Communication

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension

Management (PGDAEM)

Course 102

Communication and Diffusion of

Agricultural Innovations(3 Credits)

Block I

Communication

National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management(An Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India)

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India

www.manage.gov.in

Course 102

Communication and Diffusion of

Agricultural Innovations

(3 Credits)

Block I

Communication

Unit - 1 : Concept, meaning, process and factors

affecting communication 3-30

Unit - 2 : Models and Theories of Communication 31-42

Unit - 3 : Key Communicators - Identification and

their role in Agricultural development process 43-52

Unit - 4 : Feedback - Problems in Communication 53-66

Unit - 5 : Organisational Communication 67-94

Unit - 6 : Interpersonal communication skills 95-112

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

� 2 �

Published by

National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030, Andhra

Pradesh, India

First Published: 2007

© MANAGE, 2007

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other

means without permission in writing from the MANAGE.

Shri K.V. Satyanarayana, IAS

Director General

National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management

(MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030,

Andhra Pradesh, India

Program Coordinators

Dr. M.N. Reddy, Director (Agri. Extn. & Commn.) & Principal Coordinator (PGDAEM)

MANAGE, Hyderabad

Ph. Off: (040) 24014527, email: [email protected]

Dr. N. Balasubramani, Assistant Director (Agri. Extn.)

MANAGE, Hyderabad

Ph. Off: (040) 24016702-708 Extn. 275, email: [email protected]

Course Coordinator

Dr. P. Chandrashekara, Dy. Director

MANAGE, Hyderabad

Ph. Off: (040) 24015399, email: [email protected]

ContributorDr. G.V. Narayana Reddy

Retd. Professor, EEI

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

Concept, meaning, process and factors affecting communication Course - 102

� 3 �

Unit 1

Concept, meaning, process and

factors affecting communication

Structure

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Concepts of communication

1.3 Meaning of communication

1.4 Process of communication

1.5 Factors affecting communication

1.5.1 Communicator

1.5.2 Message

1.5.3 Channel

1.5.4 Treatment

1.5.5 Audience

1.5.6 Audience response

1.6 Let us sum up

1.7 Key words

1.8 Further Readings

1.9 Answers / Hints to check your progress exercises

Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations Course - 102


� 4 �

1.0 Objectives

After studying this unit, the reader should

� Understand the concept and meaning of communication

� Be able to know the process of communication

� Explain the factors affecting communication

1.1 Introduction

“Can’t you see that for mighty thoughts and heroic aims, the words themselves must be

appropriate” Aristophanes

“But words are things and a small drop of ink, falling like dew upon a thought produces that

which makes thousands, perhaps millions think” Byron Don Juan

Communication is sharing information or providing entertainment by speaking, writing or

other methods. People communicate in many ways, including talking by moving their hands and

even by making faces. People also use telephone calls and letters for personal communication. Without

communication parents would not know what their children need. Teachers could not help their

students learn. People could not share knowledge. Each person would have to learn everything for

himself or herself. Friends could not make plans with one another. Infact human beings probably

could not survive for long.

Mass communication is another important type of communication to send message to large

audience. Books are one of the oldest methods of mass communication. Television is one of the

networks. Newspaper and radio are other ways that information can be sent to many people. Modern

nations probably could not exists without mass communication.

People can communicate on many levels, for many reasons, with many people, in many

ways. Ruesch and Bateson have prepared a hypothetical example of the kinds of communication that

a typical man, Mister A, might use in an average day.

In the morning when Mr. A. enters his office he reads his incoming mail (written

communication). In sorting his mail he encounters a number of pamphlets which are designed to

describe the merits of various business machines (pictorial communication). Through the open window

the faint noise of a radio is heard, as the voice of an announcer clearly praises the quality of a brand

of toothpaste (spoken communication).


