wangnick K Woldai A Watson I C Wessling M Winters H

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Survey of Long Time Behavior and Costs of Industrial Fluidized Bed Heat Exchangers 1 R Rautenbach and T Katz Institut fuumlr Verfahrenstechnik der RWTH Aachen Turmstraszlige 46 Aachen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Design 3 Heat Transfer of a Fluidized Bed

31 Without a Fluidized Bed (LaminarTurbulent Pipe Flow) 32 Circulating Fluidized Bed in the Tubes

4 Prevention of Fouling 5 Operating Experiences with Commercial Units 6 Costs 7 Summary and Overview Entrainment in Evaporators 16 CD Hornburg Water Consultants International Inc Fort Lauderdale Florida USA 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals 3 Configuration and Parameters

31 Flash Evaporators 32 HTME and VTE Evaporators

Mist Eliminators 28 Andreas Hambach Max Rhodius GmbH Weissenburg Bayern Germany 1 Introduction 2 Knitted Wire Mesh Mist Eliminators

21 Design velocity 22 Separation efficiency 23 Pressure Drop

231 Dry Pressure Drop 232 Wet Pressure Drop

3 Wave Plate Separator 31 Efficiency 32 Gas Capacity 33 Pressure Drop 34 Solids and Clogging Particles

The Problem of Non-Condensable Gas Release in Evaporators 39 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Sources of Non-condensable Gases in Evaporators 3 Effects of Non-condensable Gases in Evaporators 4 Summary of Cases that Require Consideration of Non-condensable Gas Release

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) i

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Analysis Approaches and Models for the Release of Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen Oxygen and Argon in Evaporators 44 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals of Desorption with and without Chemical Reaction 3 Release of Oxygen Nitrogen and Argon 4 Release of Carbon Dioxide

41 The CO2 System in Seawater 411 Chemical Reactions and their Kinetics

412 Parameters of the CO2 System in Seawater 413 Relative Distribution of the Carbonic Acid Species

42 Model of the CO2 Release in the Individual Stages of MSF Distillers 43 Modeling of the CO2 System in the Pre-heaters of MSF Distillers

5 Simulation Results with the Gas Release Model 51 Difference between CO2 Release and O2 N2 and Ar Release 52 The Effect of the Mass Transfer Coefficient and the Phase Interface Area on CO2 Release 53 The Effect of the Top Brine Temperature on CO2 Release 54 The Concentrations of the Carbonic Acid Species in the Pre-heaters

Interstage Brine Flow in MSF Chambers 68 R Rautenbach and S Schaumlfer Institute fuumlr Verfahrenstechnik RWTH Aachen Aachen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Open Flow in Horizontal Channels and Through Orifices

21 Open Channel Flow 22 Hydraulic Jump

221 Types of Hydraulic Jump 222 Hydraulic Jumps enforced by Weirs (Sill)

23 Interstage Flow through Orifices 231 The Rectangular Orifice (slot) 232 Combination OrificeWeir 233 Thermo-Syphon

24 Flow Instabilities and Blowthrough 241 Flow Instabilities

25 Blowthrough 26 Future Aspects Design Data for Non-Condensable Gas Release Rates in Flash Chambers 87 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Design Assumptions Regarding the Release of O2 N2 and Ar 3 Design Assumptions Regarding the Total CO2 Release

31 Decomposition of the Bicarbonate Ions 32 Semi-empirical Approach by Watson Desalination Consultants 33 Semi-empirical Approach by Water Consultants International 34 Model developed at the University of Bremen

4 Design Assumptions Regarding the Distribution of the CO2 Release Between the Individual Stages 41 CO2 Release Determined by Chemical Reaction Kinetics 42 Retarded Release of CO2 43 CO2 Release Determined by Chemical Reaction Kinetics Mass Transfer and Physical Phase Equilibrium

5 Measurements of the CO2 Release in the Individual Stages of MSF Distillers 6 Comparison of the Approaches to CO2 Release Computation with the Measurement Results 7 Dimensioning of Design Venting Rates

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) ii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Heat and Mass Balances in the Evaporator Components Group Stage Heat and Mass Transfer Balance 105 MA Darwish and Faisal Al-Juwayhel Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Kuwait 1 Introduction 2 Factors Affecting the Brine Flow to the Stage

21 The Hydrodynamic of Inter-stage Brine Transfer 211 Region from Upstream the Orifice to the Vena Contracta 212 Flow from Vena Contracta to Upstream the Weir with Hydraulic Jump 213 Flow Upstream and Downstream the Weir (Weir Overflow)

3 Stage Analysis 31 Brine Pool Compartment (SSSF Analysis)

311 The Last Stage 312 The First Stage

32 The Vapor Space 33 The Distillate Product Tray 34 The Cooling Brine

4 Heat Transfer Calculations 41 Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient 42 Inner-Side (Water) Heat Transfer Coefficient 43 The Fouling Factor

A Case Study Performance and Acceptance Test of a Power and Desalination Plant 134 Atef M Al Baghdadi Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Guaranteed Values

21 Power Plant Capacity 22 Net Specific Heat Consumption of the Power Plant 23 Boiler Capacity

3 Guarantee Conditions 4 Measuring Equipment

41 Measurement of Temperature 42 Measurement of Pressure 43 Measurement of Flows 44 Measurement of the Boiler Fuel Flow 45 Sampling of Fuels 46 Measurement of Electrical Power

5 Isolation of the Cycle 6 Frequency of Readings and Duration of the Tests 7 Diagrams and List of Measuring Points 8 Evaluation of Test Results

81 Determination of the Net Power Output 82 Determination of Net Specific Heat Consumption (PL115 PL85 PL65) 83 Determination of the Distillate Production 84 Determination of Steam Flow at Boiler Outlet 85 Guarantee Comparison

Separation 178 Vega-Mercado Humberto Bio Sterile Validation Merck amp Co Inc West Point PennsylvaniaUSA 1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction

11 Introduction 12 Theoretical Aspects

121 Triangular Coordinates and Equilibrium Data 13 Selection of Solvent

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) iii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

14 Thermodynamic Aspects of Liquid-Liquid Equilibria 141 Single Stage Equilibrium Extraction 142 Multistage Crosscurrent Extraction 143 Countercurrent Multistage Extraction

15 Equipment for Liquid-Liquid Extraction 151 Stagewise Systems 152 Continuous Contact Equipment ndash Differential Contactors 153 Selection of Liquid-Liquid Extraction Equipment

2 Solid Liquid Separation 21 Introduction 22 Theoretical Aspects 23 Types of Processes (Unit Operations)

3 Mechanical Separation 31 Introduction 32 General Principles for Centrifuges and Cyclones 33 Equipment

4 Membrane Processing 41 Introduction 42 Physical Chemistry of Membrane Processes 43 Membrane Types and Configurations

431 Hollow Fibers 432 Dead-End Membranes or Screen Filters 433 Depth Filters 434 Plate Units

5 Column Chromatography 51 Introduction 52 Equipment and Commercial Resins

521 Ion Exchange Chromatography 522 Size Exclusion or Gel Filtration Chromatography 523 Affinity Chromatography 524 Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography 525 Reversed Phase Chromatography 526 Hydroxyapatite Chromatography

6 Distillation 61 Interphase Mass Transfer Separation Processes 62 Thermodynamic Aspects of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 63 Bubble and Dew Points 64 Distillation Methods

641 Flash Distillation 642 Differential Distillation 643 Simple Steam Distillation 644 Continuous Distillation of Binary Systems 645 McCabe-Thiele Method

65 Recent Advances in Distillation Membrane Separation Technologies 252 Takeshi Matsuura Department of Chemical Engineering University of Ottawa Ottawa Ont Canada 1 History 2 Definition and classification 3 Performance parameters 4 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is pressure

41 Reverse osmosis 411 Principle of reverse osmosis 412 Membrane materials and membrane structure 413 Transport 414 Concentration polarization

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) iv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

415 Membrane modules 416 Applications

42 Nanofiltration ultrafiltration and microfiltration 421 Description of the processes 422 Membrane materials and membrane structure 423 Gel model for ultrafiltration 424 Brownian diffusion lateral migration and shear induced diffusion in microfiltration 425 Applications

5 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is partial pressure 51 Membrane gas separation

511 Description of the process 512 Transport model 513 Applications

52 Pervaporation 521 Description of the process 522 Transport 523 Applications

53 Recovery of vapor from air 6 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is difference in electrical potential

61 Electrodialysis 62 Bipolar membrane

7 Other membrane processes 71 Membrane distillation 72 Membrane extraction 73 Membrane reactor 74 Hybrid processes

Mass Transfer OperationndashMembrane Separations 289 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 An overview on the most industrialized membrane separation processes and emerging applications

21 Pressure driven membrane processes 211 Reverse osmosis 212 Nanofiltration 213 Ultrafiltration 214 Microfiltration

22 Electrodialysis 23 Gas separation 24 Pervaporation and vapor permeation 25 Membrane contactors

251 Membrane distillation 252 Membrane crystallization 253 Membrane emulsification

26 Catalytic membranes reactors 3 Sustainable growth and integrated membrane operations

31 Case study 1 Membrane technology in desalination 32 Case study 2 Membrane technology in fruit juices industry 33 Case study 3 Membrane technology for wastewaters treatment in the leather industry

4 Conclusions

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) v

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

42 Water from Springs and Roofs 43 Clear Surface Water 44 Turbid or Colored Surface Water 45 Eutrophied Surface Water

5 Handling Purified Water 6 Conclusions Conventional Water Treatment Technologies 65 S Vigneswaran and HH Ngo Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia C Visvanathan Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok Thailand M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Australia 1 Introduction 2 Treatment Processes 3 Rapid Mixing

31 Hydraulic Mixers 32 Mechanical Mixers

4 Flocculation 41 Types of Flocculators

5 Sedimentation 51 Tube Settlers 52 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

6 Filtration 61 Slow Sand Filtration 62 Rapid Sand Filtration

621 Improvements on Rapid Filters 7 Disinfection Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 85 G Eduljee ERM Eaton House Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Biological Treatment

