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Commons Transition Plan
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p2pfoundation.net http://p2pfoundation.net/Commons_Transition_Plan Commons Transition Plan Background to the Commons Transition Project Michel Bauwens: The Commons Transition Plan you are about to read is rooted in the particular experience of the FLOK project in Ecuador, which took place mainly in the first half of 2014. This was a research project commissioned by three governmental institutions in the state of Ecuador. Its intention was to help Ecuador transition to a 'social knowledge' economy and society, i.e. , a society and economy that functions as common pools of shared knowledge in every domain of social activity. However, the experience (especially the 'generic' transition plan that was proposed) largely transcends the specific situation in Ecuador.Here, we propose a version of the plan that has been changed by removing most, if not all, specific references to Ecuador. Nevertheless, it is useful to know some of the background of the original project. Here is an excerpt of the introduction to the Ecuadorian version: The National Plan for Good Living of Ecuador recognizes and stresses that the global transformation towards knowledgebased societies and economies requires a new form for the creation and distribution of value in society. The National Plan's central concept is the achievement of 'Buen Vivir' ('Sumak Kawsay', in Kichwa language) or 'good living'; but good living is impossible without the availability of 'good knowledge', i.e. 'Buen Conocer' ('Sumak Yachay', in Kichwa language). The third national plan for 20132017 explicitly calls for an opencommons based knowledge society [1] . President Correa himself exhorted young people to achieve and fight for this open knowledge society [2] . The FLOK Society is a joint research effort by the Coordinating Ministry of Knowledge and Human Talent (with Minister Guillaume Long), the SENESCYT, i.e. the 'Secretaría Nacional de Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación' (with Minister Rene Ramirez) and IAEN, i.e. the 'Instituto de Altos Estudios del Estado' (with rector Carlos Prieto) to develop transition and policy proposals to achieve such an open commonsbased knowledge society. The acronym FLOK refers to: Free, meaning freedom to use, distribute and modify knowledge in universally available common pools; Libre stresses that it concerns free as in freedom, not as in 'gratis'; Open refers to the ability of all citizens to access, contribute to and use this common resource. The explanation of the FLOK acronym highlights one of the limitations of the original project. Indeed, the FLOK Research team was tasked with the transition to a 'social knowledge' economy, i.e. a commons of knowledge only, and not the commons of land, labor and money, which Karl Polanyi considered to be the three false commodities that were necessary for capitalism. A full commons transition would consider the four commons, i.e. the Polanyian triarchy, plus the knowledge commons. The research team circumvented this limitation by using a specific metholodology which systematically looked at 1) the feeding mechanisms for those commons, many of which require both 2) material and 3) immaterial (intangible) conditions for their successful development. Hence, in this roundabout way, it was possible to introduce many of the
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  • p2pfoundation.net http://p2pfoundation.net/Commons_Transition_Plan

    CommonsTransitionPlan

    BackgroundtotheCommonsTransitionProjectMichelBauwens:

    TheCommonsTransitionPlanyouareabouttoreadisrootedintheparticularexperienceoftheFLOKprojectinEcuador,whichtookplacemainlyinthefirsthalfof2014.ThiswasaresearchprojectcommissionedbythreegovernmentalinstitutionsinthestateofEcuador.ItsintentionwastohelpEcuadortransitiontoa'socialknowledge'economyandsociety,i.e.,asocietyandeconomythatfunctionsascommonpoolsofsharedknowledgeineverydomainofsocialactivity.However,theexperience(especiallythe'generic'transitionplanthatwasproposed)largelytranscendsthespecificsituationinEcuador.Here,weproposeaversionoftheplanthathasbeenchangedbyremovingmost,ifnotall,specificreferencestoEcuador.

    Nevertheless,itisusefultoknowsomeofthebackgroundoftheoriginalproject.HereisanexcerptoftheintroductiontotheEcuadorianversion:

    TheNationalPlanforGoodLivingofEcuadorrecognizesandstressesthattheglobaltransformationtowardsknowledgebasedsocietiesandeconomiesrequiresanewformforthecreationanddistributionofvalueinsociety.TheNationalPlan'scentralconceptistheachievementof'BuenVivir'('SumakKawsay',inKichwalanguage)or'goodliving'butgoodlivingisimpossiblewithouttheavailabilityof'goodknowledge',i.e.'BuenConocer'('SumakYachay',inKichwalanguage).Thethirdnationalplanfor20132017explicitlycallsforanopencommonsbasedknowledgesociety[1].PresidentCorreahimselfexhortedyoungpeopletoachieveandfightforthisopenknowledgesociety[2].TheFLOKSocietyisajointresearcheffortbytheCoordinatingMinistryofKnowledgeandHumanTalent(withMinisterGuillaumeLong),theSENESCYT,i.e.the'SecretaraNacionaldeEducacinSuperior,Ciencia,TecnologaeInnovacin'(withMinisterReneRamirez)andIAEN,i.e.the'InstitutodeAltosEstudiosdelEstado'(withrectorCarlosPrieto)todeveloptransitionandpolicyproposalstoachievesuchanopencommonsbasedknowledgesociety.TheacronymFLOKrefersto:

    Free,meaningfreedomtouse,distributeandmodifyknowledgeinuniversallyavailablecommonpools

    Librestressesthatitconcernsfreeasinfreedom,notasin'gratis'

    Openreferstotheabilityofallcitizenstoaccess,contributetoandusethiscommonresource.

    TheexplanationoftheFLOKacronymhighlightsoneofthelimitationsoftheoriginalproject.Indeed,theFLOKResearchteamwastaskedwiththetransitiontoa'socialknowledge'economy,i.e.acommonsofknowledgeonly,andnotthecommonsofland,laborandmoney,whichKarlPolanyiconsideredtobethethreefalsecommoditiesthatwerenecessaryforcapitalism.Afullcommonstransitionwouldconsiderthefourcommons,i.e.thePolanyiantriarchy,plustheknowledgecommons.Theresearchteamcircumventedthislimitationbyusingaspecificmetholodologywhichsystematicallylookedat1)thefeedingmechanismsforthosecommons,manyofwhichrequireboth2)materialand3)immaterial(intangible)conditionsfortheirsuccessfuldevelopment.Hence,inthisroundaboutway,itwaspossibletointroducemanyofthe

  • requirementsintermsofother'physical'commons.Nevertheless,thelimitationstands,andanynewerversionoftheCommonsTransitionPlanwouldnecessarilyintegratethetransitionpoliciesfortheremainingthreecommons.ThecurrentrevisedversionhasalreadybeensubstantiallydeFLOK'ed,thatis,itispublishedherewithmostifnotallofthereferencestotheEcuadoriancontextremoved.This'generic'versionismeanttobe'universal',notintheoldeurocentricmannerthatclaimstobeuniversallyapplicableasasinglesimilarprocess,butasareferencedocumentthatcanbediscussedindiverselocalcontexts,adaptedorrejectedinpartorwholedependingonthelocaldeliberationsofthecommoners.Butdespitethediversityoflocalconditions,therearestructuralsimilaritiesforallwhoarepartofthecurrentdominantworldsystemofglobalizedcapitalism.Allpeopleoftheworldaresubjectedtothepseudoabundanceofagrowthbasedsystemthatignoresnaturallimits,andtotheartificialscarcitiesimposedby'intellectualproperty'legislation,whichinhibitsandcriminalizesthefreecooperationofhumanity.Andallcountriesandpeoplesoftheworldsufferfromthesocialinjusticewhichaccompaniestheothertwoflaws.Theemancipatoryforcesoftheworldurgentlyneedtomoveawayfromthesimplemarket/stateduopolyandthefalsebinarychoicesbetween'moremarket'or'morestate'.Asanalternative,weproposethatwemovetoacommonscentricsocietyinwhichapostcapitalistmarketandstateareattheserviceofthecitizensascommoners.Whiletherearealreadysubstantial,ifnotthriving,socialmovementsinfavorofthecommons,thesharingsocietyandpeertopeerdynamics,thisisthefirstcoherentefforttocraftatransitionprograminwhichthistransformationisdescribedinpoliticalandpolicyterms.Thereaderwillfindoriginalanalysisofthenewformsofnetworkedcapitalismandhowtheycanbeovercomeacritiqueofthepredatoryformsofthesharing/commonseconomiesthatalreadyexistandnewconceptionsofcivilsociety,themarketandthestate,whichmustbetransformedsimultaneouslyandconvergentlyifwewanttoachievesuchatransition.Theaim,ofcourse,isnottoremainintheanalyticalphase,buttocraftlocalizedadaptedtransitionsthatcanalsoproduceglobalconvergencesforaction,andtobuildthesocialandpoliticalmovementsthatcanmakeithappen.

    TheFramingoftheProposal

    TheThreeValueModelsandthetransitiontoaSocialKnowledgeEconomy

    Inordertoframethetransitiontoa'socialknowledgeeconomy'oraCommonsbasedsocietalmodel,weuseaframingofthreeparticular'valueextractionanddistribution'systems,whichdeterminehoweconomicvalueiscreated,extracted,anddistributed.

    Thetraditionalcapitalistvaluemodelisofcoursewellknown,buttheemergenceofaknowledgesocietyhasalreadychangedthesedynamicstoafundamentalextent.

    Inthetraditionalmodel,beforetheeraofnetworkedandcognitiveproduction,privatecapitalactorsinvestincapitalandlabour,andselltheindustrialandconsumerproductswithasurplusvalue.

    Butthenewmodelsofcognitivecapitalismworkwithdifferentmodelsofvalueextractionanddistribution,andwedistinguishthreedifferentmodels,whichincludesthepostcapitalistmodelofthesocialknowledgeeconomy.InthecontextofthisCommonsTransitionPlan,wedefinecognitivecapitalismgenericallyasthatmodelofcapitalismwheretheownershipandcontrolofinformationflowsisthekeyfactorfortheextractionofvalue[3].

  • Ofthethreemodelswewilldistinguish,oneformisstilldominant,butrapidlydeclininginimportanceasecondformisreachingdominance,butcarrieswithinitselftheseedsofitsowndestructionathirdisemerging,butneedsvitalnewpoliciesinordertobecomedominant.

    Thefirstformistheclassicformofcognitivecapitalism,basedona"rentier"capitalismthatextractsrentfromIntellectualProperty,andinwhichfinancialcapitaldominates.AgooddescriptionofthisformisMcKenzieWark'sHackerManifesto(2004),inwhichhedescribesthelogicof"vectoralcapitalism",wherethe'vectors'ofcommunicationareinthehandsofmassmediaandthemultinationalcorporationsthatorganizeproduction.Thisfirstformofcognitivecapitalismwasdominantinthefirsteraofnetworkedcomputing,beforetheemergenceofthecivicinternetandtheweb,whenthenetworkswereexclusivelyinthehandsofmultinationalcompaniesand/orgovernmentsandtheircentralizedpublicchannels.Inthissystem,theprofitofcapitalisincreasinglydependenton'intellectualproperty'regulationsthatkeeptechnical,scientific,commercialandotherformsofknowledgeartificiallyscarce,andthereforeallowtherealizationofsuperprofits.Theprofitsofpurelyindustrialproductionhavebecomelow,butthebenefitsofIPandthecontrolofthenetworksofproductionthroughIT,allowforthegenerationofhugemonopolisticprofits.Thisfirstformofcognitivecapitalismisfarfromdying,isstillinfactdominant,butisneverthelessunderminedintheseconderaofnetworkedcomputing,whereinternetworksarenowdiffusedthroughoutsociety,andthevectorsofproductioncannolongerbemonopolized.Furthermore,theubiquityofdigitaltechnology,anditsabilitytoreproduceinformationalproductsatreducedmarginalcost,severelyunderminesthemaintenanceofanintellectualpropertyregimebasedonmaintainingartificialscarcity,throughlegalrepressionortechnologicalsabotage(suchastheuseofDigitalRightsManagement[4]).

    Thesecondmodel:NetarchicalCapitalismbasedonthecontrolofnetworkedplatforms

    Indeed,theseconderaofmassivelynetworkedcomputing,bornwiththepubliclyaccessibleinternet,hasunderminedthecontrolofthe"vectoral"class,andcreatedanewclassofcontrollers,thatof"netarchicalcapital",thetypeofcapitalinvestmentthatcontrolsproprietarysocialmediaplatforms,butthatneverthelessenablesdirectpeertopeercommunicationbetweenindividuals.

  • Thissecondformofnetarchicalcapitalism,isaformwherecapitalnolongercontrolsthedirectproductionofinformationandcommunication,butextractsvaluethroughitsnewroleasplatformintermediary.ThismodelreliesmuchmoremarginallyonIPprotection,butratherallowsp2pcommunicationbutcontrolsitspossiblemonetizationthroughtheroleandtheownershipoftheplatformsforsuchcommunication.Typically,asinproprietarysocialmediasuchasFacebookorGoogle,thefrontendispeertopeer,i.e.itallowsp2psociality,butthebackendiscontrolled,thedesignisinthehandsoftheowners,asaretheprivatedataoftheusers,anditistheattentionoftheuserbasethatismarketedthroughadvertising.Thefinancialisationofcooperationisstillthenameofthegame.Thisformisahybridformhowever,becauseitalsoallowsthefurthergrowthofp2psocialityinwhichmediaexchangeandproductionislargelyavailabletoaneverlargeuserbase.