� 5 �

When his secretary enters the room she gives him a cheerful “good morning” which he

acknowledges with a friendly nod of his head (gestural communication) while he continues with his

conversation on the telephone (spoken communication) with a business associate. Later in the morning

he dictates a number of letters to his secretary, then he holds a committee meeting (group

communication), where he gathers the advice of his associates. In this meeting a number of new

governmental regulations (mass communication) and their effect upon the policies of the firm are

discussed. Later in the meeting a resolution to the employees of the firm concerning the annual bonus

(mass and group communication) is considered.

After the committee has adjourned, Mr. A, engaged in thoughts concerning unfinished business

(communication with self), slowly crosses the street to his restaurant for lunch. On the way he sees

his friend Mr. B, who in a great hurry enters the same luncheon place (communication through

action), and Mr. A decides to sit by himself rather than to join his friend, who will probably gulp down

his coffee and hurry on (communication with self). While waiting, Mr. A studies the menu

(communication through printed word) but the odour of a juicy steak deflects his gaze (chemical

communication); it is so appetizing that he orders one for himself.

After lunch he decides to buy a pair of gloves. He enters a men’s store and with the tips of his

fingers carefully examines the various qualities of leather (communication through touch). After leisurely

concluding the purchase, he decides to take the afternoon off and to escort his son on a promised trip

to the zoo. On the way there, John, watching his father drive through the streets, asks him why he

always stops at a red light and why he does not stop at a green light (communication by visual

symbol). As they approach the zoo, an ambulance screams down the street, and Mr. A pulls over to

the side of the road and stops (communication by sound). As they sit there he explains to his son that

the church across the street is the oldest in the state, built many years ago, and still standing as a

landmark in the community (communication through material culture).

After paying admission to the zoo (communication through action), they leisurely stroll over

to visit the elephants. Here John laughs at the antics of an elephant who sprays water through his

trunk at one of the spectators (communication through action), sending him into near flight. Later on

in the afternoon Mr. A yields to the pressure of his son, and they enter a movie house to see a cartoon

(communication through pictures). Arriving home, Mr. A dresses in order to attend a formal dinner

and theater performance (communication through the arts).


� 6 �

Another hypothetical example on the various kinds of communication that an extension worker

might be using on a normal day is presented below:

An extension worker visits the village and meet a group of farmers. He greets (communication

through gestures) and talks to them (group communication) about “SRI Cultivation” and the importance

of laying the demonstrations . He also exhibits visuals on SRI cultivation (visual communication).

Further, he visits the plots (communication through action) and comes to his office and think

over (communication through self) the time, date and arrangements for training and demonstration

and discusses the same with his superiors (spoken communication)

After obtaining permission, he talks to selected farmers through telephone (spoken

communication) and informs them about the date and time for organizing the training and

demonstration.

The same is beamed through television, radio and newspaper (mass communication) and

prepares leaflets / folders / bulletins for distribution in the training.

1.2 Concepts / definitions of communication

1.2.1 Communication is the discriminatory response of an organism to stimulus (Berlo 1966).

1.2.2 Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts,

feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning,

intent and use of message (Leagans, 1960)

1.2.3 Communication is the process by which the message is transmitted from the source to

the receiver (Rogers, 1983)

1.2.4 Communication is the process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by

means of some channels in order to produce a response from the receiver in accordance with

the intention of the source (IRRI publication on communication process, 1992)

1.2.5 Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one

person to another (Brooker 1949)

1.2.6 Communication is a mutual interchange of ideas by any effective means (Thayer 1968)

1.2.7 Communication means the movement of knowledge to people in such ways that they

act on that knowledge to achieve some useful results (Winfield1967)


� 7 �

1.2.8 Agricultural communication is defined as a planned transfer of farm technologies from

the research system to the farmers’ system through extension system and media with a view

to make desirable changes in respect of higher productivity, profitability and prosperity and

also get feedback from the clients

1.3 Meaning of communication

Everyday, everywhere, people converse with each other. They exchange ideas and information.

In conversing, the one who has the information or knowledge communicates or makes it

‘common property’. This sharing of information with one or more persons is communication.

Farm people want knowledge to improve themselves and their community. They want

knowledge to improve their ways of living and their living itself. Scientists and technicians, who are

always in the pursuit of knowledge, have what farmers want.