21 Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems 22 Design Issues

3 Physical and Physicochemical Processes 31 Process Selection 32 Example Applications

4 Thermal Treatment 41 Dedicated Waste Incinerators 42 Combustion in Industrial Furnaces 43 Controlled Air Incinerator

5 Technological Advances 51 Biological Treatment 52 Physicochemical Processes 53 Thermal Processes

6 Conclusions Treatment of Industrial Wastewater by Membrane Bioreactors 102 Chettiyappan Visvanathan Environmental Engineering and Management Program School of Environment Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Thailand 1 Introduction 2 Design of MBR system

21 Membrane System Design 22 Reactor Design for MBR System

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) viii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) ix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) x

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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Page 2: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

DESALINATION AND WATER RESOURCES (DESWARE) International Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Al-Gobaisi D MK Members Al Awadhi A Ali Al Radif Adil Al-Mutaz I S Al-Sofi M Andrianne J Awerbuch L Balaban M Beraud-Sudreau D Birkett James D Blanco J Bodendieck F Borsani R Bushnak A A Capilla A V Catanzaro E Damak S Darwish M Ali Delyannis Eu E Dempsey J El-Din S El-Mahgary Y El-Nashar A M El-Sayed Y M Finan M A Furukawa D Genthner K Germana A Ghiazza E Glade H Goto T Grabow W OK

Hammond R P Hanbury W T Harris A Harrison D Hassan A M Hodgekiess T Husain A Ismat K Karabelas AJ Kesou A Krause H P Kubota S Kumar A Kurdali A Laborie J Leitner G F Lennox F H Lior N Ludwig H Lukin G Magara Y Makkawi B Malato S Mandil MA Marquardt W McArthurN Meller F H Mewes V Michels T Miyatake O Morin O J

Morris R Nada N Ohya H Peluffo P Rao G P Rautenbach R Reddy K V Saal D Sadhukhan HK Sage AP Sarkodie-Gyan Thompson Sommariva C Strathmann H Temperley T Tleimat B Todd B Tony F Tusel G Belessiotis V Veza J M Vigneswaran S Wade N M Wang S Wangnick K Woldai A Watson I C Wessling M Winters H

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Survey of Long Time Behavior and Costs of Industrial Fluidized Bed Heat Exchangers 1 R Rautenbach and T Katz Institut fuumlr Verfahrenstechnik der RWTH Aachen Turmstraszlige 46 Aachen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Design 3 Heat Transfer of a Fluidized Bed

31 Without a Fluidized Bed (LaminarTurbulent Pipe Flow) 32 Circulating Fluidized Bed in the Tubes

4 Prevention of Fouling 5 Operating Experiences with Commercial Units 6 Costs 7 Summary and Overview Entrainment in Evaporators 16 CD Hornburg Water Consultants International Inc Fort Lauderdale Florida USA 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals 3 Configuration and Parameters

31 Flash Evaporators 32 HTME and VTE Evaporators

Mist Eliminators 28 Andreas Hambach Max Rhodius GmbH Weissenburg Bayern Germany 1 Introduction 2 Knitted Wire Mesh Mist Eliminators

21 Design velocity 22 Separation efficiency 23 Pressure Drop

231 Dry Pressure Drop 232 Wet Pressure Drop

3 Wave Plate Separator 31 Efficiency 32 Gas Capacity 33 Pressure Drop 34 Solids and Clogging Particles

The Problem of Non-Condensable Gas Release in Evaporators 39 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Sources of Non-condensable Gases in Evaporators 3 Effects of Non-condensable Gases in Evaporators 4 Summary of Cases that Require Consideration of Non-condensable Gas Release

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Analysis Approaches and Models for the Release of Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen Oxygen and Argon in Evaporators 44 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals of Desorption with and without Chemical Reaction 3 Release of Oxygen Nitrogen and Argon 4 Release of Carbon Dioxide

41 The CO2 System in Seawater 411 Chemical Reactions and their Kinetics

412 Parameters of the CO2 System in Seawater 413 Relative Distribution of the Carbonic Acid Species

42 Model of the CO2 Release in the Individual Stages of MSF Distillers 43 Modeling of the CO2 System in the Pre-heaters of MSF Distillers

5 Simulation Results with the Gas Release Model 51 Difference between CO2 Release and O2 N2 and Ar Release 52 The Effect of the Mass Transfer Coefficient and the Phase Interface Area on CO2 Release 53 The Effect of the Top Brine Temperature on CO2 Release 54 The Concentrations of the Carbonic Acid Species in the Pre-heaters

Interstage Brine Flow in MSF Chambers 68 R Rautenbach and S Schaumlfer Institute fuumlr Verfahrenstechnik RWTH Aachen Aachen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Open Flow in Horizontal Channels and Through Orifices

21 Open Channel Flow 22 Hydraulic Jump

221 Types of Hydraulic Jump 222 Hydraulic Jumps enforced by Weirs (Sill)

23 Interstage Flow through Orifices 231 The Rectangular Orifice (slot) 232 Combination OrificeWeir 233 Thermo-Syphon

24 Flow Instabilities and Blowthrough 241 Flow Instabilities

25 Blowthrough 26 Future Aspects Design Data for Non-Condensable Gas Release Rates in Flash Chambers 87 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Design Assumptions Regarding the Release of O2 N2 and Ar 3 Design Assumptions Regarding the Total CO2 Release

31 Decomposition of the Bicarbonate Ions 32 Semi-empirical Approach by Watson Desalination Consultants 33 Semi-empirical Approach by Water Consultants International 34 Model developed at the University of Bremen

4 Design Assumptions Regarding the Distribution of the CO2 Release Between the Individual Stages 41 CO2 Release Determined by Chemical Reaction Kinetics 42 Retarded Release of CO2 43 CO2 Release Determined by Chemical Reaction Kinetics Mass Transfer and Physical Phase Equilibrium

5 Measurements of the CO2 Release in the Individual Stages of MSF Distillers 6 Comparison of the Approaches to CO2 Release Computation with the Measurement Results 7 Dimensioning of Design Venting Rates

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Heat and Mass Balances in the Evaporator Components Group Stage Heat and Mass Transfer Balance 105 MA Darwish and Faisal Al-Juwayhel Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Kuwait 1 Introduction 2 Factors Affecting the Brine Flow to the Stage

21 The Hydrodynamic of Inter-stage Brine Transfer 211 Region from Upstream the Orifice to the Vena Contracta 212 Flow from Vena Contracta to Upstream the Weir with Hydraulic Jump 213 Flow Upstream and Downstream the Weir (Weir Overflow)

3 Stage Analysis 31 Brine Pool Compartment (SSSF Analysis)

311 The Last Stage 312 The First Stage

32 The Vapor Space 33 The Distillate Product Tray 34 The Cooling Brine

4 Heat Transfer Calculations 41 Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient 42 Inner-Side (Water) Heat Transfer Coefficient 43 The Fouling Factor

A Case Study Performance and Acceptance Test of a Power and Desalination Plant 134 Atef M Al Baghdadi Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Guaranteed Values

21 Power Plant Capacity 22 Net Specific Heat Consumption of the Power Plant 23 Boiler Capacity

3 Guarantee Conditions 4 Measuring Equipment

41 Measurement of Temperature 42 Measurement of Pressure 43 Measurement of Flows 44 Measurement of the Boiler Fuel Flow 45 Sampling of Fuels 46 Measurement of Electrical Power

5 Isolation of the Cycle 6 Frequency of Readings and Duration of the Tests 7 Diagrams and List of Measuring Points 8 Evaluation of Test Results

81 Determination of the Net Power Output 82 Determination of Net Specific Heat Consumption (PL115 PL85 PL65) 83 Determination of the Distillate Production 84 Determination of Steam Flow at Boiler Outlet 85 Guarantee Comparison

Separation 178 Vega-Mercado Humberto Bio Sterile Validation Merck amp Co Inc West Point PennsylvaniaUSA 1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction

11 Introduction 12 Theoretical Aspects

121 Triangular Coordinates and Equilibrium Data 13 Selection of Solvent

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

14 Thermodynamic Aspects of Liquid-Liquid Equilibria 141 Single Stage Equilibrium Extraction 142 Multistage Crosscurrent Extraction 143 Countercurrent Multistage Extraction

15 Equipment for Liquid-Liquid Extraction 151 Stagewise Systems 152 Continuous Contact Equipment ndash Differential Contactors 153 Selection of Liquid-Liquid Extraction Equipment

2 Solid Liquid Separation 21 Introduction 22 Theoretical Aspects 23 Types of Processes (Unit Operations)

3 Mechanical Separation 31 Introduction 32 General Principles for Centrifuges and Cyclones 33 Equipment

4 Membrane Processing 41 Introduction 42 Physical Chemistry of Membrane Processes 43 Membrane Types and Configurations

431 Hollow Fibers 432 Dead-End Membranes or Screen Filters 433 Depth Filters 434 Plate Units

5 Column Chromatography 51 Introduction 52 Equipment and Commercial Resins

521 Ion Exchange Chromatography 522 Size Exclusion or Gel Filtration Chromatography 523 Affinity Chromatography 524 Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography 525 Reversed Phase Chromatography 526 Hydroxyapatite Chromatography

6 Distillation 61 Interphase Mass Transfer Separation Processes 62 Thermodynamic Aspects of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 63 Bubble and Dew Points 64 Distillation Methods

641 Flash Distillation 642 Differential Distillation 643 Simple Steam Distillation 644 Continuous Distillation of Binary Systems 645 McCabe-Thiele Method

65 Recent Advances in Distillation Membrane Separation Technologies 252 Takeshi Matsuura Department of Chemical Engineering University of Ottawa Ottawa Ont Canada 1 History 2 Definition and classification 3 Performance parameters 4 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is pressure

41 Reverse osmosis 411 Principle of reverse osmosis 412 Membrane materials and membrane structure 413 Transport 414 Concentration polarization