    Thisformthuscoexistswithmultipleformsofgrassrootsp2pproductionandexchange,andseesforexampletheemergenceofmoremonetarydiversity,intheformofmorelocalizedcomplementaryorcommunitydrivencurrencieswhichactasdefendersoflocaleconomicflowsandintheformofaglobalreservecryptocurrencylikeBitcoin,ashadowcurrencythatisusefulasa'civic'postWestphaliancurrencybutatthesametimeexhibitsthefeaturesoffinancialcapitalisminanexacerbatedfashion.Netarchicalcapitalismsuffersfromasevere'valuecrisis',inwhichthelogicofusevaluestronglyemergesandgrowsexponentially,butinademonetizedform.Theremainingmonetizedvaluerestsonspeculativevaluationofcooperativevaluecreationbyfinancialmarkets.

    TheValueCrisisunderconditionsofnetarchicalcapitalism

  • Neoliberalismwascharacterizedbyaparticular'valuecrisis'whichexplodedinthesystemiccrisisof2008.Underthegeneralconditionsoftheneoliberalregime,thewagesoftheworkershavestagnated,andthepartthatgoestotheownersofcapitalincreased,creatingacrisisofaccumulation,whichwassolvedthroughcredit.Whencorporations,governmentsandthegeneralconsumer'screditbecameoverextended,by2008,theneoliberalsystementeredintoasystemiccrisis.Alreadyunderneoliberalism,thematerialvalueoftheassetsofproduction,arebutasmallpartoftheevaluationofacompany'svalue,andtheexcessvaluecanbeconsideredalreadyasaformofextractionofthehumanimmaterialcooperation.Underconditionsofcognitivecapitalism,especiallyunderitsnetarchicalform,thisvaluecrisisisexacerbated.

    Theperiodsincethe1990s,whencivicinternetworksbecameincreasinglyavailabletothewiderpopulation,andcommonsbasedpeerproduction,andotherformsofnetworkedvaluecreationbecamepossible,sawthebirthofamixedregime.

    Throughthedifferentformsofpeerproductionandnetworkedvaluecreation,usevalueisincreasinglycreatedindependentlyoftheprivateindustrialandfinancialsystem,andtakesplacethroughtheciviccontributoryform,whereimmaterialusevalueisdepositedincommonpoolsofknowledge,codeanddesign.

    In'pure'peerproduction,whichwecancallaformofaggregateddistributionoflabor,contributors,voluntaryorpaid,contributetoacommonpoolwheretheimmaterialvalueisdepositedforbenefitassociations,suchastheFLOSSFoundations,enablethecontinuedcooperationtooccurandentrepreneurialcoalitionsofmostlyforprofitcapitalistenterprise,capturetheaddedvalueinthemarketplace.Inthismodel,thoughthereiscontinuedcreationofusevalueinthecommons,andthus,'anaccumulationofthecommons'basedonopeninput,participatoryprocessesofproduction,andcommonsorientedoutputwhichisavailabletoalluserscapitalaccumulationcontinuesthroughtheformoflabourandcapitalintheentrepreneurialcoalitions.Butanincreasingamountofvoluntarylabourisextractedinthisprocess.Inthesharingformofnetworkedvalue,characterizedbysocialmedia/networkingtakingplaceoverproprietaryplatforms,theusevalueiscreatedbythesocialmediausers,buttheirattentioniswhatcreatesamarketplacewherethatusevaluebecomesextractedexchangevalue.Intherealmofexchangevalue,thisnewformof'netarchicalcapitalism'(thehierarchiesofthenetwork)maybeinterpretedashyperexploitation,sincetheusevaluecreatorsgototallyunrewardedintermsofexchangevalue,whichissolelyrealizedbytheproprietaryplatforms.Finally,intheformofcrowdsourcedmarketplaces,whatwecalldisaggregateddistributionbecausetheworkersareisolatedfreelancerscompetingwithoutcollectivesharedIP,capitalabandonsthelabourformandexternalizesriskonthefreelancers.Accordingtopreliminaryresearchby'digitallabor'researcherTreborScholz[5]theaveragehourlyincomeinsomecasesdoesnotexceed2dollarsperhour,whichiswaybelowtheU.S.Minimumwage.AtypicalexampleistheskillsmarketplaceTaskRabbitt,wheretheworkerscannotcommunicatewitheachother,butclientscan.

    Undertheregimeofcognitivecapitalism,usevaluecreationexpandsexponentially,butexchangevalueonlyriseslinearly,andisnearlyexclusivelyrealizedbycapital,givingrisetoformsofhyperexploitation.Wewouldarguethatitcreatesaformofhyperneoliberalism.Whileinclassicneoliberalism,labourincomestagnates,inhyperneoliberalism,societyisdeproletarized,i.e.wagedlaborisincreasingreplacedbyisolatedandmostlyprecariousfreelancersmoreusevalueescapesthelabourformaltogether.

    Underthemixedregimeofcognitivecapitalisminitsnetarchicalform,networkedvalueproductiongrows,andhasmanyemancipatoryeffectsinthesocialfieldofusevaluecreation,butthisisincontradictionwiththefieldofexchangevaluerealization,wherehyperexploitationoccurs.Thisiswhatwemeanwhenwesaythatthereisanincreasedcontradictionbetweentheprotomodeofproductionthatispeerproduction,andassociatedformsofnetworkedvaluecreationandtherelationsofproduction,whichremainunderthedominationoffinancialcapital.

    Inthisnewhybridform,asectorofcapital,netarchicalcapitalism,hasliberateditselftosomesignificantdegreeoftheneedforproprietaryformsofknowledge,butithasactuallyincreasedthelevelofsurplusvalueextraction.Atthesametime,usevalueescapesmoreandmoreitsdependencyoncapital.Thisformof

  • hyperneoliberalismcreatesacrisisofvalue.First,thepartofexchangevaluemediatedlabor,diminishescomparedtotheroleofdirectusevaluecreation,makingcapitalincreasinglysuperfluousandparasiticalsecond,theformsofvaluecreationexplode,butthecontinuedrelianceonmonetizedexchangevaluedoesnotallowfortherealizationofthatvaluebytheusevalueproducersprofitsintheindustrialeconomy,diminishaswell,makingthefinancialsectoranditsrelianceonIPrent,theincreasinglydominantpoweratthesametime,thepowerofIPrentextractionisunderminedbydirectusevaluecreation.Inanycase,allthesetrendscreateacrisisfortheaccumulationofcapitalthefeedbackloopbetweenusevaluecreation,andtheexchangevaluecapture,ideallyredistributedeitheraswagesorthroughsocialpayments,isbrokenoverrelianceondebtrendersmassivelendingmootasasolution.Capitalbecomesmorereliantontheexternalitiesofsocialcooperation,yetfailstorewardit.Astheconceptof'value'becomesincreasinglyunclearandcomplex(anddelinkedfromaclearcorrelationtohourlylabor),financialcapitalismattemptstorealizethevalueofthissocialcooperationthroughspeculativemechanismsinstead,butwhichthenpotentiallyincreasetheamountoffictitiouscapitalinthesystem(thefictitiouscapitalisactuallytheunrealizedusevaluethatisnolongerrewardedbecauseofthevaluecrisis).ThesecorrelatedissuesareexaminedindepthbyAdamArvidssonandNicolaiPeitersenintheirbookontheEthicalEconomy(2013).

    Wecouldcallthisvalueregimeneofeudal,becauseitreliesincreasinglyonunpaid'corvee'andcreateswidespreaddebtpeonage.Finally,ownershipisreplacedbyaccess,diminishingthesovereigntythatcomeswithproperty,andcreatingdependenciesthroughtheonesidedlicensingagreementsinthedigitalsphere.

    Towardsathirdmodel:amature'civic'peertopeereconomy

    Thethirdisthehypotheticalformwebelievewemaysuccessfullytransitionto,ifwesucceedinrebuildingtransformativesocialmovements,andhencesucceedalsointransformingthestatesothatitcanactasaPartnerStatewhichfacilitatesthecreationofnewcivicinfrastructures.Inthismodel,peerproductionismatchedtobothanewmarketandstatemodel,createamaturecivicandpeerbasedeconomic,socialandpoliticalmodel,wherethevalueisredistributedtothevaluecreators.Thesechangeshavebeencarriedforwardinthepoliticalspherebyaemergingcommonsmovement,whichespousesthevaluesystemofpeerproductionandthecommons,drivenbytheknowledgeworkersandtheirallies.

  • Solvingthevaluecrisisthroughasocialknowledgeeconomy

    Sincethemixedmodelseemstocreateuntenablecontradictions,itbecomesnecessarytoimagineatransitiontoamodelwheretherelationsofproductionarenotincontradictionwiththeevolutionofthemodeofproduction.Thismeansasystemofpoliticaleconomywhichwouldbebasedontherecognition,andrewarding,ofthecontributivelogicatworkincommonsorientedpeerproduction.

    Ifwelookatthemicrolevel,werecommendtheintermediationofcooperativeaccumulation.Intoday'sfreesoftwareeconomy,openlicencesenablethelogicofthecommons,oreventechnically,'communism'(eachcontributeswhathe/shecan,eachuseswhatisneeded),butcreatedaparadox:'themorecommunisticthelicense,themorecapitalistictheeconomy',sinceitspecificallyallowslargeforprofitenterprisestorealizethevalueofthecommonsinthesphereofcapitalaccumulation.Hence,ironically,thegrowthofa'communismofcapital'.

    Weproposetoreplacethenonreciprocal'communistic'licenses,withsocialistlicenses,i.e.basedontherequirementofreciprocity.

    Hence,theuseofapeerproductionlicense[6],wouldrequireacontributiontothecommonsforitsfreeuse,atleastfromforprofitcompanies,tocreateastreamofexchangevaluetothecommoners/peerproducersthemselvesinaddition,commonerswouldcreatetheirownmarketentities,createaddedmarketvalueon

  • topofthecommons,realizethesurplusvaluethemselves,andcreateaethicaleconomyaroundthecommons,wherethevalueoftheproductionofrivalgoodswouldberealized.Suchethicalentrepreneurialcoalitionswouldlikelyenableopenbookaccountingandopensupplychains,thatwouldcoordinatetheeconomyoutsideofthesphereofbothplanningandthemarket.Theethicalentrepreneurialcoalitionscouldexpandthesphereofthecommonsbytheuseofcommonsventures,suchasinthe'venturecommunist'modelproposedbyDmytriKleiner.Inthismodel,cooperativesinneedofcapitalwouldfloatabondthatwouldallowthepurchaseofmeansofproduction.Thesemeansofproductionwouldbelongtothecommonsinotherwords,themachineswouldberentedfromthecommonpool,butthisrentwouldalsoberedistributedtoallthemembersofthecommons.Inthisbinaryeconomicform,thecommonerscooperatorswouldreceivebothawagefromtheircooperative,butalsoanincreasingpartofthecommonrent.(Inaddition,allcitizenswouldbenefitfromabasicincomeprovidedbythePartnerState).Suchentrepreneurialcoalitions,intrinsicallyinsolidaritywiththeircommons,couldalsomovetopracticessuchasopenaccountingandopenlogistics,whichwouldallowforwidespreadmutualcoordinationoftheirproductivecapacities,henceusheringanewthirdmodelofallocationthatwouldbeneitheramarket,noraplanningsystem.(Insuchasystem,actionandproductionarecoordinatedthroughopenmutualsignallinginafullytransparentsystem.[7])Inotherwords,thestigmergiccoordination,whichisalreadyoperatinginthesphereof'immaterial'productionsuchasfreesoftwareandopendesign,wouldgraduallybetransferredtothesphereof'material'production.Tothedegreethatsuchstigmergicsystemscreatethepossibilityofresourcebasedeconomicmodels,suchspheresoftheeconomywouldbegraduallydemonetizedandreplacedbymeasurementsystems(i.e.commoditycurrencieswith'storeofvalue'systemswouldgraduallydisappear).

    However,suchchangesatthelevelofthemicroeconomywouldnotsurviveahostilecapitalistmarketandstatewithoutnecessarychangesatthemacroeconomiclevelhencetheneedfortransitionproposals,carriedbyaresurgentsocialmovementthatembracesthenewvaluecreationthroughthecommons,andbecomesthepopularandpoliticalexpressionoftheemergingsocialclassofpeerproducersandcommonersalliedwiththeforcesrepresentingbothwagedandcooperativelabor,independentcommonsfriendlyentrepreneurs,andagriculturalandserviceworkers.

    FourTechnologyRegimes

    Valueregimesaremoreorlessassociatedwithtechnologyregimes,sincetheforcesatplaywanttoprotecttheirintereststhroughthecontroloftechnologicalandmediaplatforms,whichencouragecertainbehavioursandlogics,butdiscourageothers.Thepowersovertechnologicalprotocolsandvaluedrivendesigndecisionsareusedtocreatetechnologicalplatformsthatmatchproprietaryinterests.

    Thus,evenaspeertopeertechnologiesandnetworksarebecomingubiquitous,ostensiblysimilarp2ptechnologieshaveverydifferentcharacteristicswhichleadtodifferentmodelsofvaluecreationanddistribution,andthusdifferentsocialandtechnologicalbehaviours.Innetworks,humanbehaviourcanbesubtlyornotsosubtlyinfluencedbydesigndecisionsandinvisibleprotocolsthataredesignedintheinterestoftheownersormanagersoftheplatforms.

    Thefollowinggraphicisorganizedaroundtwoaxes,whichdetermineatleastfourdistinctpossibilities.