Farm and home advisers, extension workers and information people obtain the knowledge

from the scientists, interpret it and select out of it what the farmers want, and communicate it to them.

Today, a large number of people are engaged in this process of passing on knowledge or

“diffusing” it among our farmers. Their communicating ideas, thoughts, impressions, feelings, or

information to enable farmers to learn new skills and do old things in a new and better way.

In its real sense, communication involves the complete transfer of an idea or thought from

one’s mind to that of another. It is not, therefore, enough if you tell the farm people about a new idea.

They must hear it, understand it and remember it. In other words, communication is telling someone

something in such a manner that he gets it.

People get an idea when they receive it through one or more of their senses – when they are

seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling and tasting. When they get it, you say that your communication has

produced a “stimulus” in them. The stimulus leads them to think and to act. When they do that, you

say that the stimulus has brought out a response.

Communication is the process of unfolding understanding and meaning. It is about achieving

a communion of understanding – a coming together in mind. If understanding has not occurred,

communication has not happened. An enthusiastic tourist in a foreign country drew a mushroom, like

this to indicate his need to the waiter for mushroom soup. The waiter nodded his head, rushed off and

returned with an umbrella. These two certainly did not come together in mind. So while ideas and


� 8 �

feelings were expressed, communication did not happen. Whatever its purpose, every communication

involves atleast two entities or people- a sender and receiver. One person or entity alone cannot

communicate. You might well ask what about a person who is talking to himself? In that case also

there is one part of his mind talking to the other:

1.4 Process of Communication

Most of us are familiar with the five-step process occurring between a sender and receiver

when they communicate :

1. The sender generates an idea in the mind.

2. The idea is then converted into words, pictures, sounds, symbols, actions. This is called

‘encoding the idea’.

3. The encoded idea is transmitted to the receiver.

4. The receiver receives the encoded message through the senses and perceives it in the mind.

5. The receiver then decodes or converts the messages back into meaningful ideas in his / her

own mind.

Communication has been defined as a process. The process is a concept which is dynamic

and ever-changing in nature. It implies that events and relationships are seen as dynamic, flexible and

continuous and must be considered as a whole, a dynamic interaction both affecting and being affected

by many variables. Thus, process has at least four elements — acts or action, a continuous change in

time, advancement or progress over time, and a goal or result. Therefore, process implies a time

dimension as well as a space dimension in which action unfolds in a continuously changing progression

towards some goal.


� 9 �

The five-stepped sequence is illustrated below:

Communication being a process, requires at least two persons — a sender and a receiver—

irrespective of the mode of communication. The sender or source conceives the idea, gives it a shape,

decides the mode of communication which may be used to convey the idea, and conveys it. The

receiver receives it, tries to understand it, and finally takes an action which may be either to store the

information or to send the message to the original source or take any other line of action as required

by the source. The whole process, thus, may be depicted as follows:

The entire process of communication requires at least the above six steps, i.e., Ideation,

Encoding, Transmission, Receiving, Decoding and Action. These steps are discussed breifly:

Ideation: The first step in communication is ideation. Here the sender thinks of an idea which

he wants to communicate to the other party. This is the content and the basis of the message. He must

have something to say before he really says it. The sender must also keep in mind the party to whom

the message is intended to be conveyed, and also the channel to be used.


� 10 �

Decoding

Decoding the

message

Ideation

Conceiving of

the idea by the

sender or

source

Transmission

Transmission

of the message

Encoding

Encoding the

message

Receiving

Receiving of

the message by

the receiver

Action

Behavior or

action on the

message


� 11 �

Encoding: Under this step, messages are composed of symbols having a certain meaning for

the sender and the receiver. Encoding is, thus, translation of an already conceived idea by the sender

into a message appropriate for transmission. Encoding includes selection of the mode of communication.

The wording of the message may be different for different methods of communication to be used. A

telegram may be differently worded from a letter. A telephonic conversation may be different from a

face to face conversation. A green signal and a whistle from the guard are sufficient signals to the train

driver for starting the train, such signals are not sufficient for an aeroplane to take off.