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

415 Membrane modules 416 Applications

42 Nanofiltration ultrafiltration and microfiltration 421 Description of the processes 422 Membrane materials and membrane structure 423 Gel model for ultrafiltration 424 Brownian diffusion lateral migration and shear induced diffusion in microfiltration 425 Applications

5 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is partial pressure 51 Membrane gas separation

511 Description of the process 512 Transport model 513 Applications

52 Pervaporation 521 Description of the process 522 Transport 523 Applications

53 Recovery of vapor from air 6 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is difference in electrical potential

61 Electrodialysis 62 Bipolar membrane

7 Other membrane processes 71 Membrane distillation 72 Membrane extraction 73 Membrane reactor 74 Hybrid processes

Mass Transfer OperationndashMembrane Separations 289 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 An overview on the most industrialized membrane separation processes and emerging applications

21 Pressure driven membrane processes 211 Reverse osmosis 212 Nanofiltration 213 Ultrafiltration 214 Microfiltration

22 Electrodialysis 23 Gas separation 24 Pervaporation and vapor permeation 25 Membrane contactors

251 Membrane distillation 252 Membrane crystallization 253 Membrane emulsification

26 Catalytic membranes reactors 3 Sustainable growth and integrated membrane operations

31 Case study 1 Membrane technology in desalination 32 Case study 2 Membrane technology in fruit juices industry 33 Case study 3 Membrane technology for wastewaters treatment in the leather industry

4 Conclusions

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

42 Water from Springs and Roofs 43 Clear Surface Water 44 Turbid or Colored Surface Water 45 Eutrophied Surface Water

5 Handling Purified Water 6 Conclusions Conventional Water Treatment Technologies 65 S Vigneswaran and HH Ngo Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia C Visvanathan Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok Thailand M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Australia 1 Introduction 2 Treatment Processes 3 Rapid Mixing

31 Hydraulic Mixers 32 Mechanical Mixers

4 Flocculation 41 Types of Flocculators

5 Sedimentation 51 Tube Settlers 52 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

6 Filtration 61 Slow Sand Filtration 62 Rapid Sand Filtration

621 Improvements on Rapid Filters 7 Disinfection Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 85 G Eduljee ERM Eaton House Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Biological Treatment

21 Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems 22 Design Issues

3 Physical and Physicochemical Processes 31 Process Selection 32 Example Applications

4 Thermal Treatment 41 Dedicated Waste Incinerators 42 Combustion in Industrial Furnaces 43 Controlled Air Incinerator

5 Technological Advances 51 Biological Treatment 52 Physicochemical Processes 53 Thermal Processes

6 Conclusions Treatment of Industrial Wastewater by Membrane Bioreactors 102 Chettiyappan Visvanathan Environmental Engineering and Management Program School of Environment Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Thailand 1 Introduction 2 Design of MBR system

21 Membrane System Design 22 Reactor Design for MBR System

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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Page 3: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Survey of Long Time Behavior and Costs of Industrial Fluidized Bed Heat Exchangers 1 R Rautenbach and T Katz Institut fuumlr Verfahrenstechnik der RWTH Aachen Turmstraszlige 46 Aachen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Design 3 Heat Transfer of a Fluidized Bed

31 Without a Fluidized Bed (LaminarTurbulent Pipe Flow) 32 Circulating Fluidized Bed in the Tubes

4 Prevention of Fouling 5 Operating Experiences with Commercial Units 6 Costs 7 Summary and Overview Entrainment in Evaporators 16 CD Hornburg Water Consultants International Inc Fort Lauderdale Florida USA 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals 3 Configuration and Parameters

31 Flash Evaporators 32 HTME and VTE Evaporators

Mist Eliminators 28 Andreas Hambach Max Rhodius GmbH Weissenburg Bayern Germany 1 Introduction 2 Knitted Wire Mesh Mist Eliminators

21 Design velocity 22 Separation efficiency 23 Pressure Drop

231 Dry Pressure Drop 232 Wet Pressure Drop

3 Wave Plate Separator 31 Efficiency 32 Gas Capacity 33 Pressure Drop 34 Solids and Clogging Particles

The Problem of Non-Condensable Gas Release in Evaporators 39 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Sources of Non-condensable Gases in Evaporators 3 Effects of Non-condensable Gases in Evaporators 4 Summary of Cases that Require Consideration of Non-condensable Gas Release

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Analysis Approaches and Models for the Release of Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen Oxygen and Argon in Evaporators 44 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals of Desorption with and without Chemical Reaction 3 Release of Oxygen Nitrogen and Argon 4 Release of Carbon Dioxide

41 The CO2 System in Seawater 411 Chemical Reactions and their Kinetics

412 Parameters of the CO2 System in Seawater 413 Relative Distribution of the Carbonic Acid Species

42 Model of the CO2 Release in the Individual Stages of MSF Distillers 43 Modeling of the CO2 System in the Pre-heaters of MSF Distillers

5 Simulation Results with the Gas Release Model 51 Difference between CO2 Release and O2 N2 and Ar Release 52 The Effect of the Mass Transfer Coefficient and the Phase Interface Area on CO2 Release 53 The Effect of the Top Brine Temperature on CO2 Release 54 The Concentrations of the Carbonic Acid Species in the Pre-heaters

Interstage Brine Flow in MSF Chambers 68 R Rautenbach and S Schaumlfer Institute fuumlr Verfahrenstechnik RWTH Aachen Aachen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Open Flow in Horizontal Channels and Through Orifices

21 Open Channel Flow 22 Hydraulic Jump

221 Types of Hydraulic Jump 222 Hydraulic Jumps enforced by Weirs (Sill)

23 Interstage Flow through Orifices 231 The Rectangular Orifice (slot) 232 Combination OrificeWeir 233 Thermo-Syphon

24 Flow Instabilities and Blowthrough 241 Flow Instabilities

25 Blowthrough 26 Future Aspects Design Data for Non-Condensable Gas Release Rates in Flash Chambers 87 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Design Assumptions Regarding the Release of O2 N2 and Ar 3 Design Assumptions Regarding the Total CO2 Release

31 Decomposition of the Bicarbonate Ions 32 Semi-empirical Approach by Watson Desalination Consultants 33 Semi-empirical Approach by Water Consultants International 34 Model developed at the University of Bremen

4 Design Assumptions Regarding the Distribution of the CO2 Release Between the Individual Stages 41 CO2 Release Determined by Chemical Reaction Kinetics 42 Retarded Release of CO2 43 CO2 Release Determined by Chemical Reaction Kinetics Mass Transfer and Physical Phase Equilibrium

5 Measurements of the CO2 Release in the Individual Stages of MSF Distillers 6 Comparison of the Approaches to CO2 Release Computation with the Measurement Results 7 Dimensioning of Design Venting Rates

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Heat and Mass Balances in the Evaporator Components Group Stage Heat and Mass Transfer Balance 105 MA Darwish and Faisal Al-Juwayhel Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Kuwait 1 Introduction 2 Factors Affecting the Brine Flow to the Stage

21 The Hydrodynamic of Inter-stage Brine Transfer 211 Region from Upstream the Orifice to the Vena Contracta 212 Flow from Vena Contracta to Upstream the Weir with Hydraulic Jump 213 Flow Upstream and Downstream the Weir (Weir Overflow)

3 Stage Analysis 31 Brine Pool Compartment (SSSF Analysis)

311 The Last Stage 312 The First Stage

32 The Vapor Space 33 The Distillate Product Tray 34 The Cooling Brine

4 Heat Transfer Calculations 41 Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient 42 Inner-Side (Water) Heat Transfer Coefficient 43 The Fouling Factor

A Case Study Performance and Acceptance Test of a Power and Desalination Plant 134 Atef M Al Baghdadi Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Guaranteed Values

21 Power Plant Capacity 22 Net Specific Heat Consumption of the Power Plant 23 Boiler Capacity

3 Guarantee Conditions 4 Measuring Equipment

41 Measurement of Temperature 42 Measurement of Pressure 43 Measurement of Flows 44 Measurement of the Boiler Fuel Flow 45 Sampling of Fuels 46 Measurement of Electrical Power

5 Isolation of the Cycle 6 Frequency of Readings and Duration of the Tests 7 Diagrams and List of Measuring Points 8 Evaluation of Test Results

81 Determination of the Net Power Output 82 Determination of Net Specific Heat Consumption (PL115 PL85 PL65) 83 Determination of the Distillate Production 84 Determination of Steam Flow at Boiler Outlet 85 Guarantee Comparison

Separation 178 Vega-Mercado Humberto Bio Sterile Validation Merck amp Co Inc West Point PennsylvaniaUSA 1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction

11 Introduction 12 Theoretical Aspects

121 Triangular Coordinates and Equilibrium Data 13 Selection of Solvent

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

14 Thermodynamic Aspects of Liquid-Liquid Equilibria 141 Single Stage Equilibrium Extraction 142 Multistage Crosscurrent Extraction 143 Countercurrent Multistage Extraction

15 Equipment for Liquid-Liquid Extraction 151 Stagewise Systems 152 Continuous Contact Equipment ndash Differential Contactors 153 Selection of Liquid-Liquid Extraction Equipment

2 Solid Liquid Separation 21 Introduction 22 Theoretical Aspects 23 Types of Processes (Unit Operations)

3 Mechanical Separation 31 Introduction 32 General Principles for Centrifuges and Cyclones 33 Equipment

4 Membrane Processing 41 Introduction 42 Physical Chemistry of Membrane Processes 43 Membrane Types and Configurations

431 Hollow Fibers 432 Dead-End Membranes or Screen Filters 433 Depth Filters 434 Plate Units

5 Column Chromatography 51 Introduction 52 Equipment and Commercial Resins

521 Ion Exchange Chromatography 522 Size Exclusion or Gel Filtration Chromatography 523 Affinity Chromatography 524 Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography 525 Reversed Phase Chromatography 526 Hydroxyapatite Chromatography