    Thefirsttopdownaxisdistinguishescentralizedtechnologicalcontrol(andaorientationtowardsglobality)fromdistributedtechnologicalcontrol(andaorientationtowardslocalization)thehorizontalaxisdistinguishesaforprofitorientation(whereanysocialgoodissubsumedtothegoalofshareholderprofit),fromforbenefitorientations(whereeventualprofitsaresubsumedtothesocialgoal).

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    Thefourpotentialscenariosarediscussedhere:

  • NetarchicalCapitalismasatechnologicalregime:peertopeerfrontend,hierarchicalbackend

    Netarchicalcapitalism,thefirstcombination(upperleftquadrant),matchescentralizedcontrolofadistributedinfrastructurewithanorientationtowardstheaccumulationofcapital.NetarchicalcapitalisthatfractionofcapitalwhichenablesandempowerscooperationandP2Pdynamics,butthroughproprietaryplatformsthatareundercentralizedownershipandcontrol.Whileindividualswillsharethroughtheseplatforms,theyhavenocontrol,governanceorownershipoverthedesignandtheprotocolofthesenetworks/platforms,whichareproprietary.Forexamples,thinkofFacebookorGoogle.Typicallyunderconditionsofnetarchicalcapitalism,whilesharerswilldirectlycreateorshareusevalue,themonetizedexchangevaluewillberealizedbytheownersofcapital.Whileintheshorttermitisintheinterestofshareholdersorowners,thisalsocreatesalongertermvaluecrisisforcapital,sincethevaluecreatorsarenotrewarded,andnolongerhavepurchasingpowertoacquirethegoodsthatarenecessaryforthefunctioningofthephysicaleconomy.

    DistributedCapitalismasatechnologicalregime:thecommodificationofeverything

    Thesecondcombination,(bottomleftquadrant)calleddistributedcapitalism,matchesdistributedcontrolbutwitharemainingfocusoncapitalaccumulation.ThedevelopmentoftheP2PcurrencyBitcoin,theKickstartercrowdfundingplatform,andtheprivatelyownedsharingplatforms,arerepresentativeexamplesofthesedevelopments.Underthismodel,P2Pinfrastructuresaredesignedinsuchawayastoallowtheautonomyandparticipationofmanyplayers,whoareallowedtointeractwithouttheclassicintermediaries,butthemainfocusrestsonprofitmaking.InBitcoin,alltheparticipatingcomputerscanproducethecurrency,therebydisintermediatinglargecentralizedbanks.However,thefocalpointremainsontradingandexchangethroughacurrencydesignedforscarcity,andthusmustbeobtainedthroughcompetition.Theconsciousdeflationarydesignofthecurrencyinsuresapermanentincreaseinvalue,andthusencourageshoardingandspeculation.Ontheotherhand,Kickstarterfunctionsasareversemarketwithprepaidinvestment.Undertheseconditions,anyCommonsisabyproductoranafterthoughtofthesystem,andpersonalmotivationsaredrivenbyexchange,tradeandprofit.ManyP2Pdevelopmentscanbeseenwithinthiscontext,strivingforamoreinclusionarydistributedandparticipativecapitalism.Thoughtheycanbeconsideredaspartof,say,anantisystemicentrepreneurialismdirectedagainstthemonopoliesandpredatoryintermediaries,theyretainthefocusonprofitmaking.Heredistributionisnotunderstoodas"local",asthevisionisratherofavirtualeconomywheresmallplayerscanhaveaglobalcompact,andcreateglobalaggregationsamongthemselves.However,despitetheidealsexpressedbythepoliticalandsocialmovementsassociatedwithsuchamodel(suchasanarchocapitalismandtheAustrianSchoolofEconomics),inpractice,thesedynamicsinevitablyleadtoconsolidationandconcentrationofcapital.

    ThefollowingmodelassociatesdistributedlocalcontroloftechnologicalplatformswithafocusonthecommunityorCommons,andaimstocreateresiliencecommunitiesthatcanwithstandthevagariesofanunstableglobalmarketplace.(thebottomrightquadrant).Thefocushereismostoftenonrelocalizationandtherecreationoflocalcommunity.Itisoftenbasedonanexpectationforafuturemarkedbysevereshortagesofenergyandresources,orinanycaseincreasedscarcityofenergyandresources,andtakestheformoflifeboatstrategies.InitiativesliketheDegrowthmovementortheTransitionTowns,agrassrootsnetworkofcommunities,canbeseeninthatcontext.Inextremeforms,theyaresimplelifeboatstrategies,aimedatthesurvivalofsmallcommunitiesinthecontextofgeneralizedchaos.Whatmarkssuchinitiativesisarguablytheabandonmentoftheambitionofscaleandthefocusonstrongandresilientlocalcommunities.Thoughglobalcooperationandwebpresencemayexist,thefocusremainsonthelocal.Mostoften,politicalandsocialmobilizationatscaleisseenasnotrealistic,anddoomedtofailure.InthecontextofourprofitmakingversusCommonsaxisthough,theseprojectsaresquarelyaimedatgeneratingcommunityvalue.Agenericcritiqueofthismodelisthatitdoesnotgeneratecounterpoweroracounterhegemonyforthemodel,astheglobalizationofcapitalisnotmatchedorkeptincheckbyacounterforceof

  • thesamescale.Hencetheneedforasecondalternativemodel,whichalsorecognizestheimportanceofscaleandpaysattentiontothedynamicsofglobalpowerandgovernance.

    TheGlobalCommonsScenarioasthedesiredalternative

    TheGlobalCommonsapproach(upperrightquadrant)isagainsttheaforementionedfocusonthelocal,focusingontheglobalCommons.

    AdvocatesandbuildersofthisscenarioarguethattheCommonsshouldbecreatedfor,andfoughtfor,onatransnationalglobalscale.

    Thoughproductionisdistributedandthereforefacilitatedatthelocallevel,theresultingmicrofactoriesareconsideredasessentiallynetworkedonaglobalscale,profitingfromthemutualizedglobalcooperationbothonthedesignoftheproduct,andontheimprovementofthecommonmachinery.Anydistributedenterpriseisseeninthecontextoftransnationalphyles,i.e.alliancesofethicalenterprisesthatoperateinsolidarityaroundparticularknowledgeCommons,onaglobalandnotsimplylocalscale.Thus,thoughtheproductionislocal,thesocial,politicalandeconomicorganisationisglobal,andabletocreateacounterpoweratthatscale.

    Inaddition,politicalandsocialmobilization,onregional,nationalandtransnationalscale,isseenaspartofthestruggleforthetransformationofinstitutionsateverylevelofscale.ParticipatingenterprisesarevehiclesforthecommonerstosustainglobalCommonsaswellastheirownlivelihoods.Thislatterscenariodoesnottakesocialregressionasagiven,andbelievesinsustainableabundanceforthewholeofhumanity.

    Cognitive/NetarchicalCapitalismvs.anOpenCommonsbasedKnowledgeSociety

    Itmaybeusefulheretodirectlycomparetwosyntheticandcountervailingscenarios.Ontheonehand,theforprofitdrivenscenariosthatareinharmonywiththepresentpoliticaleconomyofcapitalandontheotherhand,thealternativescenarioofthesocialknowledgeeconomybasedonopencommonsprinciples.

    So:Whatexactlyisanopencommonsbasedeconomyandsociety?

    Tounderstanditwemustfirstlookattheoldersocialandeconomicmodelthatitreplaces.

    Theneoliberalandcapitalisteconomicformscombinethreebasicelements,fundamentalchoicesthatguidetheiroperation.

    Thefirstisthebeliefthattheearth'sresourcesareinfinite,whichallowsanideaofpermanentandcompoundeconomicgrowthintheserviceofcapitalaccumulation.Neoliberalcapitalismisthereforebasedonaillusionofafakeor'pseudoabundance'anditsgrowthmechanismisdedicatedtothesenselessaccumulationofmaterialriches.

    Thesecondisthebeliefthattheflowofknowledge,scienceandcultureshouldbeprivatized,andthereforeservestheexclusivebenefitofpropertyowners.Knowledgeismadetoservecapitalaccumulationandtheprofitsofthefew.Theprivatizationofknowledgethroughexcessivecopyrightsandpatentregimeshaveadramaticallyslowingeffect,andallowforaexclusionaryfinancialization.Thisleadstothecreationandmaintenanceofarticialscarcity.Whilemarketscanbeconsideredtobeaallocationmechanismforscarceandrivalgoods(ascarcityallocationmechanism),contemporaryIPproprietarycapitalismisascarcityengineeringmechanismswhichcreatesandincreasesscarcities.

    Finally,thetwofirstelementsareconfiguredinsuchawaythattheydonotservesocialjustice,equality,andbenefitsforall,butratherthebenefitsandprofitsforthefew.Undercognitivecapitalism,thefruitsofsocial

  • cooperationareenclosedandfinancialized,andthemajorityofthepopulationhastopayforknowledgethatislargelysociallyproduced.Onlythosewithmoneycanbenefitfromtechnicalandscientificinnovations.

    Then,wemustlookatthepositivecounterreactionsthathaveemergedandwhichhavebeenparticularlystrengthenedafterthecrisisofneoliberalism,whichwasfeltbysoutherncountriesinthepreviousdecades,butbecameglobalin2008.

    Afirstreactionhasbeentherecaptureofthestatebycitizenmovements,suchasparticularlyintheAndeancountrieslikeEcuador.

    Thesecondisareemergenceandfloweringofneweconomicformsbasedonequity,suchasthecooperativeeconomy,thesocialeconomy,andthesolidarityeconomy.Thenewprogressivegovernments,andafewothers,areallcommittedtothestrengtheningofthesemoresociallyjusteconomicforms.

    Third,wehaveseentheemergenceofasharingeconomy,whichismutualizingphysicalinfrastructures(thoughoftenintheformofprivateplatforms)inordertoreuseandmakeavailabletheenormousamountofsurplusmaterialandresourcesthathavebeencreatedinthelastthirtyyears.Apartfromtheexplosionofcarsharingandbikesharing,theyoftentaketheformof'peertopeermarketplaces',allowingcitizenstocreatemorefinegrainedexchangesoftheirsurplus.

    Fourth,andperhapsmostimportantly,wehaveseen,thankslargelytothepotentialityoftheglobalnetworks,theemergenceofcommonsbasedpeerproduction.Globallyandlocally,productivecommunitiesofcitizenshavebeencreatingvastcommonpoolsofknowledge,code(software),anddesign,whichareavailabletoallcitizens,enterprisesandpublicauthoritiestofurtherbuildon.Often,theseproductiveknowledgecommonsaremanagedbydemocraticfoundationsandnonprofits,whichprotectandenablethecommonproductiveinfrastructureofcooperation,andprotectthecommonpoolofknowledgefromexclusionaryprivateenclosure,mostoftenusingopenlicensestheyaresometimescalled'forbenefitassociations'.Veryoften,theseproductivecommunitiescoexistwithadynamicenterpreneurialcoalitionoffirmscocreatingandcoproducingthesecommonpools,therebycreatingadynamiceconomicsector.ItisverycommonfortheseopenecosystemstodisplacetheirproprietaryIPbasedcompetitors.AU.S.reportonthe'FairUseEconomy',i.e.economicactivitiesbasedonopenandsharedknowledge,estimateditseconomicweightinthatcountrytobeonesixthofGDP.

    Yetthereisalsoaparadox:itismostlikelythatitisthecapitalistformsthatfirstseethepotentialofthenewcommonsbasedeconomicforms,andallywiththemontheotherhand,cooperativeeconomicformsrarelystillpracticeandcoproduceopenknowledgepools.However,thereisanemergingtrendtotransformtheexistingcooperativetraditionbasedonsinglestakeholdergovernance,intomultistakeholdergovernance,andwhichintroducethecareofthecommongoodintheirstatutes.

    Whatthismeansisthattheemergingglobalknowledgeeconomy,cantodaytaketwocompetingforms.

    Inthefirstformoftheknowledgeeconomy,undertheregimeofcognitivecapitalism,wehaveontheonehandthecontinuationofproprietaryIP,andtherealisationofeconomicrentbyfinancialcapitalcombinedwithanewformof'netarchical'capital,whichenablesbutalsoexploitssocialproduction.ItisnotdifficulttoseethattherichesofgiantslikeFacebookandGooglearebasedonthehyperexploitationofthefreelabourofthecitizensusingtheirsocialnetworks.

    Theother,moredesirableformoftheknowledgebasedeconomyisbasedonopencommonsofknowledge,butwhicharepreferentiallylinkedtoanethicalandequitableeconomy.