Transmission: The third step is transmission or conveying the message as encoded by the

sender. Transmission conforms to the method selected by the sender in the preceding step. The

sender also chooses the channel or path of communication through which the message is to travel

from the sender to the receiver. The channel may be mass media such as newspapers, radio, television,

films etc., or inter-personal involving direct exchange between source and receiver such as telephone,

correspondence, or non-verbal symbols like hands or facial gesture, or other body movements. The

sender must consider the effectiveness of the channel in making his selection. A lengthy message

cannot be sent through a telegram. A channel should be such that it minimizes the possibility of

distortion of the message.

Receiving the message: The next step is the receiving the message by the receiver. The receiver

must pay due attention to the message he receives. Any neglect on the part of the receiver may make

the communication ineffective so that the message is lost. Thus, the receiver should be a good listener

in the case of an oral message; however, listening alone is not sufficient, he/she should also be willing

to understand.

Decoding: Decoding is the reverse of encoding. It means translation of symbols etc., encoded

by the sender into an idea for understanding. The receiver decodes the message by changing the

symbols into a meaning. Understanding the message sent by the sender is the key to the decoding

process. If the receiver could not decode the message correctly to make it understandable, or

misunderstands it, or pretends to misunderstand it whereas he understands it well, the communication

is rendered ineffective. This happens because perceptions of two persons may be quite different.

Action: It is the response by the receiver of the communication. He may ignore the message

completely, or may store it, or may act as directed by the sender. Thus, it is an action or reaction on

the part of the receiver in response to the message received by him from the sender. He may also send

a message to the sender in response to the original message from the sender.


� 12 �

Rule of Five In Communication

In the above process of communication, out of six steps, the first three are to be taken by the

sender and the last three by the receiver. There may be two more steps — Acceptance and Feedback.

which are not necessary for the completion of the communication process. Sometimes the sender

wants that his message must be accepted by the receiver for two reasons (i) to improve cooperation or

motivation, and (ii) to know whether the message has been correctly understood by the receiver.

Similarly, the sender also wants feedback. It means a message by the receiver to the sender in

response to the sender’s original message.

This may help the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message so that he may improve

his subsequent messages. These two steps are not necessary for completing the communication process;

however. these are essential in generating an effective long-term working relationship. When all the

expectations of the receiver in the communication process are considered they are sometimes called

the Rule of Five in communication. They represent five steps from the side of the receiver (i) receiving

(ii) understanding (iii) acceptance (iv) action and (v) feedback. If these five steps are complete from the

receiver’s side, the communication is effective.

Check your progress-1

1. Communication has been defined by many scholars in different ways but a look at some of

the key ideas found in most of the definitions will help to form a working definition. Thus a

working definition may be that communication is ...

2. True or false

i. Communication is the exchange of ideas and mutual understanding.

ii. Communication is mere telling.

iii. Radio, newspaper is communication.

iv. The encoder is the sender of the messages.

v. The receiver and decoder are one and the same.

3. List out the six steps of communication process.


� 13 �

1.5 Factors affecting communication

Successful communication requires a skillful communicator sending a useful message through

proper channels, effectively treated to an appropriate audience that responds as desired. The

communication task thus consists of the skillful handling of six key elements. These elements will

now be considered in the light of the guides already mentioned and in an attempt to show their

singular function, their relationship to each other and how they are to be dealt with in the total

process of communication for rural development.

1.5.1 Communicator

In the context of agriculture and rural development, extension agent is the communicator

who starts the process of communication. The extension agent and mass media like radio are sometimes

visualized as sources or originators of messages, which is not correct. Knowledge generates through

research and as such the Research Institutes, Universities are the originators of sources of message.

The extension agent obtains the required information from research and carries it to the audience, the

farmers. The extension agent is the communicator, a carrier of information. To enhance the process,

extension agents may take the help of some aids, known as audio-visual aids. They also carry back the

reactions of the farmers, their problems etc. as feedback information to research for finding out solutions

for the same.