6 Distillation 61 Interphase Mass Transfer Separation Processes 62 Thermodynamic Aspects of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 63 Bubble and Dew Points 64 Distillation Methods

641 Flash Distillation 642 Differential Distillation 643 Simple Steam Distillation 644 Continuous Distillation of Binary Systems 645 McCabe-Thiele Method

65 Recent Advances in Distillation Membrane Separation Technologies 252 Takeshi Matsuura Department of Chemical Engineering University of Ottawa Ottawa Ont Canada 1 History 2 Definition and classification 3 Performance parameters 4 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is pressure

41 Reverse osmosis 411 Principle of reverse osmosis 412 Membrane materials and membrane structure 413 Transport 414 Concentration polarization

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

415 Membrane modules 416 Applications

42 Nanofiltration ultrafiltration and microfiltration 421 Description of the processes 422 Membrane materials and membrane structure 423 Gel model for ultrafiltration 424 Brownian diffusion lateral migration and shear induced diffusion in microfiltration 425 Applications

5 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is partial pressure 51 Membrane gas separation

511 Description of the process 512 Transport model 513 Applications

52 Pervaporation 521 Description of the process 522 Transport 523 Applications

53 Recovery of vapor from air 6 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is difference in electrical potential

61 Electrodialysis 62 Bipolar membrane

7 Other membrane processes 71 Membrane distillation 72 Membrane extraction 73 Membrane reactor 74 Hybrid processes

Mass Transfer OperationndashMembrane Separations 289 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 An overview on the most industrialized membrane separation processes and emerging applications

21 Pressure driven membrane processes 211 Reverse osmosis 212 Nanofiltration 213 Ultrafiltration 214 Microfiltration

22 Electrodialysis 23 Gas separation 24 Pervaporation and vapor permeation 25 Membrane contactors

251 Membrane distillation 252 Membrane crystallization 253 Membrane emulsification

26 Catalytic membranes reactors 3 Sustainable growth and integrated membrane operations

31 Case study 1 Membrane technology in desalination 32 Case study 2 Membrane technology in fruit juices industry 33 Case study 3 Membrane technology for wastewaters treatment in the leather industry

4 Conclusions

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

42 Water from Springs and Roofs 43 Clear Surface Water 44 Turbid or Colored Surface Water 45 Eutrophied Surface Water

5 Handling Purified Water 6 Conclusions Conventional Water Treatment Technologies 65 S Vigneswaran and HH Ngo Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia C Visvanathan Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok Thailand M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Australia 1 Introduction 2 Treatment Processes 3 Rapid Mixing

31 Hydraulic Mixers 32 Mechanical Mixers

4 Flocculation 41 Types of Flocculators

5 Sedimentation 51 Tube Settlers 52 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

6 Filtration 61 Slow Sand Filtration 62 Rapid Sand Filtration

621 Improvements on Rapid Filters 7 Disinfection Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 85 G Eduljee ERM Eaton House Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Biological Treatment

21 Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems 22 Design Issues

3 Physical and Physicochemical Processes 31 Process Selection 32 Example Applications

4 Thermal Treatment 41 Dedicated Waste Incinerators 42 Combustion in Industrial Furnaces 43 Controlled Air Incinerator

5 Technological Advances 51 Biological Treatment 52 Physicochemical Processes 53 Thermal Processes

6 Conclusions Treatment of Industrial Wastewater by Membrane Bioreactors 102 Chettiyappan Visvanathan Environmental Engineering and Management Program School of Environment Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Thailand 1 Introduction 2 Design of MBR system

21 Membrane System Design 22 Reactor Design for MBR System

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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Page 4: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Analysis Approaches and Models for the Release of Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen Oxygen and Argon in Evaporators 44 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals of Desorption with and without Chemical Reaction 3 Release of Oxygen Nitrogen and Argon 4 Release of Carbon Dioxide

41 The CO2 System in Seawater 411 Chemical Reactions and their Kinetics

412 Parameters of the CO2 System in Seawater 413 Relative Distribution of the Carbonic Acid Species

42 Model of the CO2 Release in the Individual Stages of MSF Distillers 43 Modeling of the CO2 System in the Pre-heaters of MSF Distillers

5 Simulation Results with the Gas Release Model 51 Difference between CO2 Release and O2 N2 and Ar Release 52 The Effect of the Mass Transfer Coefficient and the Phase Interface Area on CO2 Release 53 The Effect of the Top Brine Temperature on CO2 Release 54 The Concentrations of the Carbonic Acid Species in the Pre-heaters

Interstage Brine Flow in MSF Chambers 68 R Rautenbach and S Schaumlfer Institute fuumlr Verfahrenstechnik RWTH Aachen Aachen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Open Flow in Horizontal Channels and Through Orifices

21 Open Channel Flow 22 Hydraulic Jump

221 Types of Hydraulic Jump 222 Hydraulic Jumps enforced by Weirs (Sill)

23 Interstage Flow through Orifices 231 The Rectangular Orifice (slot) 232 Combination OrificeWeir 233 Thermo-Syphon

24 Flow Instabilities and Blowthrough 241 Flow Instabilities

25 Blowthrough 26 Future Aspects Design Data for Non-Condensable Gas Release Rates in Flash Chambers 87 Heike Glade and Klaus Genthner University of Bremen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Design Assumptions Regarding the Release of O2 N2 and Ar 3 Design Assumptions Regarding the Total CO2 Release

31 Decomposition of the Bicarbonate Ions 32 Semi-empirical Approach by Watson Desalination Consultants 33 Semi-empirical Approach by Water Consultants International 34 Model developed at the University of Bremen

4 Design Assumptions Regarding the Distribution of the CO2 Release Between the Individual Stages 41 CO2 Release Determined by Chemical Reaction Kinetics 42 Retarded Release of CO2 43 CO2 Release Determined by Chemical Reaction Kinetics Mass Transfer and Physical Phase Equilibrium

5 Measurements of the CO2 Release in the Individual Stages of MSF Distillers 6 Comparison of the Approaches to CO2 Release Computation with the Measurement Results 7 Dimensioning of Design Venting Rates

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Heat and Mass Balances in the Evaporator Components Group Stage Heat and Mass Transfer Balance 105 MA Darwish and Faisal Al-Juwayhel Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Kuwait 1 Introduction 2 Factors Affecting the Brine Flow to the Stage

21 The Hydrodynamic of Inter-stage Brine Transfer 211 Region from Upstream the Orifice to the Vena Contracta 212 Flow from Vena Contracta to Upstream the Weir with Hydraulic Jump 213 Flow Upstream and Downstream the Weir (Weir Overflow)

3 Stage Analysis 31 Brine Pool Compartment (SSSF Analysis)

311 The Last Stage 312 The First Stage

32 The Vapor Space 33 The Distillate Product Tray 34 The Cooling Brine

4 Heat Transfer Calculations 41 Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient 42 Inner-Side (Water) Heat Transfer Coefficient 43 The Fouling Factor

A Case Study Performance and Acceptance Test of a Power and Desalination Plant 134 Atef M Al Baghdadi Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Guaranteed Values

21 Power Plant Capacity 22 Net Specific Heat Consumption of the Power Plant 23 Boiler Capacity

3 Guarantee Conditions 4 Measuring Equipment

41 Measurement of Temperature 42 Measurement of Pressure 43 Measurement of Flows 44 Measurement of the Boiler Fuel Flow 45 Sampling of Fuels 46 Measurement of Electrical Power

5 Isolation of the Cycle 6 Frequency of Readings and Duration of the Tests 7 Diagrams and List of Measuring Points 8 Evaluation of Test Results

81 Determination of the Net Power Output 82 Determination of Net Specific Heat Consumption (PL115 PL85 PL65) 83 Determination of the Distillate Production 84 Determination of Steam Flow at Boiler Outlet 85 Guarantee Comparison

Separation 178 Vega-Mercado Humberto Bio Sterile Validation Merck amp Co Inc West Point PennsylvaniaUSA 1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction

11 Introduction 12 Theoretical Aspects

121 Triangular Coordinates and Equilibrium Data 13 Selection of Solvent

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

14 Thermodynamic Aspects of Liquid-Liquid Equilibria 141 Single Stage Equilibrium Extraction 142 Multistage Crosscurrent Extraction 143 Countercurrent Multistage Extraction

15 Equipment for Liquid-Liquid Extraction 151 Stagewise Systems 152 Continuous Contact Equipment ndash Differential Contactors 153 Selection of Liquid-Liquid Extraction Equipment

2 Solid Liquid Separation 21 Introduction 22 Theoretical Aspects 23 Types of Processes (Unit Operations)

3 Mechanical Separation 31 Introduction 32 General Principles for Centrifuges and Cyclones 33 Equipment

4 Membrane Processing 41 Introduction 42 Physical Chemistry of Membrane Processes 43 Membrane Types and Configurations

431 Hollow Fibers 432 Dead-End Membranes or Screen Filters 433 Depth Filters 434 Plate Units

5 Column Chromatography 51 Introduction 52 Equipment and Commercial Resins

521 Ion Exchange Chromatography 522 Size Exclusion or Gel Filtration Chromatography 523 Affinity Chromatography 524 Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography 525 Reversed Phase Chromatography 526 Hydroxyapatite Chromatography

6 Distillation 61 Interphase Mass Transfer Separation Processes 62 Thermodynamic Aspects of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 63 Bubble and Dew Points 64 Distillation Methods

641 Flash Distillation 642 Differential Distillation 643 Simple Steam Distillation 644 Continuous Distillation of Binary Systems 645 McCabe-Thiele Method

65 Recent Advances in Distillation Membrane Separation Technologies 252 Takeshi Matsuura Department of Chemical Engineering University of Ottawa Ottawa Ont Canada 1 History 2 Definition and classification 3 Performance parameters 4 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is pressure

41 Reverse osmosis 411 Principle of reverse osmosis 412 Membrane materials and membrane structure 413 Transport 414 Concentration polarization