    TheSocioEconomicImplicationsofaSocialKnowledgeEconomy

    JohnRestakis,expertincooperatives,researchcoordinatorforFLOK'sSocialInfrastructureandInstitutional

  • Innovationinvestigationandauthorof"HumanizingtheEconomy:CooperativesintheAgeofCapital"[8]

    offersthefollowingpositivedescriptionofthesocialknowledgeeconomy[9]:

    Inthecurrentdebateconcerningtheriseandconsequencesofcognitivecapitalismanewdiscourseisdevelopingaroundtheconceptofasocialknowledgeeconomy.Butwhatdoesasocialknowledgeeconomymeanandwhatareitsimplicationsforthewaysinwhichasocietyandaneconomyareordered?Cognitivecapitalismreferstotheprocessbywhichknowledgeisprivatizedandthencommodifiedasameansofgeneratingprofitforcapital.Inthisnewphaseofcapitalismthecentralizationandcontrolofknowledgeovertakesthetraditionalprocessesofmaterialproductionanddistributionasthedrivingforceofcapitalaccumulation.Inthepast,capitalismwasconcernedprimarilywiththecommodificationofthematerial.Essentialtothisprocesswasthegradualenclosureandprivatizationofmaterialcommonssuchaspasturelands,forests,andwaterwaysthathadbeenusedincommonsincetimeimmemorial.Inourtime,capitalismentailstheenclosureandcommodificationoftheimmaterialknowledge,culture,DNA,airwaves,evenideas.Ultimately,thedrivingforceofcapitalisminourageistheeradicationofallcommonsandthecommodificationofallthings.ThecolonizationandappropriationofthepublicdomainbycapitalisattheheartoftheNewEnclosures.Thisprocessissustainedandextendedthroughthecomplexandeverevolvingwebofpatents,copyrightlaws,tradeagreements,thinktanks,andgovernmentandacademicinstitutionsthatprovidethelegal,policy,andideologicalframeworksthatjustifyallthis.Aboveall,thelogicofthisprocessisembeddedinthevalues,organization,andoperationofthecapitalistfirm.Bycontrast,asocialknowledgeeconomyisbasedontheprinciplethatknowledgeisacommonsthatshouldbefreeandopenlyaccessibleforthepursuitofwhatReneRamirez,MinisteroftheSenescytinnovationagencyinEcuador,describesasgoodliving,notasaninstrumentofcommercialprofit.Knowledgeisperceivedasasocialgood.Astartingpointforansweringthisquestionistherecognitionthatknowledgeinasocietyitscreation,utilization,andvalueisaconstructthatismouldedbythesocialandeconomicforcesthatdefinethepowerrelationsinacommunity.Knowledgehasalwaysbeenattheserviceofpower.Cognitivecapitalism,theprocessbywhichhumanknowledgeisbothprivatizedandcommodified,resultsfromthedominationandpowerofcapitalisteconomicandsocialrelations,andinparticular,theundemocraticandprivatizednatureofeconomics,markets,andtheorganizationalstructureoffirms.Inpreviousagesknowledgewasalsocontrolledandmonopolized,totheextentthatitwaspossible,bykingorchurch.Todaysinformationtechnology,combinedwithglobalcorporatepower,hasmadesuchcentralizationandcontrolfareasierandfarmoreextensive.Ifthecharacteranduseofknowledgeinasocietyisaproductofexistingpowerrelations,thepursuitofasocialknowledgeeconomymustalsoentailarevisioningandrealigningofsocial,political,andeconomicrelationssuchthatthey,inturn,embodyandreinforcethevaluesandprinciplesofwhatknowledgeasacommonsimplies.Absentthis,howwouldasocialknowledgeeconomyoperate,orbesustained,inanoverwhelminglycapitalisteconomy?Wherearethesocialandeconomicspacesinwhichanopenknowledgecommonscouldbeusedintheserviceofthebroadercommunityorforcollectiveaims?Whatkindsororganizationsareneededtoinorderforknowledgetobeusedinthisway?Whataretheconditionsnecessaryforthemtothrive?Howcantheyprovideacounterweighttotheoverwhelmingpowerandinfluenceofcapital?Withoutstrongcivicinstitutionscommittedtotheideaofthecommonsandthepublicgood,openknowledgesystemsarevulnerabletoappropriationandultimatecommodificationbycapitalistfirmsasiscurrentlythecasewiththeinternetitself.TherecentrulingoftheU.S.FederalCommunicationsCommissionintheUnitedStatesunderminingnetneutrality[10]isamajoradvanceintheprivatizationofwhathasuntilnowbeenanequitablyaccessibleglobalcommonsofinformation.Aneconomyinwhichknowledgeisacommonsintheserviceof

  • socialendsrequiresthecorrespondingsocialandeconomicinstitutionsthatwillmobilizeandprotectknowledgefortherealizationoftheseends.Theoperationofasocialknowledgeeconomyultimatelydependsonsocialandeconomicinstitutionsthatembodythevaluesofcommons,reciprocity,andfree,openanddemocraticassociationthatareprerequisitesforthepursuitofsocialends.Inshort,asocialknowledgeeconomyultimatelyrestsonsocialeconomyvalues.Justascognitivecapitalismdependsonthemanifoldinstitutionalsupportssuppliedbygovernmentpolicy,legislation,freemarketideology,andthecollectivepoweroffirmsandtheinstitutionsthatservethem,evenmoresodoesasocialknowledgeeconomyrequirethecorrespondingcivicandeconomicinstitutionsthatcansupportandsafeguardthevalueofcommons,ofcollectivebenefit,ofopenandaccessiblemarkets,andofsocialcontrolovercapital.Thesecivicinstitutionsareembodiedinthestructureofdemocraticenterprises,ofpeertopeernetworks,ofnonprofitsandcommunityserviceorganizations,ofmutuallysupportingsmallandmediumfirms,andofcivilsocietyandthesocialeconomyitself.Itisthesesocialandeconomicstructures,basedontheprinciplesofreciprocityandservicetocommunity,thatcanbestutilizeknowledgeasacommonsandsafeguarditsfutureasanindispensableresourceforthecommongoodandthewellbeingofhumanityasawhole.Theidentificationoftheseinstitutionsandofthepublicpoliciesneededfortheirdevelopmentandgrowthistheoverarchingaimofthisresearch.

    Discussion:IPandpatentsimpedeandslowdowninnovation

    ByGeorgeDafermos,aresearcherindistributedmanufacturingbasedinCrete,GreeceandthecoordinatorofFLOK'sCommonsorientedProductiveCapacitiesinvestigation.

    Intellectualpropertyrightsandtheirsupposedroleincognitivecapitalism

    "Capitalistknowledgeeconomiesuseintellectualproperty(IP)rightsasmeansofenclosingknowledgeandasmechanismsbywhichtorealisetheextractionofmonopolyrentsfromknowledgethathasbeenthusprivatised.Thatisideologicallyjustifiedasfollows:exclusiveIPrightsprovideincentivesforindividualsandcompaniestoengageinresearchanddevelopnewproductsandservices.Thatis,theypromoteinnovation:theexpectationofprofitableexploitationoftheexclusiverightsupposedlyencourageseconomicagentstoturntheiractivitiestoinnovativeprojects,whichsocietywilllaterbenefitfrom(e.g.Arrow1962).ButisthatactuallyanaccuratedescriptionofthefunctionofIPrightsincapitalistknowledgeeconomies?Dotheyreallyspurinnovation?

    Asynopsisofempiricalevidenceontheeffectofexclusiveintellectualpropertyregimesoninnovationandproductivity

    Toanswerthisquestion,itisinstructivetolookattheavailableempiricaldataontheeffectofexclusiveIPrightsontechnologicalinnovationandproductivity.ThecaseoftheUnitedStatesisindicativeofacapitalistknowledgeeconomyinwhichtheflowofpatentshasquadrupledoverthelastthirtyyears:in1983theUSPatentOfficegranted59.715patents,whichincreasedto189.597in2003and244.341in2010(USPatentOffice2013).Lookingatthesenumbersbegsthequestion:howhasthedramaticincreaseinthenumberofpatentsissuedbytheUSPatentOfficeovertimeimpactedtechnologicalinnovationandproductivityintheUS?Well,accordingtotheUSBureauofLaborStatistics,theannualgrowthintotalfactorproductivityinthedecade19701979wasabout1,2%,whileinthenexttwodecadesitfellbelow1%.Inthesameperiod,R&Dexpenditurehoveredaround2,5%ofGDP(***).Inshort,

  • whatweseeisthatthedramaticincreaseinpatentshasnotbeenparalleledbyanincreaseinproductivityorinnovation.Nomatterwhichindicatorofproductivityorinnovationweuseintheanalysis,weareinvariablyledtotheconclusionthat'thereisnoempiricalevidencethatthey[patents]servetoincreaseinnovationandproductivity,unlessproductivity[orinnovation]isidentifiedwiththenumberofpatentsawarded'(BoldrinandLevine2013,p.3also,seeDosietal.2006).

    AnotherargumentoftenvoicedbyproponentsofexclusiveIPrightsindefenseofpatentsisthattheypromotethecommunicationofideasandthat,inturn,spursinnovation.Theyclaimthatifpatentsdidnotexist,inventorswouldtrytokeeptheirinventionssecretsothatcompetitorswouldnotcopythem(e.g.Belfanti2004).Fromthisstandpoint,thesolutiontotheproblemisatradebetweentheinventorandsociety:theinventorrevealshisinnovationandsocietygiveshimtherighttoexploititexclusivelyforthenexttwentyorsoyears.Hence,theargumentgoes,totheextentthattheyreplacesociallyharmfultradesecrets,patentspromotethediffusionofideasandinnovations(Moser2013,pp.3133).Inreality,however,patentshaveexactlytheoppositeeffect,encouragingignoranceandnoncommunicationofideas.Inwhathasbecomeastandardpractice,'companiestypicallyinstructtheirengineersdevelopingproductstoavoidstudyingexistingpatentssoastobesparedsubsequentclaimsofwillfulinfringement,whichraisesthepossibilityofhavingtopaytripledamages'(Boldrin&Levine2013,p.9Brec2008).Evenifthatwerenotalwaysthecase,thewayinwhichpatentdocumentsarewrittenactuallyrendersthemincomprehensibletoanyoneexceptlawyers(Brec2008Mann&Plummer1991,pp.5253Moser2013,p.39).

    Therealfunctionofintellectualpropertyrightsincognitivecapitalism:howdocapitalistfirmsactuallyusethem?

    What,however,morethananythingelsedisprovestheclaimedpositiveeffectofpatentsoninnovationandcreativityisthewayinwhichpatentsareactuallyusedbycapitalistfirms.Inacapitalistknowledgeeconomy,patentsareusedprimarilyas(a)meanstosignalthevalueofthecompanytopotentialinvestors,(b)asmeanstopreventmarketentrybyothercompanies(sotheyhavestrategicvalueindependentlyofwhethertheyareincorporatedinprofitableproducts)and(c)asweaponsinan'armsrace',meaningtheyareuseddefensivelytopreventorbluntlegalattacksfromothercompanies(e.g.,seeBoldrin&Levine2013Cohenetal.2000Hall&Ziedonis2007Levinetal.1987Pearce2012).Itwouldtakeaheroicleapoflogicforanyoftheseapplicationsofpatentstobeseenasproductive.Ontheotherside,thereisaplethoraofcasesinwhichtheeffectofpatentsoninnovationandproductivityhasbeenundoubtedlydetrimental.Indicatively,considerhowMicrosoftiscurrentlyusingapatent(no.6370566)relatedtotheschedulingofmeetingsinordertoimposealicensingfeeonAndroidmobilephones(Boldrin&Levine2013***).Inthiscase,patentsbecomeamechanismforsharingtheprofitswithoutanyparticipationintheactualprocessofinnovation.Assuch,theydiscourageinnovationandconstituteapurewasteforsociety.Interestingly,notthatlongago,BillGates(1991),Microsoftfounder,arguedthat'ifpeoplehadunderstoodhowpatentswouldbegrantedwhenmostoftoday'sideaswereinvented,andhadtakenoutpatents,theindustrywouldbeatacompletestandstilltoday...Afuturestartupwithnopatentsofitsownwillbeforcedtopaywhateverpricethegiantschoosetoimpose'.Itisironic,ofcourse,thatMicrosoft,notbeingabletopenetratethemobiletelephonymarket,isnowusingthethreatofpatentlitigationstoraiseaclaimoverpartofGoogle'sprofits.

    Thewayinwhichpatentsareusedincapitalistknowledgeeconomiesmakesitblatantlyobviousthat'inthelongrun...patentsreducetheincentivesforcurrentinnovationbecausecurrentinnovatorsaresubjecttoconstantlegalactionandlicensingdemandsfromearlierpatentholders'(Boldrin&Levine2013,p.7).Thisbecomesreadilyunderstood,considering

  • thattechnologicalinnovationisessentiallyacumulativeprocess(Gilfillan1935,1970Scotchmer1991):Cumulativetechnologiesarethoseinwhicheveryinnovationbuildsonprecedingones:forexample,thesteamengine(Boldrinetal.2008Nuvolari2004),butalsohybridcars,personalcomputers(Levy1984),theworldwideweb(BernersLee1999),YouTubeandFacebook.

    Butifpatentshaveatbestnoimpactandatworstanegativeimpactontechnologicalinnovationandproductivity(Dosietal.2006),thenhowisitpossibletoexplainespeciallyfromthelegislator'ssidethehistoricalincreaseinpatentsandtheexpansionofIPrelatedlaws?Manyanalystshaveponderedthisquestion.Theconclusiontowhichtheyhavebeenledisratherunsettling:theactualreasonbehindtheproliferationofpatentsandtheexpansionofIPrelatedlawsconsistsinthepoliticalinfluenceoflarge,cashrichcompanieswhichareunabletokeepupwithnewandcreativecompetitorsandwhichusepatentstoentrenchtheirmonopolypower.

    Discussion:theroleofIndigenousPeoplesand(Neo)TraditionalKnowledge

    Argumentsforthespecificroleof(neo)traditionalknowledgeandpeoplesinasocialknowledgetransition

    TheoriginalcommonstransitionprojectinEcuador(FLOK),wasrootedintheadaptationoftheindigenousconceptof'BuenVivir'(goodliving),whichpointstotheimportanceofreconnectingwiththecommonsvaluesandprinciplesoftheoriginalnativepeopleandtheexperiencesofprecapitalist,andpremodernsocieties,whichdidnotprioritizetheaccumulationofmaterialgoods.