The credibility of the communicator and the organization, the individual represents is important

for effective communication. CREDIBILITY means trustworthiness and competence. Before the

audience accepts any message he will judge whether the communicator and the organization the

individual represents, can be relied upon and is competent enough to give the information. Studies

have revealed that the scientists and extension agents having status, expertise, accomplishment, authority

and experience are perceived as highly credible by the farmers in communicating information on

agriculture and rural development, are therefore, very important in extension communication.

The characteristics of a good communicator are:

The individual knows :

i. the objectives - have them specifically defined;

ii. the audience – their needs, interests, abilities, predisposition;

iii. the message – its concept, validity, usefulness, importance;


� 14 �

iv. channels that will reach the audience;

v. organization and treatment of the message;

vi. the professional abilities and limitations.

The individual is interested in:

i. the audience and its welfare;

ii. the message and how it can help people;

iii. the results of communication and their evaluation;

iv. the communication process;

v. the communication channels – their proper use and limitations;

vi. improvement of the communication skill.

The individual prepares:

i. a plan for communication – a teaching plan;

ii. communication materials and equipments;

iii. a plan for evaluation of results.

The individual has skill in:

i. selecting messages;

ii. treating messages;

iii. expressing messages – verbal and written;

iv. the selection and use of channels;

v. understanding the audience;

vi. collecting evidence of results.


� 15 �

Poor communicators, on the other hand:

i. Fail to have ideas to present that are really useful to the audience.

ii. Fail to give the complete story and show its relationship to people’s problems.

iii. Forget that time and energy are needed to absorb the material presented.

iv. Feel they are always clearly understood.

v. Refuse to adjust to closed minds.

vi. Talk while others are not listening.

vii. Get far too ahead of audience understanding.

viii. Fail to recognize others’ view-point.

ix. Fail to recognize that communication is a two-way process.

x. Let their own biases over-influence the presentation.

xi. Fail to see that everyone understands questions brought up for discussions.

xii. Fail to provide a permissive atmosphere.

xiii. Disregard the values, customs, prejudices and habits of the people, and

xiv. Fail to start where people are, with respect to knowledge, skill, interest and need.

To be a good communicator, the thumb rule is go to the village and listen to the people.

1.5.2 Message

The recommendations from research, the technology constitute the content or subject matter,

the message. Information which is relevant to particular set of audiences, constitute the messages,

otherwise for them this is ‘noise’. A good message clearly state what to do, how to do, when to do

and what would be the result.

To produce desirable changes in human behavior, the message must be motivating.

Messages which are relevant, interesting, useful, profitable, credible (latest and best, based on

research findings) and complete (neither too much, nor too little) are likely to motivate the people.


� 16 �

A good message should be :

i. in line with the objective to be attained;

ii. clear – understandable by the audience;

iii. in line with the mental, socio-economic and physical capabilities of the audience;

iv. significant – economically, socially or aesthetically to the needs, interest and values of the

audience;

v. specific- no irrelevant material;

vi. simply stated – covering only one point at a time;

vii. accurate – scientifically sound, factual and current;

viii. timely - specially when seasonal factors are important and issues are current;

ix. supported by factual material covering both sides of the argument;

x. appropriate to the channel selected;

xi. appealing and attractive to the audience – having utility and immediate use;

xii. applicable – can apply recommendation to one’s own particular situation;

xiii. adequate – combining principle and practice in effective proportion and

xiv. manageable – can be handled by the communicator and within the limits of time.

In contrast, poor communicators often –

i. Fall to clearly separate the key message from the supporting content or subject-matter.

ii. Fail to prepare and organize their message properly.

iii. Use inaccurate or fuzzy symbols –words, visuals or real objects – to represent the message.

iv. Fail to select messages that are in line with the felt needs of the audience.

v. Fail to present the message objectively – present the material, often biased, to support only

one side of the proposition.


� 17 �

vi. Fail to view the message from the standpoint of the audience, and

vii. Fail to time the message properly within a presentation or within a total program.