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

415 Membrane modules 416 Applications

42 Nanofiltration ultrafiltration and microfiltration 421 Description of the processes 422 Membrane materials and membrane structure 423 Gel model for ultrafiltration 424 Brownian diffusion lateral migration and shear induced diffusion in microfiltration 425 Applications

5 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is partial pressure 51 Membrane gas separation

511 Description of the process 512 Transport model 513 Applications

52 Pervaporation 521 Description of the process 522 Transport 523 Applications

53 Recovery of vapor from air 6 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is difference in electrical potential

61 Electrodialysis 62 Bipolar membrane

7 Other membrane processes 71 Membrane distillation 72 Membrane extraction 73 Membrane reactor 74 Hybrid processes

Mass Transfer OperationndashMembrane Separations 289 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 An overview on the most industrialized membrane separation processes and emerging applications

21 Pressure driven membrane processes 211 Reverse osmosis 212 Nanofiltration 213 Ultrafiltration 214 Microfiltration

22 Electrodialysis 23 Gas separation 24 Pervaporation and vapor permeation 25 Membrane contactors

251 Membrane distillation 252 Membrane crystallization 253 Membrane emulsification

26 Catalytic membranes reactors 3 Sustainable growth and integrated membrane operations

31 Case study 1 Membrane technology in desalination 32 Case study 2 Membrane technology in fruit juices industry 33 Case study 3 Membrane technology for wastewaters treatment in the leather industry

4 Conclusions

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

42 Water from Springs and Roofs 43 Clear Surface Water 44 Turbid or Colored Surface Water 45 Eutrophied Surface Water

5 Handling Purified Water 6 Conclusions Conventional Water Treatment Technologies 65 S Vigneswaran and HH Ngo Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia C Visvanathan Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok Thailand M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Australia 1 Introduction 2 Treatment Processes 3 Rapid Mixing

31 Hydraulic Mixers 32 Mechanical Mixers

4 Flocculation 41 Types of Flocculators

5 Sedimentation 51 Tube Settlers 52 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

6 Filtration 61 Slow Sand Filtration 62 Rapid Sand Filtration

621 Improvements on Rapid Filters 7 Disinfection Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 85 G Eduljee ERM Eaton House Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Biological Treatment

21 Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems 22 Design Issues

3 Physical and Physicochemical Processes 31 Process Selection 32 Example Applications

4 Thermal Treatment 41 Dedicated Waste Incinerators 42 Combustion in Industrial Furnaces 43 Controlled Air Incinerator

5 Technological Advances 51 Biological Treatment 52 Physicochemical Processes 53 Thermal Processes

6 Conclusions Treatment of Industrial Wastewater by Membrane Bioreactors 102 Chettiyappan Visvanathan Environmental Engineering and Management Program School of Environment Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Thailand 1 Introduction 2 Design of MBR system

21 Membrane System Design 22 Reactor Design for MBR System

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Heat and Mass Balances in the Evaporator Components Group Stage Heat and Mass Transfer Balance 105 MA Darwish and Faisal Al-Juwayhel Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Kuwait 1 Introduction 2 Factors Affecting the Brine Flow to the Stage

21 The Hydrodynamic of Inter-stage Brine Transfer 211 Region from Upstream the Orifice to the Vena Contracta 212 Flow from Vena Contracta to Upstream the Weir with Hydraulic Jump 213 Flow Upstream and Downstream the Weir (Weir Overflow)

3 Stage Analysis 31 Brine Pool Compartment (SSSF Analysis)

311 The Last Stage 312 The First Stage

32 The Vapor Space 33 The Distillate Product Tray 34 The Cooling Brine

4 Heat Transfer Calculations 41 Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient 42 Inner-Side (Water) Heat Transfer Coefficient 43 The Fouling Factor

A Case Study Performance and Acceptance Test of a Power and Desalination Plant 134 Atef M Al Baghdadi Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Guaranteed Values

21 Power Plant Capacity 22 Net Specific Heat Consumption of the Power Plant 23 Boiler Capacity

3 Guarantee Conditions 4 Measuring Equipment

41 Measurement of Temperature 42 Measurement of Pressure 43 Measurement of Flows 44 Measurement of the Boiler Fuel Flow 45 Sampling of Fuels 46 Measurement of Electrical Power

5 Isolation of the Cycle 6 Frequency of Readings and Duration of the Tests 7 Diagrams and List of Measuring Points 8 Evaluation of Test Results

81 Determination of the Net Power Output 82 Determination of Net Specific Heat Consumption (PL115 PL85 PL65) 83 Determination of the Distillate Production 84 Determination of Steam Flow at Boiler Outlet 85 Guarantee Comparison

Separation 178 Vega-Mercado Humberto Bio Sterile Validation Merck amp Co Inc West Point PennsylvaniaUSA 1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction

11 Introduction 12 Theoretical Aspects

121 Triangular Coordinates and Equilibrium Data 13 Selection of Solvent

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

14 Thermodynamic Aspects of Liquid-Liquid Equilibria 141 Single Stage Equilibrium Extraction 142 Multistage Crosscurrent Extraction 143 Countercurrent Multistage Extraction

15 Equipment for Liquid-Liquid Extraction 151 Stagewise Systems 152 Continuous Contact Equipment ndash Differential Contactors 153 Selection of Liquid-Liquid Extraction Equipment

2 Solid Liquid Separation 21 Introduction 22 Theoretical Aspects 23 Types of Processes (Unit Operations)

3 Mechanical Separation 31 Introduction 32 General Principles for Centrifuges and Cyclones 33 Equipment

4 Membrane Processing 41 Introduction 42 Physical Chemistry of Membrane Processes 43 Membrane Types and Configurations

431 Hollow Fibers 432 Dead-End Membranes or Screen Filters 433 Depth Filters 434 Plate Units

5 Column Chromatography 51 Introduction 52 Equipment and Commercial Resins

521 Ion Exchange Chromatography 522 Size Exclusion or Gel Filtration Chromatography 523 Affinity Chromatography 524 Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography 525 Reversed Phase Chromatography 526 Hydroxyapatite Chromatography

6 Distillation 61 Interphase Mass Transfer Separation Processes 62 Thermodynamic Aspects of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 63 Bubble and Dew Points 64 Distillation Methods

641 Flash Distillation 642 Differential Distillation 643 Simple Steam Distillation 644 Continuous Distillation of Binary Systems 645 McCabe-Thiele Method

65 Recent Advances in Distillation Membrane Separation Technologies 252 Takeshi Matsuura Department of Chemical Engineering University of Ottawa Ottawa Ont Canada 1 History 2 Definition and classification 3 Performance parameters 4 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is pressure

41 Reverse osmosis 411 Principle of reverse osmosis 412 Membrane materials and membrane structure 413 Transport 414 Concentration polarization

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

415 Membrane modules 416 Applications

42 Nanofiltration ultrafiltration and microfiltration 421 Description of the processes 422 Membrane materials and membrane structure 423 Gel model for ultrafiltration 424 Brownian diffusion lateral migration and shear induced diffusion in microfiltration 425 Applications

5 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is partial pressure 51 Membrane gas separation

511 Description of the process 512 Transport model 513 Applications

52 Pervaporation 521 Description of the process 522 Transport 523 Applications

53 Recovery of vapor from air 6 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is difference in electrical potential

61 Electrodialysis 62 Bipolar membrane

7 Other membrane processes 71 Membrane distillation 72 Membrane extraction 73 Membrane reactor 74 Hybrid processes

Mass Transfer OperationndashMembrane Separations 289 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 An overview on the most industrialized membrane separation processes and emerging applications

21 Pressure driven membrane processes 211 Reverse osmosis 212 Nanofiltration 213 Ultrafiltration 214 Microfiltration

22 Electrodialysis 23 Gas separation 24 Pervaporation and vapor permeation 25 Membrane contactors

251 Membrane distillation 252 Membrane crystallization 253 Membrane emulsification

26 Catalytic membranes reactors 3 Sustainable growth and integrated membrane operations

31 Case study 1 Membrane technology in desalination 32 Case study 2 Membrane technology in fruit juices industry 33 Case study 3 Membrane technology for wastewaters treatment in the leather industry

4 Conclusions

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

42 Water from Springs and Roofs 43 Clear Surface Water 44 Turbid or Colored Surface Water 45 Eutrophied Surface Water

5 Handling Purified Water 6 Conclusions Conventional Water Treatment Technologies 65 S Vigneswaran and HH Ngo Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia C Visvanathan Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok Thailand M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Australia 1 Introduction 2 Treatment Processes 3 Rapid Mixing

31 Hydraulic Mixers 32 Mechanical Mixers

4 Flocculation 41 Types of Flocculators

5 Sedimentation 51 Tube Settlers 52 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

6 Filtration 61 Slow Sand Filtration 62 Rapid Sand Filtration

621 Improvements on Rapid Filters 7 Disinfection Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 85 G Eduljee ERM Eaton House Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Biological Treatment

21 Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems 22 Design Issues

3 Physical and Physicochemical Processes 31 Process Selection 32 Example Applications

4 Thermal Treatment 41 Dedicated Waste Incinerators 42 Combustion in Industrial Furnaces 43 Controlled Air Incinerator

5 Technological Advances 51 Biological Treatment 52 Physicochemical Processes 53 Thermal Processes

6 Conclusions Treatment of Industrial Wastewater by Membrane Bioreactors 102 Chettiyappan Visvanathan Environmental Engineering and Management Program School of Environment Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Thailand 1 Introduction 2 Design of MBR system

21 Membrane System Design 22 Reactor Design for MBR System

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

Page 6: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

14 Thermodynamic Aspects of Liquid-Liquid Equilibria 141 Single Stage Equilibrium Extraction 142 Multistage Crosscurrent Extraction 143 Countercurrent Multistage Extraction

15 Equipment for Liquid-Liquid Extraction 151 Stagewise Systems 152 Continuous Contact Equipment ndash Differential Contactors 153 Selection of Liquid-Liquid Extraction Equipment