    Suchneotraditionalapproaches,iftheyarebasedonamutualdialogue,areaveryimportantpartofatransitiontoasocialknowledgeeconomy.Inthefollowingsection,wemakethecasewhythisissoimportant.

    *TheMainArgument:thecommonimmaterialityoftraditionalandpostindustrialeras

    Itisnotdifficulttoarguethatmodernindustrialsocietiesaredominatedbyamaterialistparadigm.Whatexistsformodernconsciousnessismaterialphysicalreality,whatmattersintheeconomyistheproductionofmaterialproducts,andthepursuitofhappinessisinverystrongwaysrelatedtotheaccumulationofgoodsforconsumption.Fortheelite,itspowersderiveessentiallyfromtheaccumulationofcapitalassets,whethertheseareindustrialorfinancial.Infinitematerialgrowthisreallythecoremantraofcapitalism,anditismadenecessaryandfacilitatedbytheverydesignofthecontemporarymonetarysystem,wheremoneyismostlycreatedtointerestdrivenbankdebt.

    Butthiswasnotthecaseintraditional,agriculturebasedsocieties.Insuchsocieties,peopleofcoursedohavetoeatandtoproduce,andthepossessionoflandandmilitaryforceiscrucialtoobtaintributefromtheagriculturalworkers,butitcannotbesaidthattheaimisaccumulationofassets.Feudaltypesocietieswerebasedonpersonalrelationsconsistingofmutualobligations.Theseareofcourseveryunequalincharacter,butareneverthelessveryremovedfromtheimpersonalandobligationlesspropertyformsthatcamewithcapitalism,wherethereislittleimpedimentforgoodsandcapitaltomovefreelytowhomeveritissoldto.

    Intheseposttribalbutstillpremodernsocieties,boththeeliteandthemassbodyofproducersareunitedbyacommonimmaterialquestforsalvationorasimilarcorespiritualpursuitlikeenlightenment,etc,anditistheinstitutionthatisinchargeoforganizingthatquest,liketheChurchinthewesternMiddleAgesortheSanghainSouthEastAsia,thatisthedeterminingorganizationforthesocialreproductionofthesystem.Tributeflowsupfromthefarmingpopulationtotheowningclass,buttheowningclassisengagedinatwo

  • foldpursuit:showingitsstatusthroughfestivities,wherepartsofthesurplusisburnedupandgiftingtothereligiousinstitutions.Itisonlythiswaythatsalvation/enlightenment,i.e.spiritualvalueormeritinallitsforms,canbeobtained.Themoreyougive,thehigheryourspiritualstatus.Socialstatuswithoutspiritualstatusisfrowneduponbythosetypeofsocieties.ThisiswhyreligiousinstitutionsliketheChurchortheSanghaendupwithsomuchlandandpropertythemselves,asthegiftingcompetitionwasrelentless.Atthesametime,theseinstitutionsserveasthewelfareandsocialsecuritymechanismsoftheirday,byensuringthatapartofthatflowgoesbacktothepoorandcanbeusedintimesofsocialornaturalemergencies.

    Inthecurrentera,markedbyasteadydeteriorationofecosystems,isagainundergoingafundamentalandnecessaryshifttoimmateriality.

    Herearejustafewofthefactsandargumentstoillustratemypointforashifttowardsonceagainaimmaterialfocusinoursocieties.

    Thecosmopolitaneliteofcapitalhasalreadytransformeditselfforalongtimetowardsfinancialcapital.Inthisformofactivity,financialassetsaremovedconstantlywherereturnsarethehighest,andthismakesindustrialactivityasecondaryactivity.Ifwethenlookatthefinancialvalueofcorporations,onlyafractionofitisdeterminedbythematerialassetsofsuchcorporation.Therestofthevalue,usuallycalledgoodwill,isinfactdeterminedbythevariousimmaterialassetsofsuchcorporation,itsexpertiseandcollectiveintelligence,itsbrandcapital,thetrustinthepresentandthefutureexpectedreturnsthatitcangenerate.

    Themostprizedmaterialgoods,suchassayNikeshoes,showasimilarquality,only5%ofitssalesvalueissaidtobedeterminedbyphysicalproductioncosts,alltherestisthevalueimpartedtoitbythebrand(boththecosttocreateit,andthesurplusvaluecreatedbytheconsumersthemselves).

    Theshifttowardsaimmaterialfocuscanalsobeshownsociologically,forexamplethroughtheworkofPaulRayonculturalcreatives,andofRonaldInglehartontheprofoundshifttopostmaterialvaluesandaspirations.

    Forpopulationswhohavelivedformorethanonegenerationinbroadmaterialsecurity,thevaluesystemshiftsagaintothepursuitofknowledge,cultural,intellectualandspiritualexperience.Notallofthem,notallthetime,butmoreandmore,andespeciallysofortheculturaleliteofculturalcreativesorwhatRichardFloridahascalledtheCreativeClass,whichisalsoresponsibleforkeyvaluecreationincognitivecapitalism.

    Onemoreeconomicargumentcouldbementionedinthecontextofcognitivecapitalism.Inthismodelofoureconomy,thecurrentdominantmodelasfarasvaluecreationisconcerned,thekeysurplusvalueisrealizedthroughtheprotectionofintellectualproperties.DominantWesterncompaniescansellgoodsatover100to1,000timestheirproductionvalue,throughstateandWTOenforcedintellectualrents.Itisclearlytheimmaterialvalueofsuchassetsthatgeneratetheeconomicstreams,eventhoughitrequirescreatingfictitiousscarcitiesthroughthelegalapparatus.

    Wehavearguedbeforethatthismodelisunderminedthroughtheemergenceofdistributedinfrastructuresfortheproduction,distributionandconsumptionofimmaterialandculturalgoods,whichmakessuchfictitiousscarcityuntenableinthelongrun.Theimmaterialvaluecreationisindeedalreadyleakingoutofthemarketsystem.Whileweneedsuchatransitiontowardsafocusonimmaterialvalue,italsocreatesverystrongcontradictionsinthepresentpoliticaleconomy,oneofthemainreasonswhyashifttowardsaintegratedsocialknowledgeeconomy,isavitalnecessity.

    *TheSecondArgument:thenatureofpostdeconstructivetransmodernism

    Industrialsociety,itsparticularmentalandculturalmodels,areclearlyantagonistictotradition.Theoldstructuresmustgo:religionisseenassuperstition,communityisseenasrepressiveofindividuality,andtraditionisseenashamperingthefreeprogressofdynamicindividuals.Thismakesmodernismbothaveryconstructiveforce,forallthenewitiscapableofinstitutinginsociety,butalsoaverydestructiveforce,at

  • warwiththousandsofyearsoftraditionalvalues,lifestylesandsocialorganization.Itattemptstostripindividualsofwholisticcommunity,replacingitwithdisciplinaryinstitutions,andcommoditybasedrelations.

    Thesubsequentpostmodernistphaseisacultural(butalsostructuralasitisitselfanexpressionofcapitalistreorganization)reactionagainstmodernityandmodernism.Postmodernismisabovealladeconstructivemovement.Againstallreificationandessentialisation,itrelativiseseverything.Nothing,noindividualstandsalone,weareallconstitutedoffragmentsthatthemselvesarepartofinfinitefields.Throughinfiniteplay,thefragmenteddividualhasatitsdisposalinfiniteconstitutiveelementsthatcanberecombinedininfiniteways.Thepositivesideofit,is,thatalongwithfreeinguswithfictitiousfixedframeworksofbeliefandmeaning,italsoreopenesthegatesofthepastandoftradition.Everythingthatisusable,isreusable,andthewaragainsttraditionends,tomakeplaceforpragmaticreappropriation.

    Butastheverynameindicates,postmodernismcanonlybeafirstphaseofcritiqueandreactionagainstmodernityandmodernism,stillverymuchbeholdentoit,ifonlyinitsreactivitytoallthingsmodern.Itisdeconstructive,asocialregressionofthecollectiveegothatcanonlyreceiveultimatetherapeuticmeaningifitisfollowedbyareconstructivephase.Forpostmodernismtohaveanyultimatepositivemeaning,itmustbefollowedbyatransformative,reconstructivephase.Atransmodernismifyoulike,whichgoesbeyondmodernityandmodernism.Inthatnewphase,traditioncannotjustbeappropriatedanylongerasanobject,butrequiresadialogueofequalswithtraditionalcommunities.Theyarevital,becausetheyalreadyhavetherequiredskillstosurviveandthriveinapostmaterialage.

    *TheThirdArgument:theproblematicnatureofunchangedtradition

    Usingorreturningtoapremodernspiritualtraditionfortransmoderninspirationisnotapaththatiswithoutitsproblemsordangers:itcanveryeasilybecomeareactionarypursuit,afruitlessattempttogobacktoagoldenagethathasonlyexistedintheimagination.

    Thecoreproblemisthatmanyspiritualtraditionsalloccurredwithinthecontextofexploitativeeconomicandpoliticalsystems.Thoughtheexploitationwasdifferent,mosttraditionalspiritualityanditsinstitutionsdevelopedinsystemsthatwerebasedontribute,slavery,orserfdom.Thesesystemsusuallycombinedadisenfranchisedpeasantpopulation,awarriororotherrulingclass,inwhichthetraditionalChurchorSanghaplayedacrucialroleforitssocialreproduction.Forexample,Buddhismonlybecameacceptabletotothemainstreamsocietyofitstimewhenitacceptedtoexcludeslaves.Despiteitsradicaldemocraticpotential,itbecameinfusedwiththefeudalauthoritystructurethatmirroredthesocietyofwhichitwasapart.Thesespiritualitiesarethereforerifewithpatriarchy,sexismandotherprofoundlyunequalviewsandtreatmentsofhumanbeings.

    Thoughthelogicwasprofoundlydifferentfromcapitalism,theseformsofexploitation,andtheirjustificationbyparticularreligiousorspiritualsystemsandinstitutions,shouldprovetobeunacceptabletocontemporary(post/transmodern)consciousness.Perhapsasymmetricalbutequallyproblematicapproachwouldbethepureeclecticismthatcanbetheresultofpostmodernconsciousness,inwhichisolatedpartsofanytraditionaresimplystolenandrecombinedwithoutanyseriousunderstandingofthedifferentframeworks.

    Anotherproblemweseeisthefollowing:contemporarycommunicationtechnologies,andglobalizedtradeandtravel,andtheunificationoftheworldundercapitalism,havecreatedtheenhancedpossibilityforagreatmixingofcivilizations.Thoughcontactandinterchangewasalwaysareality,itwasslow,anditdifferentcivilisationalspheresreallydidexist,whichcreatedprofoundlydifferentculturalrealitiesandindividualpsychologies.TobeaChristianoraBuddhistmeanttohaveprofoundlydifferentorientationstowardslifeandsociety(despitestructuralsimilaritiesinreligiousorspiritualorganization).Butagrowingpartofthehumanpopulation,ifnotthewholepart,isnowprofoundlyexposedtotheunderlyingvaluesoftheothercivilisationalspheres.Forexample,EasternAsiannotionshavesimilarlyalreadyprofoundlyimpactedwesternconsciousness.Inthiscontext,rootednessinonescultureandspiritualtraditionscannolongerbeseparatedwithaglobalcosmopolitanapproachandacontinousdialoguewithviewpointsandframeworks

  • thatoriginateelsewhere.Increasinlyglobalaffinitynetworksarebecomingasimportantaslocalassociationsininfluencingindividualsandtheiridentitybuilding.

    *FourthArgument:theroadtodifferentialpostindustrialdevelopment

    Ibelieveitwouldbefairtosaythatcontemporarycapitalismisamachinetocreatehomogeinityworldwide,andthatthisisnotanoptimaloutcome,asitdestroysculturalbiodiversithy.Initscurrentformat,whichgotasevereshockwiththecurrentfinancialmeltdown,whichcombinesglobalization,neoliberalismandfinancialization,itisalsoanenormousapparatusofcoercion.Itunderminesthesurvivabilityoflocalagricultureandcreatesanenormousflighttothecitiesitdestroyslongstandingsocialformssuchastheextendedfamily,andseverelyunderminestraditionalculture.Ofcourse,Idonotwanttoimplythatallchangeortransformationisnegative,butratherstressthatittakesawaythefreedomofmanywhowouldmakedifferentchoices,suchasthosewhowouldwanttostayinalocalvillage.

    Itisherethatneotraditionalapproachesofferrealhopeandpotential.Insteadofthewholesaleimportofglobalhabitsandtechnologies,forwhichsocietyhasnotbeenpreparedandwhichisexperiencedasanaliengraft,itoffersanalternativeroadofchoosingwhattoacceptandwhattoreject,andtocraftalocallyadaptedroadtopostindustrialdevelopment.

    ItremindsusofGandhisconceptofSwadeshiandappropriatetechnology.Herejectedbothwesternhightech,whichwasnotadaptedtomanylocalsituations,butalsounchangedlocalagragriantraditionandtechnology,whichwashardlyevolving.Instead,headvocatedappropriatetechnology,aintermediaryleveloftechnologywhichstartedfromthelocalsituation,buttookfrommodernscienceandtechnologythenecessaryknowledgetocreatenewtoolsthatwereadaptedtothelocalsituation,yetofferedincreasesinproductivity.