1.5.3 Channel

Channel of communication constitutes the medium through which information flows from a

sender to one or more receivers. Face-to-face, word-of-mouth is the simplest and yet one of the most

widely used and effective means of communication, particularly for the developing countries. As

society changes from traditional to modern, the emphasis shifts from oral to media system of

communication. Because of the large number of audience or receivers of information and because of

physical distance of the communicator and the receivers of information, it is necessary to use different

communication channels. Even in interpersonal, face-to-face, word-of-mouth communication, it

becomes necessary to use some aids to make communication more effective.

The channels of communication may be classified into a number of ways according to different

criteria.

According to form

Spoken: Farm and home visit, farmer’s call, meetings, radio talk etc.,

Written: Personal letter, farm publications, newspaper etc.

According to nature of personnel involved

Personal localite: They are the local leaders and local people who belong to the receivers

own social system. Personal localite channels are important in traditional social system

Personal cosmopolite: These are the channels of communication from outside the social system

of the receiver. They are the extension agents of various organizations and are important in changing

the farmers from traditional to modern.

According to nature of contact with the people

Individual contact: The extension agent communicates with the people individually,

maintaining separate identify of each person. Examples are farm and home visit, farmer’s call, personal

letter etc.


� 18 �

Group contact: The extension agent communicates with the people in groups and not as

individual persons. Examples are group meeting, small group training, field day or farmer’s day, study

tour etc.

Mass contact: The extension agent communicates with a mass of people, without taking into

consideration their individual or group identity. Examples are mass meeting, campaign, exhibition,

radio, television etc.

Many obstructions can enter channels. These are often referred to as ‘noise’ that prevents the

message from being heard by or carried over clearly to the audience. ‘Noise’ emerges from a wide

range of sources and causes. The following are some of them

i. Failure of channel to reach the intended audience. All people cannot or may not attend

meetings, all people may not have radio or TV, or may not tuned if they had or many people

cannot and some may not read the written materials.

ii. Failure on the part of the communicator to handle channels skillfully. In a meeting, who can

not hear what is said and see what is shown, do not receive the message.

iii. Failure to select channels appropriate to the objective of a communicator. If the objective is

to show how to do a certain thing, method demonstration and TV will be appropriate rather

than radio or newspaper.

iv. Failure to use channels in accordance with the abilities of the audience. Written materials

can not serve as useful channels of communication for an illiterate group of persons.

v. Failure to avoid physical distraction. Loud noise near a place of meeting or loadshedding at

the time of projecting visuals may cause distraction of the audience.

vi. Failure of an audience to listen or look carefully. There is a tendency of people not to give

undivided attention to the communication.

vii. Failure to use enough channels in parallel (simultaneously). Research indicates that upto five

or six channels used in combination are often necessary to get a message through to a large

number of people with enough impact to influence significant changes in behaviour; and

viii. Use of too many channels in a series. An important principle of communication is that the

more channels used in a series (communicating through several levels of line personnel) the

less chance a communicator has for getting the message through to the intended audience.


� 19 �

To help overcome some of the problems of communication, one should take the following

factors into account:

i. The specific objective of the message.

ii. The nature of the message – degree of directness versus abstractness, level of difficulty,

scope, timing etc.

iii. The audience – size, need, interest, knowledge of the subject etc.

iv. Channels available that will reach the audience, or parts of it.

v. How channels can be combined and used in parallel.

vi. How channels that must be used in a series can be needed to the minimum, and those used

made effective.

vii. Relative cost of channels in relation to anticipated effectiveness.

viii. Time available to the communicator and to the audience.

ix. Extent of seeing, hearing or doing that is necessary to get the message through, and

x. Extent of cumulative effect or impact on the audience necessary to promote action.