2 Solid Liquid Separation 21 Introduction 22 Theoretical Aspects 23 Types of Processes (Unit Operations)

3 Mechanical Separation 31 Introduction 32 General Principles for Centrifuges and Cyclones 33 Equipment

4 Membrane Processing 41 Introduction 42 Physical Chemistry of Membrane Processes 43 Membrane Types and Configurations

431 Hollow Fibers 432 Dead-End Membranes or Screen Filters 433 Depth Filters 434 Plate Units

5 Column Chromatography 51 Introduction 52 Equipment and Commercial Resins

521 Ion Exchange Chromatography 522 Size Exclusion or Gel Filtration Chromatography 523 Affinity Chromatography 524 Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography 525 Reversed Phase Chromatography 526 Hydroxyapatite Chromatography

6 Distillation 61 Interphase Mass Transfer Separation Processes 62 Thermodynamic Aspects of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 63 Bubble and Dew Points 64 Distillation Methods

641 Flash Distillation 642 Differential Distillation 643 Simple Steam Distillation 644 Continuous Distillation of Binary Systems 645 McCabe-Thiele Method

65 Recent Advances in Distillation Membrane Separation Technologies 252 Takeshi Matsuura Department of Chemical Engineering University of Ottawa Ottawa Ont Canada 1 History 2 Definition and classification 3 Performance parameters 4 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is pressure

41 Reverse osmosis 411 Principle of reverse osmosis 412 Membrane materials and membrane structure 413 Transport 414 Concentration polarization

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

415 Membrane modules 416 Applications

42 Nanofiltration ultrafiltration and microfiltration 421 Description of the processes 422 Membrane materials and membrane structure 423 Gel model for ultrafiltration 424 Brownian diffusion lateral migration and shear induced diffusion in microfiltration 425 Applications

5 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is partial pressure 51 Membrane gas separation

511 Description of the process 512 Transport model 513 Applications

52 Pervaporation 521 Description of the process 522 Transport 523 Applications

53 Recovery of vapor from air 6 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is difference in electrical potential

61 Electrodialysis 62 Bipolar membrane

7 Other membrane processes 71 Membrane distillation 72 Membrane extraction 73 Membrane reactor 74 Hybrid processes

Mass Transfer OperationndashMembrane Separations 289 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 An overview on the most industrialized membrane separation processes and emerging applications

21 Pressure driven membrane processes 211 Reverse osmosis 212 Nanofiltration 213 Ultrafiltration 214 Microfiltration

22 Electrodialysis 23 Gas separation 24 Pervaporation and vapor permeation 25 Membrane contactors

251 Membrane distillation 252 Membrane crystallization 253 Membrane emulsification

26 Catalytic membranes reactors 3 Sustainable growth and integrated membrane operations

31 Case study 1 Membrane technology in desalination 32 Case study 2 Membrane technology in fruit juices industry 33 Case study 3 Membrane technology for wastewaters treatment in the leather industry

4 Conclusions

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) v

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

42 Water from Springs and Roofs 43 Clear Surface Water 44 Turbid or Colored Surface Water 45 Eutrophied Surface Water

5 Handling Purified Water 6 Conclusions Conventional Water Treatment Technologies 65 S Vigneswaran and HH Ngo Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia C Visvanathan Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok Thailand M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Australia 1 Introduction 2 Treatment Processes 3 Rapid Mixing

31 Hydraulic Mixers 32 Mechanical Mixers

4 Flocculation 41 Types of Flocculators

5 Sedimentation 51 Tube Settlers 52 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

6 Filtration 61 Slow Sand Filtration 62 Rapid Sand Filtration

621 Improvements on Rapid Filters 7 Disinfection Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 85 G Eduljee ERM Eaton House Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Biological Treatment

21 Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems 22 Design Issues

3 Physical and Physicochemical Processes 31 Process Selection 32 Example Applications

4 Thermal Treatment 41 Dedicated Waste Incinerators 42 Combustion in Industrial Furnaces 43 Controlled Air Incinerator

5 Technological Advances 51 Biological Treatment 52 Physicochemical Processes 53 Thermal Processes

6 Conclusions Treatment of Industrial Wastewater by Membrane Bioreactors 102 Chettiyappan Visvanathan Environmental Engineering and Management Program School of Environment Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Thailand 1 Introduction 2 Design of MBR system

21 Membrane System Design 22 Reactor Design for MBR System

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) viii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) ix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) x

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

Page 7: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

415 Membrane modules 416 Applications

42 Nanofiltration ultrafiltration and microfiltration 421 Description of the processes 422 Membrane materials and membrane structure 423 Gel model for ultrafiltration 424 Brownian diffusion lateral migration and shear induced diffusion in microfiltration 425 Applications

5 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is partial pressure 51 Membrane gas separation

511 Description of the process 512 Transport model 513 Applications

52 Pervaporation 521 Description of the process 522 Transport 523 Applications

53 Recovery of vapor from air 6 Membrane separation processes where the driving force is difference in electrical potential

61 Electrodialysis 62 Bipolar membrane

7 Other membrane processes 71 Membrane distillation 72 Membrane extraction 73 Membrane reactor 74 Hybrid processes

Mass Transfer OperationndashMembrane Separations 289 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 An overview on the most industrialized membrane separation processes and emerging applications

21 Pressure driven membrane processes 211 Reverse osmosis 212 Nanofiltration 213 Ultrafiltration 214 Microfiltration

22 Electrodialysis 23 Gas separation 24 Pervaporation and vapor permeation 25 Membrane contactors

251 Membrane distillation 252 Membrane crystallization 253 Membrane emulsification

26 Catalytic membranes reactors 3 Sustainable growth and integrated membrane operations

31 Case study 1 Membrane technology in desalination 32 Case study 2 Membrane technology in fruit juices industry 33 Case study 3 Membrane technology for wastewaters treatment in the leather industry

4 Conclusions

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) v

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

42 Water from Springs and Roofs 43 Clear Surface Water 44 Turbid or Colored Surface Water 45 Eutrophied Surface Water

5 Handling Purified Water 6 Conclusions Conventional Water Treatment Technologies 65 S Vigneswaran and HH Ngo Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia C Visvanathan Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok Thailand M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Australia 1 Introduction 2 Treatment Processes 3 Rapid Mixing

31 Hydraulic Mixers 32 Mechanical Mixers

4 Flocculation 41 Types of Flocculators

5 Sedimentation 51 Tube Settlers 52 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

6 Filtration 61 Slow Sand Filtration 62 Rapid Sand Filtration

621 Improvements on Rapid Filters 7 Disinfection Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 85 G Eduljee ERM Eaton House Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Biological Treatment

21 Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems 22 Design Issues

3 Physical and Physicochemical Processes 31 Process Selection 32 Example Applications

4 Thermal Treatment 41 Dedicated Waste Incinerators 42 Combustion in Industrial Furnaces 43 Controlled Air Incinerator

5 Technological Advances 51 Biological Treatment 52 Physicochemical Processes 53 Thermal Processes

6 Conclusions Treatment of Industrial Wastewater by Membrane Bioreactors 102 Chettiyappan Visvanathan Environmental Engineering and Management Program School of Environment Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Thailand 1 Introduction 2 Design of MBR system

21 Membrane System Design 22 Reactor Design for MBR System

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) viii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) ix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) x

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

Page 8: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

42 Water from Springs and Roofs 43 Clear Surface Water 44 Turbid or Colored Surface Water 45 Eutrophied Surface Water

5 Handling Purified Water 6 Conclusions Conventional Water Treatment Technologies 65 S Vigneswaran and HH Ngo Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia C Visvanathan Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok Thailand M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Australia 1 Introduction 2 Treatment Processes 3 Rapid Mixing

31 Hydraulic Mixers 32 Mechanical Mixers

4 Flocculation 41 Types of Flocculators

5 Sedimentation 51 Tube Settlers 52 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

6 Filtration 61 Slow Sand Filtration 62 Rapid Sand Filtration

621 Improvements on Rapid Filters 7 Disinfection Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 85 G Eduljee ERM Eaton House Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Biological Treatment

21 Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems 22 Design Issues

3 Physical and Physicochemical Processes 31 Process Selection 32 Example Applications

4 Thermal Treatment 41 Dedicated Waste Incinerators 42 Combustion in Industrial Furnaces 43 Controlled Air Incinerator

5 Technological Advances 51 Biological Treatment 52 Physicochemical Processes 53 Thermal Processes

6 Conclusions Treatment of Industrial Wastewater by Membrane Bioreactors 102 Chettiyappan Visvanathan Environmental Engineering and Management Program School of Environment Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Thailand 1 Introduction 2 Design of MBR system

21 Membrane System Design 22 Reactor Design for MBR System

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) viii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) ix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) x

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Mass Transfer Operations Hybrid Membrane Processes 347 Enrico Drioli Efrem Curcio and Enrica Fontananova Institute on Membrane Technology ITM-CNR co University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials University of Calabria Rende (CS) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Hybrid Membrane Desalination Systems

21 MSFRO Systems 22 NFMSF Systems 23 MF and UF as Pretreatment Processes

3 Integrated membrane systems in agrofood industry 4 Hybrid membrane operations for wastewater treatment 5 Integrated membrane operations in Gas Separation 6 Integration of molecular separation and chemicalenergy conversion

61 Catalytic Membrane Reactors 62 Fuel Cells

7 Conclusions Index 371 About DESWARE 375

VOLUME II

Distillation OR Rectification 1 J G Stichlmair Department of Chemical Engineering Technische Universitaumlt Muumlnchen Germany 1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals

21 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 211 Binary Mixtures 212 Ternary Mixtures 213 Multicomponent Mixtures

22 Continuous Distillation Processes 221 Binary Mixtures 222 Ternary Mixtures 223 Multicomponent Mixtures

23 Batch Distillation 24 Reactive Distillation

3 Equipment 31 Tray Columns 32 Packed Columns

4 Separation Processes 41 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures 42 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures

Unconventional Sources of Water Supply 26 PEOdendaal Consultant Pretoria South Africa Former Executive Director South African Water Research Commission Former President International Water Association 1 Introduction 2 Water Reclamation