    Neotraditionaleconomicscouldtakeasimilarapproach,butnotlimitedtoanattitudetotechnologyselection,buttothetotalityofpoliticalandsocialchoices.Inthisway,inharmonywithlocalvalues,thoseaspectscanbechosen,whichincreasethequalityoflivelihoods,butdonotradicallysubvertchosenlifestylesandsocialforms.Itrepresentsanewapproachwhichcombinesthehightechofglobalizedtechnicalknowledge,withthehightouchelementsoflocalculture.Forexample,itbecomesimaginabletoconceiveoflocalvillages,adaptinglocalizedandsmallscalemanufacturingtechniquesbasedonthelatestadvancesinminiaturizationandflexibilisationofproductiontechnologies,andwhicharegloballyconnectedwithglobalknowledgenetworks.

    *FifthArgument:AdaptingtoSteadyStateEconomiesintheAgeoftheEndangeredBiosphere

    Theessenceofcapitalismisinfinitegrowth,makingmoneywithmoneyandincreasingcapital.Aninfinitegrowthsystemcannotinfinitelyperdurewithlimitedresourcesinalimitedphysicalenvironment.Todaysglobalsystemcombinesavisionofpseudoabundance,themistakenvisionthatnaturecanprovideendlessinputsandisaninfinitedump,withpseudoscarcity,theartificialcreationofscarcitiesinthefieldsofintellectual,culturalandscientificexchange,throughexaggeratedandeverincreasingintellectualpropertyrights,whichhamperinnovationandfreecooperation.

    Tobesustainable,ouremergingglobalhumancivilizationandpoliticaleconomyneedstoreversethosetwoprinciples.Thismeansthatwefirstofallneedasteadystateeconomy,whichcanonlygrowtothedegreeitcanrecycleitsinputbacktonature,soasnottofurtherdepletethenaturalstock.Anditrequiresaliberalizationofthesharingandexchangeoftechnicalandscientificknowledgetoglobalopeninnovationcommunities,sothatthecollectiveintelligenceofthewholeofhumankindcanbedirectedtothesolvingofcomplexproblems.

    Thefirsttransformationiscloselylinkedtoourcontemporarymonetarysystemandalternativeanswerscanbefoundinthetraditionalconceptionsofwealthofpreindustrialsocieties.

  • Forexample,traditionalreligionsassociatedwithagriculturebasedsocietiesandproductionsystems,outlawedinterest.Thereisagoodreasonforthat:whensomeoneextendsaloanwithinterest,thatinterestdoesnotexist,andtheborrowerhastofindthemoneysomewhereelse[11]..Inotherwords,topaybacktheinterest,hehastoimpoverishsomebodyelse.Thisofcourse,wouldbeextremelysociallydestructiveinastaticsociety,andtherefore,itcouldnotbeallowedtohappen,whichexplainsthereligiousinjunctionagainstinterest.

    However,inmoderncapitalistsocieties,asolutionhasbeenfound:growth.Aslongasthepieisgrowing,theinterestcanbetakenfromthegrowingpie.Theproblemhowever,isthatsuchamonetarysystemrequiresgrowth,infinitegrowth.Staticbusinessesareanimpossibility,sincethatwouldmeantheycannotpaybacktheinterest.

    Nowthatwehavereachedthelimitsofthebiosphere,nowthatweneedagainasteadystateeconomy,weneedinterestfreemonetarysystems,andparadoxically,thereligiousinjunctionsagainmakesense.

    Thisisjustoneoftheconnectionsbetweenthetransmodernchallenges,andthevalueoftraditional,andreligioussystemsrootedinthepremodernera,suchasBuddhistEconomics,andofcourse,thetraditionsof'BuenVivir'.

    Wecouldtakemanyotherexamples:forexample,modernchemicalagriculturedestroysthequalityoftheland,anddepletesit,sothatherealso,premoderntraditionalpracticesbecomeinterestingagain.However,aswestatedinthethirdargument,andrefinedinthefourthargument:sincetraditionisalsoproblematic,itcannotbesimplycopied,itcanonlybeusedinacriticalmanner.

    Anexampleofsuchacriticalapproachistheappropriatetechnologymovement.Inthisapproach,itisrecognizedthattraditionaltechnologyassuchisinsufficient,thathypermoderntechnologyisofteninappropriateinmoretraditionalsettings,andthattherefore,anintermediatepracticeisneeded,thatisbothrootedintradition,i.e.therealityofthelocalsituation,butalsoinmodernity,thecreativeuseoftechnologicalsolutionsandreasoning,soasthecreateanewtypeofappropriatetechnologicaldevelopment.

    *Conclusion:Cantheethosofthesocialknowledgeeconomybemixedwithneotraditionalapproaches?

    Withtheemergenceofthesocialknowledgeeconomyandcommonsbasedpeerproduction,andpracticeslikeopenanddistributedmanufacturing,anewalliancebecomespossible:thatbetweenthemosttechnologicallyadvancedopendesigncommunities,withthemajorityofthepeoplewhoarestillstronglylinkedtotraditionalpractices.Throughsuchanalliance,whichcombinesthetraditionalinjunctionforasteadystateeconomyinharmonywithnaturalpossibilities,adifferentiatedpostindustrialfuturecanbecreated,whichcanbypassthedestructivepracticesofindustrialeramodernism,andcancreateanappropriatetechnologyfuture,wherebymoretraditionalcommunitiescanmorefreelydecidewhattoadaptandwhattoreject.Whileontheotherhand,transmodernopendesigncommunitiescanlearnfromthewisdomoftraditionalapproaches.Suchanallianceneedsanideologicalvehicle,andBuenVivirisitsexpression.

    Thepotentialroleofcommonsbasedreciprocitylicensestoprotecttraditionalknowledge

    Reciprocitybasedlicensesfortraditionalknowledge

    Today,indigenousandothercommunitieswhowanttosharetheirknowledgeforthegoodoftherestofhumanityareinsomewhatofamoralbind.

  • IftheysharetheirknowledgewithoutanyIPprotection,oriftheysharetheirknowledgeusingtheclassicopenlicensesfromthefreesoftwaremovement,suchastheGeneralPublicLicense,theyintrinsicallyallowanyoutsideforces,includethemonopolisticmultinationals,toprofitfromtheirknowledgeandtraditions,withoutanyguaranteedreciprocity,andtheymaynotbenefitthemselvesfromthewealththatisgeneratedfromtheircontributions.

    Ontheotherhand,iftheyusealicenseliketheCreativeCommonsNonCommerciallicense,theyallowsharing,andthespreadingofbenefitsthroughthesharedknowledge,butalsoreducethepotentialforeconomicdevelopmentbasedonthatknowledge.

    Finally,notsharingtheknowledgeatall,wouldpreventtherestofhumanityfrombenefittingfrompotentialnewmedicinesthatcouldsavemillionsofhumanlives.

    Itisthereforeimportanttointroduceinthedebatethepossibilityofreciprocitybasedopenlicenses.

    Let'sfirstsummarizetheissueasithasevolvedintheeconomiesbasedonfreesoftware,opendesignandopenhardware.ThesefieldsaredominatedbyfullyopenlicensessuchastheGPL,whichallowanyonetousethecode,butobligesthosethatmodifythecode,toaddittothecommonpool,sothatallmaybenefitfromit.Whilethishadledtoaexponentialgrowthoffreeandopensourcesoftware,ithasalsosubsumedthisnewmodelofopen,commonsbasedpeerproductiontoaneconomicdevelopmentthatisdominatedbylargecompanies.Hence,themodeofpeerproductionisnotautonomousandnotableofselfreproduction,sincecommonscontributorsareobligedtoworkaslaborforcapital.Hence,wehavetheparadoxthatlicenseswhichallowforfullsharing,inpracticepromotetheaccumulationofcapital.Intheculturalsphere,oneoftheanswersforthishasbeentheinventionanduseoftheCreativeCommonsNonCommercialLicense.Thesetypeoflicensesallowanyonetouseandreproducetheculturalproduct,ontheconditionthatnocommercialprofitisintentedandrealized.Thissolutionraisestwoissues.Oneisthatsuchalicensedoesnotcreatearealcommons,butonlyascaleofsharingthatisdeterminedbytheproduceroftheculturalproductinotherwords,thereisnocommoncreationofacommonpool.Thesecondisthatitprohibitsfurthereconomicdevelopmentbasedonthatprotectedwork.

    Isthereanalternativetothisconundrum,DmytriKleinerhasproposedaPeerProductionLicense,whichhasalreadybeendiscussedbyopenagriculturalmachiningcommunitiessuchasAdabioAutoconstructioninFrance.ThePPLbasicallyallowsworkerownedandcommonscontributingentitiestofreelyusethecommonpoolofknowledge,code,anddesign,butdemandsalicensefeefromforprofitcompaniesthatwanttousethesamecommonpoolfortherealizationofprivateprofit.Hence,severaladvantages.Oneisastreamofincomefromtheprivatesectorcompaniesindirectionofthecommonsthesecondisthateconomicdevelopmentisnotprohibited,butsimplyconditionedonreciprocityfinally,thereistheaddedpossiblitythatthoseentitiesthatsignontothelicenseandthecommonpoolsthatitprotects,couldcreateapowerfulenterpreneurialcoalitionbasedonethicalprinciples.

    WhiletheprecisewordingofthepresentPPLmaynotbeappropriate'asis'fortraditionalandindigenouscommunities,itopensupthepossibilitytocreateadaptedreciprocitybasedopenlicensesfortraditionalknowledge.

    Thiswouldofferseveraladvantages:

    1)thetraditionalcommunitieswouldbewillingtoshareandthustheknowledgewouldbenefithumanityasawhole

    2)itwouldalloweconomicdevelopmentbasedonthatknowledge

    3)thecontractedreciprocitywouldbenefitandprofittothetraditionalcommunities

    4)membersoftraditionalcommunitiescouldthemselvebecomeactiveinthesolidarityeconomythrough

  • ethicalmarketentitiesthatarebasedontheuseofsuchlicenses

    5)traditionalcommunitiesandtheirownethicalmarketentitiescoulduniteinenterpreneurialcoalitionsusingthesamecommonpools

    6)thesetraditionalcommunitiescouldunitewithethicalmarketentitiesactiveinotherpartsoftheworld,confidentinthecommonvaluesandprinciplesthatareenshrinedinthereciprocitybasedopenlicenses

    Discussion:GenderAspects

    Thereisaremarkablestructuralsimilaritybetweentheroleofwomeninthedomestic'contributory'sectorandthestructuralsituationofpeerproduction(asareallyexistingsocialknowledgeeconomy)inthedominanteconomy.

    Womencontributemorethanthanmalesforthewellbeingofthefamilycommons,andthisworkismostly(nearlyalways)unremunerated.Contributorstothecommonsalsooftenvolunteertheircontributionsforthecommons.Ifwomenwanttoinsuretheirownselfreproductionandamoreequalplaceinthefamily,theymustfindworkinthecapitallabournexus,asmustpeerproducersinthesocialknowledgeeconomy.Neitherthedomesticcareeconomynortheproductionofsocialknowledgecurrentlyallowfortheselfreproductionoftheirowners.

    Thoughmanystructuralconstraintsforfamilyequality(equalitywithinthefamily)havebeenremoved,itisveryoftentheculturalconstraintsthatdeterminethatwomenareproducingmorehomeworkthantheirmalepartners.Similary,inthepeerproductioneconomy,thoughitisstructurallyopenforalltoparticipate,itismostoftenmaledominatedandthesemaledominatedculturescreatenotjustinertiabutsometimesrealimpedimentsforfemaleparticipation.

    Thisshowsthatthetransitiontoasocialknowledgeeconomymustbeaccompaniedbystrongpoliciesthatsolvethestructuralconditionsofwomeninsocietyandtheeconomy.Andwithinthealreadyexistingcommunitiesthatproducesocialknowledge,theforcesthatstriveforgenderequalitymustbesupported,andthestructuralandculturalelementsthatmaintaingenderinequalitymustbetackled.Itisnotenoughforatransitionprojecttosimpleenableparticipationinsocialknowledgecreationanduse,itmustpromotetheequipotentialparticipationofallcitizens,andcreatetheconditionsforit.Afailuretodothismayleadtotheoppositeeffect,i.e.thecreationoffurtherinequalitiesduetothenonparticipationofwomeninthesocialknowledgeeconomy.

    IntroducingthenewconfigurationbetweenState,CivilSocietyandtheMarket

    Whatcanwelearnfromthealreadyexistingsocialknowledgeeconomy

    Thesocialknowledgeeconomyisnotanutopia,orjustaprojectforthefuture.Itisrootedinanalreadyexistingsocialandeconomicpractice,thatofcommonsorientedpeerproduction,whichisalreadyproducingcommonsofknowledge,code,anddesign,andithasproducedrealeconomieslikethefreesoftwareeconomy,theopenhardwareeconomy,thefreecultureeconomy,etc...Initsmostbroadinterpretation,concerningalltheeconomicactivitiesthatareemergingaroundopenandsharedknowledge,itmayhavereachedalready1/6thofGDPintheUSA,employing17millionworkers,accordingtotheFairUseEconomyreport.