1.5.4 Treatment of message

Treatment means the way a message is handled, dealt with, so that the information gets across

to the audience. It relates to the technique or details of procedure or manner of performance, essential

to effective presentation of the message. The purpose of treatment is to make the message clear,

understandable and realistic to the audience

Treatment of the message by the communicator shall depend to a great extent on choice of the

channel and the nature of audience. The task cannot be reduced to a formula or recipe. Treatment is

creative task that has to be ‘tailor-made’ for each communication function. For example, treatment of

a message will be different when it is conveyed in a meeting, or published in a folder or broadcast.

Similarly, there will be difference in treatment of the message according to the level of literacy, socio-

economic status and progressive of the audience.


� 20 �

Designing treatment usually requires original thinking, deep insight into the principles of

human behaviour and skill in creating and using refined techniques of message presentation. The

following are the three categories of bases useful for varying treatment

Matters of general organization

i. Repetition or frequency of mention of ideas and concepts.

ii. Contrast of ideas.

iii. Chronological – compared to logical and psychological.

iv. Presenting one side compared to two sides of an issue.

v. Emotional compared to logical appeals.

vi. Starting with strong arguments compared to saving them until the end of presentation.

vii. Inductive compared to deductive.

viii. Proceeding from the general to the specific and vice-versa and,

ix. Explicitly drawing conclusions compared to leaving conclusions implicit for the audience to

draw.

Matters of speaking and acting:

i. Limit the scope of presentation to a few basic ideas and to the time allotted – too many ideas

at one-time may be confusing.

ii. Be yourself –you can’t be anyone else, strive to be clear, not clever.

iii. Know the facts- fuzziness means sure death to a message.

iv. Don’t read your speech – people have more respect for a communicator who talks to the

audience.

v. Know the audience – each audience has its own personality, be responsive to it.

vi. Avoid being condescending (patronizing). Do not talk or act down to people, or over their

heads. Good treatment of message results in hitting the target. Never overestimate the

knowledge of an audience or underestimate the intelligence.


� 21 �

vii. Decide on the dramatic effect desired – effective treatment requires sincerity, smoothness,

enthusiasm warmth, flexibility and appropriateness of voice, gestures, movements and tempo.

viii. Use alternative communicators when appropriate, as in group discussion, panels, interviews

etc.

ix. Remember that audience appeal is a psychological bridge to getting a message delivered

and,

x. Quit on time-communicators who stop when they have ‘finished’ are rewarded by audience

goodwill.

Matters of symbol variation and devices for representing ideas

Spoken words, written materials, audio-visual aids etc. belong to this category

1.5.5 Audience

The audience or receiver of message is the target of communication function. An audience

may consist of a single person or a number of persons. It may comprise men, women and youth. An

audience may be formed according to occupation groups such as crop farmers, fruit farmers, dairymen,

poultry keepers, fish farmers, home makers etc. Audience may also be categorized according to farm

size such as marginal, small, medium or big farmers; or according to social criteria whether they

belong to scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, etc.,

Communication to be successful, must be target oriented. The communicator must know the

target, their needs, interests, resources, facilities, constraints and even their appropriate number and

location.

The attitude of the audience toward the message largely depends upon who gives what message

through which channel; to what extent the content of the message satisfy their needs and intentions;

to what measures the suggestions contained in the message are in line with their preheld experiences

and preexisting preferences; and how far the message is compatible with group norms and value

system to which the audience belongs. In case the audience members feel that the communicator is

trustworthy, dependable and find the person communicating the message through the medium of

their choice, they are likely to receive the message, provided the presentation of the content appear to

the audience as interesting and comprehensive (Dey. 1993)


� 22 �

The communicator should, therefore, be careful in selecting message which are relevant to

the audience, choose channels compatible to their cultural pattern and make treatment of the message

appropriate to their levels of interest and understanding.

In addition to knowing the identity of an audience and some of its general characteristics,

there are other somewhat more specified aspects that help to clarify the exact nature of an audience

and how to reach it. The following are some of these

i. Communication channels established by the social organization.

ii. The system of values held by the audience – what they think is important.

iii. Forces influencing group conformity – custom, tradition etc.

iv. Individual personality factors – change proneness etc.

v. Native and acquired abilities.

vi. Educational, economic and social levels.

vii. Pressure of occupational responsibility – how busy or concerned they are.

viii. People’s needs as they see them, and as the professional communicators see them.

ix. Why the audience is in need of changed ways of thinking, feeling and doing, and

x. How the audience views the situation.