21 Factors Promoting Water Reclamation 22 Direct and Indirect Reuse

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) ix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) x

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

Page 10: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

23 Water Reclamation Technology 24 Health Considerations in Water Reclamation 25 Applications of Water Reclamation

251 Agricultural Irrigation 252 Groundwater Recharge 253 Industrial Reuse 254 Environmental and Recreational Reuse 255 Non-potable Urban Reuse 256 Potable Reuse

26 Public Acceptance 3 Desalination of Seawater

31 Desalination Technology 311 Multistage Flash 312 Multi-effect Distillation 313 Vapor Compression Distillation 314 Reverse Osmosis 315 Electrodialysis 316 Freezing 317 Membrane Distillation

32 Quality of Product Water 33 Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis 34 Dual Purpose Systems

Guidelines for Potable Water Purification 41 Willie M Malan Civil Engineering Department University of Stellenbosch South Africa 1 Introduction 2 Water Quality

21 Microorganisms 22 Physical Characteristics 23 Chemical Constituents 24 Trace Organics

3 Overview of Unit Processes in Water Purification 31 Screening 32 Aeration 33 Flocculation

331 Chemical Dosing 332 Flash Mixing 333 Floc Formation 334 Floc Conditioning 335 Plant Layout for Flocculation

34 Sedimentation 35 Filtration

351 Slow Sand Filter 352 Rapid Sand Filter 353 Gravity Filters 354 Pressure Filters 355 Multimedia Filter 356 Diatomaceous Earth Filter

36 Chlorination 361 Gaseous Chlorine 362 Chlorine Granules 363 Chlorine Solutions 364 Chlorine Tablets

37 Sludge Disposal 4 Process Selection

41 Groundwater

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) vii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) ix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) x

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

Page 11: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

3 Operation of the Membrane System in MBR 4 Application of MBR in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 5 Conclusions Sludge Treatment Technologies 124 S Vigneswaran and J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction2 Sludge Stabilisation 3 Sludge Dewatering

31 Belt Presses 32 Pressure Filters 33 Centrifuges

331 Costs 4 Sludge Incineration Advanced Treatment Technologies for RecycleReuse of Domestic Wastewater 140 H H Ngo and S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia M Sundaravadivel Graduate School of the Environment Macquarie University Sydney Australia 1 Introduction 2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies 3 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes

31 Intermittently Decanted Aeration Lagoon (IDAL) System 32 Biologically Enhanced Phosphorus Removal (BEPR) System

4 Physicochemical Processes 41 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

411 Direct Filtration (DF) 412 Contact-flocculation Filtration (CFF) 413 Mobile Bed Filter (MBF) 414 Floating Medium Filters

42 Deep Bed Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashA Case Study of Rouse Hill STP Sydney Australia 43 Membrane Filtration Processes 44 Membrane Filtration for Wastewater ReusemdashCase Studies

441 Water Reclamation at Eraring Power Station New South Wales Australia 442 lsquoWater miningrsquo plant at Canberra Australia 443 Wastewater Reuse Plant at Taronga Zoo Sydney Australia

45 Hybrid Processes The Potential for Industrial Wastewater Reuse 162 C Visvanathan Environmental Engineering Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani Thailand Takashi Asano Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis California USA 1 Introduction 2 Water Availability and Consumption 3 Industrial Wastewater Reuse Present Status Trends and Issues

31 Internal Wastewater Recycling 32 Reuse of Treated Industrial Wastewater

4 Available Treatment Technologies 41 Pulp and Paper Industries 42 Power Plants 43 Textile Industries 44 Food Processing Industries

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) ix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) x

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

45 Other Industries 5 Policy and Institutional Aspects 6 Conclusions Deep Bed Filtration Modelling Theory and Practice 180 G Keir and V Jegatheesan School of Engineering James Cook University Australia S Vigneswaran Faculty of Engineering University of Technology Sydney Australia 1 Introduction

11 Conditions of Deep Bed Filtration 12 Stages of Deep Bed Filtration 13 Transport Mechanisms

131 Interception 132 Inertial Impaction 133 Sedimentation 134 Diffusion 135 Hydrodynamic Action 136 Straining

14 Attachment Mechanisms 141 Long-Range Forces 142 Short-Range Forces 143 Presence of Primary and Secondary Minima 144 Effect of Surface Blocking and Particle Size

15 Detachment Mechanisms 16 Modeling Approaches

161 Microscopic Modeling 162 Macroscopic Modeling

2 Mathematical Models for the Initial Filtration Stage 21 Removal Efficiency 22 Model Representation of Porous Media 23 Classification of Microscopic Models 24 Eulerian Methods (Convective Diffusion Analysis)

241 Perfect-Sink Models 242 Non-Penetration Models

25 Lagrangian Methods (Trajectory Analysis) 26 Semi-Empirical Formulations

261 Correlations for the Collision Efficiency α 262 Correlations for the Initial Collection Efficiency η0

27 Limitations of Initial Stage Models 3 Mathematical Models for the Transient Filtration Stage

31 Macroscopic Models 311 Methods of Solution to Macroscopic Equations

32 Transient Stage Models 321 Retained Particle Detachment Models 322 Deposition Site Saturation Models 323 Particle Blocking Models 324 Surface Charge Models

33 Limitations of Macroscopic and Transient Stage Models 34 The Effect of Particle Size Distribution

4 Conclusion Raw Water Pre-Treatment Introduction and Overview 225 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Germany 1 Pollution of Raw Water and its Measurement 2 Raw Water Extraction Installations 3 Measures to Prevent Biofouling

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) x

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

Page 13: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

4 Pre-cleaning - FlocculationFiltration and Sedimentation 5 Extended Pre-cleaning - Microfiltration Ultrafiltration and Nanofiltration 6 Prevention of Scaling

61 Thermal Processes 62 Membrane Processes

7 Further Pre-treatment Measures - Ion Exchange and Precipitation Methods Pre-Cleaning Measures Filtration 234 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 General 2 Basic Principles of Filtration 3 Particle Transport and Agglomeration Mechanism

31 Sedimentation 32 Diffusion

4 Filter Systems and Selection 41 Filtering Through a Bed of Granular Material 42 Low-rate Filters 43 Rapid Filters 44 Open filters 45 Closed Vertical Pressure Filters 46 Closed Horizontal Filters

5 Filter Dimensioning Principles 6 Filter Media and Selection 7 Filter Backwash Principles

71 Cleaning of Single-layer Filters 72 Cleaning of Multi-layer Filters

8 Operation of Filter Equipment Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 257 Ata M Hassan Saline Water Conversion Corporation RDC Al-Jubail Saudi Arabia Kevin Price US Bureau of Reclamation Denver USA

1 Introduction 2 RO Feed Pretreatment by the Membrane Filtration Process

Flocculation and Flocculation Filtration 272 Dieter Saal Darmstadt Germany 1 Flocculation

11 Basic Principles of Flocculation 12 Effects of Flocculants and Coagulants 13 Types of Flocculants and Coagulants 14 Design Principles and Equipment of Dosing Systems 15 Storing and Preparing Flocculants 16 Operation of Equipment

2 Flocculation Filtration 21 Basic Principles of Floc-filtration 22 Design of Floc-filters 23 Control and Operation of Floc-filtration Systems

Post-Treatment of Distillate and Permeate Introduction and Overview 288 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Purpose of Post-treatment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Composition of Desalinated Water 3 Standards and Guidelines for Composition of Potable Water 4 Processes for Potabilization of Distillate and Permeate Composition of Desalinated Water 295 Heinz Ludwig Fichtner Stuttgart Australia 1 Distillate

11 Ionogenic Composition 12 Trace Substances

121 Metals 122 Organics

13 Hygienic Conditions 2 Permeate

21 Ionogenic Composition 22 Trace Substances

221 Metals 222 Organics

23 Hygienic Conditions 3 Product Water of the Hybrid ROMSF Process 4 Dialysate Supercritical Extraction 308 Jonin TM Nestle Switzerland Adjadj LP Laboratorium fuumlr Technische ChemieLTC Switzerland Rizvi SS Food Science Department Cornell University USA 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of Supercritical Fluids 3 Solubility Measurement Techniques

31 Dynamic Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 32 Static Systems for the Determination of Solubility in Supercritical Fluids 33 Dynamic Systems vs Static Systems

4 Solubility Measurements 5 Applications of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

51 Decaffeination 511 Decaffeination of Coffee 512 Cocoa Bean Extraction

52 Hop Extraction 53 Spice Extraction 54 Fractionation 55 Analysis of Wine Aroma

6 Other Applications of Supercritical Fluids 61 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion (SCFX) 62 Supercritical Water Oxidation

Crystallization 325 Hartel RW Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin USA 1 Introduction 2 Crystallization Principles

21 PhaseState Behavior 22 Nucleation 23 Crystal Growth 24 Recrystallization

3 Controlling Crystallization in Foods

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

31 Control for Product Quality 32 Control for Separation 33 Control to Prevent Crystallization

4 Factors Affecting Control of Crystallization 41 Heat and Mass Transfer Rates

411 Rate of Cooling 412 Crystallization Temperature 413 Agitation 414 Drying

42 Product Formulation Index 349 About DESWARE 355

VOLUME III

Concentration of Liquid Foods 1 Hernandez Ernesto OmegaPure Technology and Innovation Center Houston Texas USA 1 Introduction 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Foods 3 Concentration by Evaporation

31 Evaporator Types and Applications 32 Design of Evaporators

321 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 33 Fouling 34 Food Applications

4 Concentration with Membranes 41 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 42 Design Considerations 43 Construction Materials 44 Membrane Configurations 45 Concentration by Direct Osmosis 46 Concentration by Membrane Distillation 47 Concentration by Osmotic Distillation

5 Combined Technologies in the Concentration of Liquid Foods 6 Freeze Concentration Environmental Impacts of Intakes and Out Falls 25 Marinus Vis Water Resources and Environment Division Delft Hydraulics the Netherlands 1 Introduction 2 Types of Impacts