    Alotisknownaboutthemicroeconomicstructuresofthisemergingeconomicmodel,whichwecansummarizeasfollows:

    atthecoreofthisnewvaluemodelarecontributorycommunities,consistingofbothpaidandunpaidlabour,whicharecreatingcommonpoolsofknowledge,code,anddesign.Thesecontributionsare

  • enabledbycollaborativeinfrastructuresofproduction,andasupportivelegalandinstitutionalinfrastructure,whichenablesandempowersthecollaborativepractices.

    theseinfrastructuresofcooperation,i.e.technical,organisational,andlegalinfrastructures,areveryoftenenabled,certainlyintheworldoffreesoftwarecommons,bydemocraticallyrunFoundations,sometimescalledFLOSSFoundations,ormoregenerically,'forbenefitassociations',whichmaycreatecodedepositories,protectagainstinfringementsoftheopenandsharinglicenses,organizefundraisingdrivesfortheinfrastructure,andorganizeknowledgesharingthroughlocal,nationalandinternationalconferences.Theyareanenablingandprotectivemechanism.

    finally,thesuccessfulprojectscreateaeconomyaroundthecommonspools,basedonthecreationofaddedvalueproductsandservicesthatarebasedonthecommonpools,butalsoaddtoit.Thisisdonebyentrepreneursandbusinessesthatoperateonthemarketplace,andaremostoftenforprofitentreprises,creatinga'enterpreneurialcoalition'aroundthecommonpoolsandthecommunityofcontributors.Theyhirethedevelopersanddesignersasworkers,createlivelihoodsforthem,andalsosupportthetechnicalandorganisationalinfrastructure,includingalsothefundingoftheFoundations.

    Onthebasisofthesegenericmicroeconomicexperiencesitispossibletodeduceadaptedmacroeconomicstructuresaswell,whichwouldconsistofacivilsocietythatconsistsmainlyofcommunitiesofcontributors,creatingshareablecommonsofanewpartnerstateform,whichenablesandempowerssocialproductiongenerallyandcreatesandprotectsthenecessarycivicinfrastructuresandanenterpreneurialcoalitionwhichconductscommerceandcreatelivelyhoods.

    Thenewconfiguration

    Intheoldneoliberalvision,valueiscreatedintheprivatesectorbyworkersmobilizedbycapitalthestatebecomesamarketstateprotectingtheprivilegedinterestsofpropertyownersandcivilsocietyisaderivativerestcategory,asisevidencedintheuseofourlanguage(nonprofits,nongovernmental).Nevertheless,thecombinationoflaborandcivicmovementshaspartiallysucceededinsocialisingthemarket,achievementswhicharenowunderthreat.

    Inthenewvisionofcognitivecapitalism,thenetworkedsocialcooperationconsistsofmostlyunpaidactivitiesthatcanbecapturedandfinancializedbyproprietary'network'platforms.Socialmediaplatformsalmostexclusivelycapturethevalueofthesocialexchangeoftheirmembers,anddistributedlaborsuchascrowdsourcingmoreoftenthannotreducetheaverageincomeoftheproducers.Inotherwords,the'netarchical'versionofnetworkedproductioncreatesapermanentprecariatandreinforcestheneoliberaltrends.

    Inthecontraryvisionofaopencommonsbasedknowledgeeconomyandsociety,valueiscreatedbycitizens,paidorvoluntary,whichcreateopenandcommonpoolsofknowledge,coproducedandenabledbyaPartnerState,whichcreatestherightconditionsforsuchopenknowledgetoemergeandpreferentiallyethicalenterpreneurialcoalitionswhichcreatemarketvalueandservicesontopofthecommons,whichtheyarecoproducingaswell.Theidealvisionofanopencommonsbasedknowledgeeconomyisoneinwhichthe'peerproducers'orcommoners(thelaborformofthenetworkedknowledgesociety),notonlycocreatethecommonpoolsfromwhichallsocietycanbenefit,butalsocreatetheirownlivelyhoodsthroughethicalenterpriseandtherebyinsurenotonlytheirownsocialreproductionbutalsothatthesurplusvaluestayswithinthecommonscooperativesphere.Inthisvision,thesocialsolidarityeconomyisnotaparallelstreamofeconomicproduction,butthehyperproductiveandhypercooperativecoreoftheneweconomicmodel.

    Thusinthenewvision,civilsocietycanbeseenasconsistingasaseriesofproductiveciviccommons,commonpoolsofknowledge,codeanddesignthemarketconsistsofpreferentiallyactorsofthecooperative,socialandsolidarityeconomywhichintegratethecommongoodintheirorganisationalstructures,andwhoselaborcontributingmemberscoproducethecommonswiththeciviccontributors.

  • Finally,inthisvision,thePartnerStateenablesandempowerssuchsocialcooperation,andcreatesthenecessarycivicandphysicalinfrastructuresforthisfloweringofinnovationandcivicandeconomicactivitytooccur.

    ThePartnerStateisnotaweakneoliberalstate,whichstripspublicauthorityofitssocialfunctions,andretainsthemarketstateandrepressivefunctions,asintheneoliberalmodelitisalsonottheWelfareState,whichorganizeseverythingforitscitizensbutitisastatethatbuildsonthewelfarestatemodel,butatthesametimecreatesthenecessaryphysicalandcivicinfrastructuresforsocialautonomy,andforacivicproductionmodelthatcombinescivicimmaterialcommonsandcooperativesocialsolidarityenterprise.

    Theethicaleconomyandmarket,isnotaweakandparalleleconomythatspecializesinthelesscompetitivesectorsoftheeconomyonthecontrary,theethicalmarketisthecoreproductivesectoroftheeconomy,buildingstrongenterprisesaroundcompetitiveknowledgebases.Itishowever,attheserviceofcivilsocietyandcoconstructtheopenknowledgecommonsonwhichsocietyandcommercedepends.

    Whyisthisapostcapitalistscenario?

    Capitalistdrivensocietiesproduceforexchangevalue,whichmaybeuseful,ornotandcontinuouslystrivestocreatenewsocialdesiresanddemands.

    Bywayofcontrast,theopencommonsbasedknowledgeeconomyconsistsofaproductivecivilsocietyofcontributors,citizencontributorswhocontinuouslycontributetothecommonsoftheirchoicebasedonusevaluemotivationsitisaroundtheseusevaluecommonsthatanethicalmarketandeconomyfindsitsplace,andcreatesaddedvalueforthemarket.Thecommonsiscontinuouslycoproducedbybothcitizencontributorsandpaidethicallaborfromthecooperative/socialsector.Inthisscenario,theprimarydriveristhesphereofabundanceofknowledgeavailableforall,whichisnotamarketdrivenbysupplyanddemanddynamicsbutaroundtheimmaterialabundanceofnonrivalorevenantirivalgoods,isdeployedamarketofcooperativesandsocialsolidarityplayerswhichaddandsellscarceresourcesonthemarketplace.

    Inthissamescenario,thestateisnolongeraneoliberalmarketstateattheserviceofpropertyowners,butisattheserviceofcivilsociety,theircommons,andthesphereoftheethicaleconomy.Itisnotattheserviceoftheprivatecapitalaccumulationofpropertyowners,butisattheserviceofthevalueaccumulationandequitablevaluedistributiontakingplaceinthecommonscooperativesector.Itisattheserviceoftheopencommonsofitscitizens,andthegoodknowledgetheyneedforthis.Insteadofafocusonpublicprivatepartnerships,whichexcludesparticipationfromcivilsocietyacommonssupportingpartnerstatewilllookatthedevelopmentofpublicsocialorpubliccommonspartnerships.WhereappropriatethePartnerStatelooksatthepossiblecommonificationofpublicservices.Forexample,followingthemodelofQuebecandNorthernItalyincreatingSolidarityCooperativesforSocialCare,inwhichthestateenablesandregulatesthedirectprovisionofcarebymultistakeholdergovernedcivilsocietybasedorganisations.Itisverylikelythatoncethestateundertakesthesupportofacommonsbasedcivicandethicaleconomyinthesphereofknowledge,thatitwillalsolookatthedevelopmentofinstitutionalcommonsinthephysicalsphere.Forexample,developingcommonsbasedhousingdevelopmentpolicies,whichkeepsocialhousingoutsideofthespeculativesphere.Asocietyandstatewhichdesirestodevelopacommonsintheimmaterialsphereofknowledge,willalsolookatexpandingthecommonssphereinotherspheresofhumanactivity.

    Anexamplemayshowwhythismaybesometimesnecessary.Inthesphereoffreesoftwareproduction,nearlyallfreesoftwareknowledgecommunitieshavetheirownforbenefitassociationwhichenablesthecooperation,protectsthelicenses,etcThisismostlylikelybecauseengagementrequiresknowledgeandaccesstonetworks,whichhavebeenlargelysocializedinoursocieties.Butopenhardwaredevelopershavenotdevelopedsuchassociations,andaremoredependentonthecompaniessellinghardware.Thisisbecauseopenhardwarerequiressubstantialmaterialresourceswhichneedtobepurchasedprivately,whichfavourstheownersofcapitalandweakenstheproductivecommunitythatcontributestothecommons.Insuchascenario,theideathatopenhardwaredeveloperscouldmutualizetheirmeansofproduction,would

  • reestablishmorebalancebetweendevelopersandcompanyowners.Ourillustrationalsomentionsthecommonsorientedownershipandgovernanceformswhichcanassistcitizensinhavingmorecontrolovercrucialinfrastructuressuchaslandandhousing.

    Discussion:Theroleofthecapitalistsector

    Whatistheroleofthecapitalistsectorinsuchascenario?

    Thefirstkeyissuehereisthecreationofalevelplayingfieldbetweenthesocialsolidaritysectorandtheprivatesector.Whereasthesocialsolidarityeconomyvoluntarilyintegratesthecommongoodinitsstatutesandoperations,andisasitwere'naturallycommonsfriendly',theprivatecapitalsectorisregulatedsothatitsdenialofsocialandenvironmentalexternalitiesismitigated.

    ThePartnerStateencouragestransitionsfromextractivetogenerativeownershipmodels,whiletheassociationofprivatecompanieswiththecommonswillassisttheminadaptingtothenewemergingmodelsofcocreationandcodesignofvaluewiththecommoners.Hyperexploitationofdistributedlabourwillbemitigatedthroughnewsolidaritymechanisms.Asthemutualadaptationbetweenthecommonssector,thecooperativesectorandthecapitalistsectorproceeds,theremainingcapitalistsectorshouldbeincreasinglysocializedinthenewpractices,aswellasownershipandgovernanceforms.Theaimistocreatealevelplayingfield,inwhichhyperexploitationofsocialvaluebecomesagradualimpossibility,andinwhichextractiverenttakingbecomesequallyimpossibleandcounterproductivethroughtheexistenceofwellprotectedopencommons.

    Thesecondkeyissueconcernstheselfreproductioncapabilitiesofthecommonscontributors.Underthedominanceofneoliberal,cognitiveandnetarchicalcapitalistforms,commonersarenotabletocreatelivelyhoodsintheproductionofopenknowledgecommons,andundermostopenlicenses,privatecompaniesarefreetouseandexploitthecommonknowledgewithoutsecurereturn.Thisobligesmanyandmostcommonerstoworkforprivatecapital.Whatneedstobeachievedisanewcompactbetweenthecommonsandtheprivatecompanies,thatinsuresthefairdistributionofvalue,i.e.aflowofvaluemustoccurfromtheprivatecompaniestothecommonsandthecommonersfromwhomthevalueisextracted.Modelsmustbedevelopedthatallowprivatelyownedcompaniestobecomefairpartnersofthecommons.Intheend,noprivatelyownedcompany,usingitsownresearchstaffandproprietaryIP,willbeabletocompeteagainstopenecosystemsthatcandrawonglobalknowledgeproductionandsharingthisprocessoffairadaptationmustbeencouragedandaccompaniedbybothmeasuresfromthecommonsandtheirassociatedethicalenterprises,andbythePartnerState,inacontextinwhichallplayerscanbenefitfromthecommons.Privatecapitalmustrecognize,andmustbemadetorecognize,thatthevaluebeingcapturedisoverwhelminglyderivedfromthebenefitsofsocialcooperationinknowledgecreation:justastheyhadtorecognizethenecessityforbetterandfairpayforlabour,theymustrecognizefairpayforcommonsproduction.

    AdescriptionofthenewtriarchyofthePartnerState,theEthicalEconomyandaCommonsbasedCivilSociety

    Theconceptofthepartnerstateandthecommonificationofpublicservices

    ThusisborntheconceptofthePartnerState,whichisnotopposedtothewelfarestatemodel,but'transcendsandincludes'it.ThePartnerStateisthestateformwhichenablesandempowersthesocialproductionofknowledge,livelihoodsandwellbeing,byprotectingandenablingthecontinuationandexpansionofcommons.ThePartnerStateistheinstitutionofthecollectivitywhichcreatesandsustainsthecivicinfrastructuresandeducationallevels,andwhosegovernanceisbasedonparticipationandcoproductionofpublicservicesandcollectivedecisionmaking.ThePartnerStateretainsthesolidarityfunctionsofthewelfarestate,butdebureaucratizesthedeliveryofitsservicestothecitizen.Itabandonsit

  • paternalisticvisionofcitizensthatarepassiverecipientsofitsservices.ThePartnerStateisthereforebasedonwidespreadparticipationindecisionmaking,butalsointhedeliveryofitsservices.Publicservicesarecocreatedandcoproducedwiththefullparticipationofthecitizens.

    Themeanstothisendisthe'commonificationofpublicservices'throughpubliccommonspartnerships.Publicprivatepartnershipsdonotonlyaddtothecostofpublicservices,andcreatewidespreaddistrustandneedforcontroltocounterbalancetheprofitinterestsofthepartners,butareessentiallyantidemocraticastheyleaveouttheparticipationofthecitizenry.

    Inacommentary,SilkeHelfrichdefinesthegeneralrelationshipofthestatewiththecommonsassuch:

    "Formetheroleofthestateisatleastfourfold:notonlytostopenclosures,buttotriggertheproduction/constructionofnewcommonsby(co)managementofcomplexeresourcesystemswhicharenotlimitedtolocalboundariesorspecificcommunities(asmanagerandpartner)surveyofrules(chartas)tocareforthecommons(mediatororjudge)kickingoforprovidingincentivesforcommonersgoverningtheircommonsherethepointistodesignintelligentruleswhichautomaticallyprotectthecommons,liketheGPLdoes(facilitator)".

    DavidBollieraddsthat:

    TheStatealreadyformallydelegatessomeofitspowerstocorporationsbygrantingthemcorporatecharters,ostensiblytoservecertainpublicpurposes.Whycan'tthestatemakesimilardelegationsofauthoritytocommonsbasedinstitutions,whichwouldalso(intheirowndistinctways)servepublicpurposes?Ifthekeyproblemofourtimeisthemarket/stateduopoly,thenweneedtoinsistthatthestateauthorizetheselforganizingandlegalrecognitionofcommonsbasedinstitutionsalso.JamesQuilliganhascalledforcommonerstocreatetheirown"socialcharters,"butthelegalstandingofsuchthingsremainssomewhatunclear.Thepublicvalueofstatecharteredcommonsbasedinstitutionsisthattheywouldhelp1)limitthecreationofnegativeexternalitiesthatgetdisplacedontoothers(ascorporationsroutinelydo)2)declarecertainresourcestobeinalienableandlinkedtocommunitiesaspartoftheiridentity3)assuremorecaring,conscientiousandeffectivestewardshipandoversightofresourcesthanthebureaucraticstateiscapableofprovidingand4)helpcommonersinternalizeadifferentsetofstewardshipvalues,ethics,socialpracticesandlongtermcommitmentsthanthemarketencourages.(email,July2012)

    ButitisTommasoFattori,aleadingactivistoftheItalianWaterCommonsmovement,whichhasthemostdevelopedconceptofthecommonificationofpublicservices:

    "ThefieldofCommonscanbeforthemostpartidentifiedwithapublicbutnotstatearena,inwhichtheactionsoftheindividualswhocollectivelytakecareof,produceandsharetheCommonsaredecisiveandfundamental.Inthissense,Commonsandcommoningcanbecomeameansfortransformingpublicsectorandpublicservices(oftenbureaucracyboundandusedtopursuetheprivateinterestsoflobbygroups):ameansfortheircommonification(orcommonalization).Indeed,therearemanypossiblevirtuouscrossoversbetweenthetraditionalpublicrealmandtherealmofCommons.Commonificationgoesbeyondthesimpledeprivatizationofthepublicrealm:Commonificationbasicallyconsistsofitsdemocratization,bringingbackelementsofdirectselfgovernmentandselfmanaging,bytheresidents

  • themselves,ofgoodsandservicesofgeneralinterest(orparticipatorymanagementwithinrevitalizedpublicbodies).Commonificationisaprocessinwhichtheinhabitantsofaterritoryregaincapabilityandpowertomakedecisions,toorientatechoices,rulesandpriorities,reappropriatingthemselvesoftheverypossibilityofgoverningandmanaginggoodsandservicesinaparticipatorymanner:itisthisfirstpersonactivitywhichchangescitizensintocommoners.Generally,thereareaseriesofcircumstances(includinglivingspaceandtimeschedules,jobprecariousnessandotherdifficultworkconditions,theurbanizationoflandandthecomplexityofinfrastructures)whichdonotphysicallyallowtheinhabitantsofalargemetropolistocompletelyselfmanagefundamentalservicessuchaswaterutilitiesorpublictransport,bypassingtheMunicipalitiesandthepublicbodies(ormanagingwithoutpublicfundstofinancemajorinfrastructureworks):itisontheotherhandpossibletoincludeelementsofselfgovernmentandcommoninginthedistinctstagesofgeneralorientation,planning,scheduling,managementandmonitoringoftheservices.Atthesametimeitisnecessarytoalsogivebackpublicserviceworkersanactiveroleincomanagement.Whichmeansgoingtheotherwaydowntheroadascomparedtotheprivatizationofthatwhichispublic.ButtherearealsootheroverlapspossiblebetweentheideaofpublicandthatofCommons,apartfromthenecessarycreationoflegislativetoolswhichcanprotectandencourageCommonsandcommoning.SeveralformsofPublicCommonspartershipcanbedeveloped,wheretheroleofstateisrealigned,fromitscurrentsupportandsubsidisingofprivateforprofitcompanies,towardssupportingcommoningandthecreationofcommonvalue.Thiscanbeachievedthroughtaxexemptions,subsidiesandempowermentofsharingandcommoningactivities,butalso,forexample,byallocatingpublicandstateownedgoodstocommonandsharedusagethankstoprojectswhichseepublicinstitutionsandcommonersworkingtogether.Thisisaroadwhichcouldbethebeginningofageneraltransformationoftheroleofthestateandoflocalauthoritiesintopartnerstate,namelypublicauthoritieswhichcreatetherightenvironmentandsupportinfrastructuresothatcitizenscanpeerproducevaluefromwhichthewholeofsocietybenefits.

    TommasoFattorihasofferedanindepthunderstandingofthepreciserelationshipbetweenthenewstateformandthecommons:

    "Tounderstandinwhatsenseandunderwhatconditionspublicservicescanbeconsideredcommons,itisnecessarytooffersomebriefnotesonwhatismeantbypublicserviceandwhatbycommons.Inbothcasesitisdifficulttobeconcise,becauseofthebreadthofthedebateontheareasandtheissues.PublicServices.Asiswellknown,inmostlegalsystems,thelawsdonotprovideanydefinitionofwhatismeantbytheconceptpublicservice.Inshort,inthedoctrinalreconstruction,therearetwomainpositions:thesubjectivetheoryfocusesattentiononthepublicnatureofthesubjectsupplyingtheservice,whereastheobjectivetheoryfocusesattentiononthepublicinterestwhichdistinguishestheactivityperformed.Accordingtothesubjectivetheory,theelementsnecessarytoidentifypublicservicearethedirectorindirectresponsibilityoftheStateoranotherpublicbodyfortheservice,anditssupplyforthebenefitofitscitizens.Ontheotherhand,fortheobjectivetheory,thenecessaryelementisthattheservicebeprovidedtothecollectivityandplacepublicinterestatitsheart.TheEUhoweverpreferstoducktheissueandspeakofservicesofgeneralinterest:services(bothmarketandnonmarket)whichareconsideredofcentralinterestforthecollectivityandthatforthisreasonmustbesubjectedtospecificobligationsofpublicservice.Inthesepages,bypublicserviceswemeantheservicesofgeneralinterest,thatis,thatplethoraoffundamentalserviceswhichwereonceanintegralpartofwelfareservicesbutnowadayshavemostlybeenprivatized,followingpoliticaldecisions,orare

  • suppliedbypublicbodiesbutrunalongthelinesofprivatizedcompanies.Theseservicesinclude,althoughthisisnotanexhaustivelist,healthservices,schoolsanduniversities,powersupply,transportandotherlocalutilitiessuchasthewaterorwasteservices.Commons:Thedefinitionofwhatismeantbycommons,andwhatcommoningis,ismorecomplex,asthisisanareainwhichdifferentapproachesandparadigmsclash.Inverygeneralterms,commonsiseverythingweshareinparticulargiftsofnatureandcreationsofsocietythatbelongtoallofusequally,andshouldbepreservedforfuturegenerations:materialorimmaterial,rivalornonrival,naturalorartificialresourcesthateludetheconceptofexclusiveuseandbuildsocialbonds.Inadditiontosharedresources,thereareanothertwofundamentalbuildingblocksofthecommons:commonersandcommoning.Commonersareallthemembersofacommunity,orevenlooselyconnectedgroupsofpeople,whostewardandcareforthesharedresources,orproducecommonresources,adoptingaformofselfgovernmentbasedontheircapacitytogivethemselvesrules(andincentivesandsanctionstoensuretheyarerespected,aswellasmechanismsformonitoringandresolvingconflicts),calledcommoning.Commoningisaparticipatoryandinclusiveformofdecisionmakingandagovernancesystemforsharing,producingandreproducingcommonsintheinterestofpresentandfuturegenerationsandintheinterestoftheecosystemitself,wherenaturalcommonsareconcerned.Stillingeneralterms,althoughalmostallgoodsandresourcescanpotentiallybecomeobjectsofsharing,afterachoiceanddecisionbypeople,andthusbecomesharedresourcesorcommons,itishoweverprobablethatmostofhumanitywouldagreeonanucleusofresourceswhich,atleastinprinciple,cannotnotbecommons,onpainofdenyinglifeitselfandthepossibilityoffreeindividualandcollectivedevelopment:primary,fundamental,naturalorsocialresources,whichrangefromwatertoknowledge.Afuturewithoutcouchsurfing,whereallbedsaregivenamonetaryvalueandnotshared,iscertainlylessdesirablethanafuturewithcouchsurfingbutafuturewithoutaccesstowaterforallisunacceptable.Theseprimarycommonsmustnotallowdiscriminationinaccesstothemaccordingtoindividualwealth,reintroducingtheelementofequalityandfairness,aswellasarelationshipofcareratherthanoneofdominationorsubjectionbetweenhumanityandtherestofnatureofwhichitisapart.TheseareresourceswhichdonotbelongtoandwhicharenotatthedisposalofgovernmentsortheStateasperson,becausetheybelongtothecollectivityandaboveall,tofuturegenerations,whocannotbeexpropriatedoftheirrights.Distributedparticipatorymanagementandselfgovernment,inclusionandcollectiveenjoyment,noindividualexclusiverights,prevalenceofusevalueoverexchangevalue,meetingofprimaryanddiffuseneeds:commons,inthisunderstanding,meansallthesethings."[12]

    Oneofthemechanismsforthedeliveryofcommonifiedpublicservicesarethroughcontractsbetweenthestateasfundingandqualitycontrolmechanism,and"Solidaritycooperatives,whicharemultistakeholdercoops,bringingtogetherallpartiesinvolvedinaparticularendeavorworkers,consumers,producersandmembersofthelargercommunityinademocraticstructureofownershipandcontrol.Thisnewsystemofdeliveryhasbeenpioneeredinthefieldofsocialcare,forhealthandsupportservicesforparticularpopulationssuchastheelderly,thephysicallyhandicappedetc...andisparticularlystronginnorthernItaly(EmiliaRomagna,theregionaroundBologna),aswellasinQuebec.TheexamplesaredescribedinthepolicyreportfromJohnRestakis.

    Toconclude:

    Inamaturesocialknowledgeeconomy,thestatewillstillexist,butwillhavearadicallydifferentnature.Muchofitsfunctionswillhavebeentakenoverbycommonsinstitutions,butsincetheseinstitutionscareprimarilyabouttheirowncommons,andnotthegeneralcommongood,wewillstillneedpublicauthoritiesthataretheguarantorofthesystemasawhole,andcanregulatethevariouscommons,andprotectthe

  • commonersagainstpossibleabuses.Soinourscenario,thestatedoesnotdisappear,butistransformed,thoughitmaygreatlydiminishinscope,andwithitsremainingfunctionsthoroughlydemocratizedandbasedoncitizenparticipation.

    Inourvision,itiscivilsocietybasedpeerproduction,throughtheCommons,whichistheguarantorofvaluecreationbytheprivatesector,andtheroleofthestate,asPartnerState,istoenableandempowerthecreationofcommonvalue.Thenewpeertopeerstatethen,thoughsomemayseethatasacontradictiointerminis,isastatewhichissubsumedundertheCommons,justasitisnowundertheprivatesector.

    TheEthicalEconomy

    Whatexactlyisthenatureandtheroleoftheethicaleconomyinthesocialknowledgeeconomy?

    Firstofall,theethicaleconomyrealizesthevaluethatiscreatedbythe'commoners'inthecommonpools,bycreatingaddedvaluefortheethicalmarketsector.Therealizedsurplusgoesdirectlytotheworkerswhoarealsothecontributorstothecommons,therebyrealizingtheirselfreproduction,independentlyoftheclassiccapitalaccumulationeconomy.Anew'cooperativeaccumulation'processistherebycreatedthatmediatesbetweenthecommonsandtheclassicalcapitalsector,anddirectlyservethecommonsandthecommoners.

    Theethicaleconomycanrealizeprofits,buttherealizedprofitsserveapurpose,amission,atthedirectserviceofthecreationofusevalue.Itdoesn'tcoincidethereforetothecivicnonprofitsector,butisbettercalledaNotForProfitsector,sincetheprofitsaresubsumedtothesocialgoal.Thisisinessencewhythenewsectoriscalledanethicaleconomy,becausethegoalsarenottheaccumulationofprofit,butof'benefits'.Soasynonymistotalkabouta'forbenefit'sector.

    Theethicalcompanies,cantakeverydifferentform,or'opencompanyformats',withtheircommongoalbeingtocontributetothe'commongood'generally,andtothecommonsspecifically.Theymaybealliedamongstthemselvesasentrepreneurialcoalitionsaroundcertainspecificcommonpools(butlikelywillusemorethanonecommons).ThedifferentlegalregimesmaybeBCorporations,FairTradecompanies,socia


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