21 Physical Changes 22 Introduction of Heat and Salt 23 Introduction of Toxins

3 Impacts on Specific Coastal Ecosystems 31 Introduction 32 Mangrove Forests

321 Salinity 323 Pollutants 324 Hydrodynamics 325 Seagrass Beds

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

Page 16: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

326 Salinity 327 Temperature 328 Sedimentation 329 Hydrodynamics 3210 Turbidity 3211 Pollutants

33 Impacts of Construction and Operation of Desalination Plants 34 Coral Reefs

341 Salinity 342 Temperature 343 Pollutants

Environmental Impact of Seawater Desalination Plants 39 IS Al-Mutaz King Saud University Saudi Arabia 1 Introduction 2 Pollutants from Desalination Plants 3 Thermal Impact 4 Air Pollution Problem 5 Pollutants Emitted from Power Plants

51 Sulfur Oxides 52 Nitrogen Oxides

53 Carbon Monoxide 54 Hydrocarbons 55 Particulates

6 Methods of Air Pollution Control at the Power Plant 7 Pollution from the Jeddah Desalination Plant 8 Conclusions Chemical Hazards in Seawater Desalination by The Multistage-Flash Evaporation Technique 53 AM Shams El Din MTL Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) Abu Dhabi (UAE) 1 Introduction 2 Seawater Chlorination 3 Scaling and Anti-scale Agents 4 Acid Wash of Distillers 5 Air (Oxygen) 6 Anti-corrosion Agents 7 Impact of Seawater Desalination on the Environment 8 Oil Dispersants 9 Water Conditioning Sustainable Development Water Resources and Desalination 64 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable Development 3 Sustainability Needs and Natural Resources in the World

31 Population 32 GDP Per Capita 33 Energy 34 Food and Agriculture 35 Forests 36 Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xiv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

37 Materials 38 Habitat

4 Contemporary Sustainability Threats and Associated Needs 41 Structural Needs 42 Human Needs 43 Physical Needs 44 Specific Strategies ndash Rural Urban and Private Sector

5 Information and Knowledge Imperfections and Sustainability Industrial Ecology Water Resources and Desalination 91 Andrew P Sage School of Information Technology and Engineering Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research George Mason University Fairfax VA USA 1 Introduction 2 Agenda 21 and the Need for Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology

21 Chapter 30 Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry 22 Chapter 31 The Scientific and Technological Community 23 Chapter 34 Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology Cooperation and Capacity-Building 24 Chapter 40 Information for Decision-Making

3 Standards and Sustainable Water Resource and Desalination Efforts 4 Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Development 5 Water Desalination and Sustainability 6 Integration of Systems Engineering and Industrial Ecology Constructs with Water Resources and Desalination Applications 7 Conclusions The Plight of Potable and Usable Water ndash Pollution Health Hazards Environmental Threats and Abatement Methods 136 Rajeswari Padmasola neacutee Ganti Banglore India 1 Introduction 2 Some Physical Properties of Water 3 Some Chemical Properties of Water 4 Sources of Water 5 Degradation of Water Quality

51 pH 52 Suspended Solids 53 Potential

6 Water Quality Criteria for Domestic Use 7 Toxicity of Pollutants 8 Pathogenic Pollution 9 Water Treatment Energy 151 G P Rao B Makkawi A Woldai R J Hornby and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Humanitys Need for Energy 2 Physical Concepts of Energy 3 Nonrenewable Energy Sources

31 Fossil fuels 311 Oil 312 Coal

32 Nuclear energy 4 The Earths Resources of Renewable Energy

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xv

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

41 Solar energy 42 Hydroelectric energy 43 Wind energy 44 Geothermal energy

441 Dry steam sources 442 Wet steam sources 443 Hot brine sources 444 Hot dry rock sources 445 Molten magma

45 Tidal energy 46 Wave energy

461 Oscillating water column system 462 Clam system 463 The duck device 464 Buoy mechanism

47 Biomass energy 5 Basic Concepts of Energy

51 Mechanical energy 52 Chemical energy 53 Nuclear fission

531 Nuclear fusion 54 Electrical energy

541 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 542 Hall effect 543 Energy storage in magnetic and electric fields 544 Alternating current 545 Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity 546 Transmission of electrical energy 547 Electric motors 548 Alternating current motors 549 Transformers 5410 Storage of electrical energy 5411 Batteries and fuel cells

55 Heat 551 Basic concepts of heat 552 Thermodynamics

6 Thermal Energy Systems 61 Thermodynamic cycles in heat engines

611 Carnot cycle 612 Rankine cycle 613 Gas turbine cycle

62 Isentropic efficiencies of individual components in the system 621 The isentropic efficiency of a turbine 622 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor 623 Pumps 624 Combustion chambers 625 Internal combustion engines 626 Refrigeration Cycle 627 The Stirling Engine

7 Hydrogen Energy Systems 8 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator 9 Appendix Water - A Common Substance with Uncommon Properties 205 B Makkawi G P Rao A Woldai and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 What is Water

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvi

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Origin of Water and the Oceans on the Earth 3 Properties of Water 4 Molecular Structure of Water 5 Hydrogen Bond Global Information and Data on Water Resources 210 Bushara M Ahmed International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu DhabiUAE 1 Introduction 2 North America (USA and Canada) 3 West Asia 4 Africa 5 Asia and the Pacific 6 Europe and CIS countries 7 Latin America and the Caribbean 8 Economics of Water and Energy Technology SI Units and Some Conversion Factors 219 A Woldai B Makkawi and D Al-Gobaisi International Center for Water and Energy Systems Abu Dhabi UAE 1 Introduction 2 Names and symbols for basic SI units

21 SI base units 22 SI derived units 23 Supplementary Units

3 Special names and symbols for derived SI units 4 Prefixes for SI units

41Units outside the SI 5 Conversion Factors

51Frequently used conversion factors seawater distillation 6 Standard Seawater 7 Physical properties of Seawater Rural and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 235 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Water Treatment Technology

21 Drinking Water Supply 22 Sanitation technology

3 Social Aspects 31 Priority of water supply and sanitation 32 Institutional Development

4 Economic and Financing 41 Cost of Water Supply and Sanitation 42 Payment of Charges

5 Community Participation 6 Hygiene Water Supply and Sanitation Technology 268 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xvii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

2 Water supply technologies 21 Water source management

211 Rainwater harvesting 212 Traditional wells 213 Spring protection

22 Water treatment 221 Outlines 222 System configuration 223 Contaminant removal

23 Leakage control 231 Adverse effects of water leakage 232 Pressure control 233 Leakage detection and monitoring 234 Piping material

3 Sanitation technologies 31 System selection 32 Nightsoil collection 33 Anaerobic digestion 34 Flush toilet 35 Sewerage

4 Stepwise improvement planning 41 Concept of stepwise improvement 42 Development target in master plan 43 Relevant information for adoption of stepwise improvement plan

Social Aspect 284 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Priority of water supply and sanitation

21 Large benefit against cost 22 Repercussion effect 23 Continuation 24 Measurable revenue from charges

3 Institutional development 31 Development of legal systems 32 Payment by the users as beneficiary 33 Interests in meter management system by the waterworks companies 34 Human resource management

4 Environmental consideration in development projects Economics and Financing 293 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Development cost of water supply and sanitation 3 Economic analysis

31 Evaluation procedure 311 Identification of costs and benefits 312 Pricing of costs and benefits 313 Conversion of costs and benefits to present value 314 Comparison of costs and benefits by investment criteria 315 Sensitivity analysis by selected factors

32 Pricing theory for economic analysis 321 Shadow price 322 Transfer payment

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xviii

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

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COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

323 Externality 324 Opportunity cost 325 Sunk cost 326 Combine prices in different time period 327 Discount factor 328 NPV BC ratio IRR

33 Estimating non-market values 4 Financial Management

41 Cost recovery 411 Community fund raising 412 Indirect taxes 413 Tariff 414 Water kioskpublic lavatory 415 Contribution in kind

42 Examining financial state 43 Governmental subsidies 44 System failure

441 Financial shortage 442 Material shortage 443 Unavailability or shortage of engineers 444 Insufficient storage of basic materials 445 Fixed water charges 446 Extremely low water charges

45 Ability to pay and percentage to be paid 5 System Options

51 Water charge and price of bottled water 52 On-site sanitation and off-site sanitation

Community Participation 311 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Participation and development

21 Development Cooperation and Participation 22 Successful Participatory Development 23 Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector

3 Possibilities and limitations of participatory approach 31 Several Degrees of Participation 32 Typical Processes of Participation 33 Participatory Evaluation 34 Pros and Cons in Participation

4 Important viewpoints for water supply and sanitation 41 Gender Issue 42 Poverty Issue 43 Conservation of Commons

5 Methodologies for participatory development 51 Logical Framework Approach

511 Logical Framework (Logframe) 512 ZOPP 513 PCM

52 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 53 Methodology for Participatory Assessment (MPA)

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xix

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx

Page 22: Common Fundamentals and Unit Operations in · PDF file©encyclopedia of life support systems (eolss) contents desalination and water resources common fundamentals and unit operations

COMMON FUNDAMENTALS AND UNIT OPERATIONS IN THERMAL DESALINATION SYSTEMS

Hygiene 325 Yasumoto Magara Professor of Engineering Hokkaido University Sapporo Japan Mitsugu Saito Technical Manager Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo Japan 1 Introduction 2 Global statistics on hygiene 3 Water related infectious diseases 4 Pathogenic organisms

41 Helminthiasis 42 Protozoiasis 43 Bacterial Diseases 44 Viral Infections

5 Hygiene promotion 51 Principles 52 Target group 53 Procedures 54 Social Marketing Approach

541 Key Component 542 Programming

55 Relation to other Components 6 School sanitation and hygiene 7 Hygiene evaluation

71 Study Plan 72 Training Study Team 73 Methodologies and Tools 74 Analysis and Interpretation

Index 343 About DESWARE 349

copy Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources (DESWARE) xx


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