It may be noted that the audience is not a passive recipient of message. The individuals are

rather selective in receiving, processing and interpreting messages.

Selective exposure, Klapper (1960) suggested that people expose themselves to messages

selectively. There is a tendency for individuals to expose themselves relatively more to those items of

communication that are in agreement with their ideas, beliefs, values etc.

Selective perception, Regardless of exposure to communication, an individual’s perception of

a certain event, issue, person or else could be influenced by one’s latent beliefs, attitudes, wants,

needs or other factors. Thus, two individuals exposed to the same message could go away with

different perceptions about it.


� 23 �

Selective retention. All information is not retained by the individuals. People generally tend

to retain that information in which they have some interest and which they consider to be important.

Research showed that even recall of information is influenced by factors such as individual’s needs,

wants, moods, perceptions and so on.

The social categories to which people belong, their individual characteristics, and social

relationships greatly influence their acquisition and utilization of information.

1.5.6 Audience response

Response of the audience is the ultimate objective of any communication function. Response

of an audience to messages received may be in the form of some kind of action, mental or physical.

Until the desired action results, extension communication does not achieve its most essential objective.

The possible kinds of response to messages received are almost infinite. The following gives

an idea of possible variety in response that may result when a useful message is received by a typical

village audience

i. Understanding versus knowledge: People usually do not act on facts alone, but only when

understanding of facts is gained. Understanding is attained only when one is able to attach

meaning to facts, see the relationship of facts to each other and to the problem. Communication

must promote understanding

ii. Acceptance versus rejection: Audience response may be either way. Communication should

lead to understanding and acceptance of the idea

iii. Remembering versus forgetting: When opportunity for action is not immediately available

or action is delayed, the message may be forgotten. Transmitting the right message to the

right people at right time is often a crucial factor in successful communication

iv. Mental versus physical action: Changes in the minds of the people must always precede

changes in the action by hands. People should not only understand and accept the message

but shall also act on it; and

v. Right versus wrong: The goal of communication is to promote desirable action by the audience

as specified in the objective. If the response of the audience is in line with the objective, it is

assumed to be ‘right’ action. However, ‘noise’ may prevent in getting the desired response

from the audience.


� 24 �


1. Define the following

i. Communicator

ii. Message

iii. Channel

iv. Treatment

v. Audience

vi. Audience response

2. List out the elements of communication process you have studied

3. Mention the qualities of a good communicator

4. Classify channels according to form and nature of contact

5. State the qualities of a good message

6. You can also communicate through eyes. Here, we have three triangles. Read the words in

triangles very quickly. Don’t read once again.

Have you read it. Do you find any fault. If there is no fault, you have gone wrong. Once again

read it. Still there is no fault. Once again you have gone wrong.

See answer in your check your progress exercises.


� 25 �

7. The facilitator divides the group and passes the following message to a lead person who

passes it on to the next person, and the next

Message: “The wolf ate the chicken at dusk under the tree”

Write down the message as it finally was transmitted and analyze

8. Can you follow directions?

This is a tested test – you have three minutes only

• Read everything carefully before doing everything

• Put your name in the upper right hand corner of this paper

• Circle the word name in sentence two

• Draw five small squares in the upper left hand corner

• Put an ‘X’ in each square

• Put a circle around each square

• Sign your name under the title of the paper

• Put a circle completely around sentence number seven

• Put an ‘x’ in the low left corner of this paper

• Draw a triangle around the ‘X’ you just put down

• One the back of this paper, multiply 703 by 66

• Draw a rectangle round the word corner in sentence four

• Loudly call out your first name when you get this far-a-long

• If you have followed directions carefully to this point, call out “I have”

• On the reverse side of this paper, add 8950 and 9805

• In your normal speaking voice, count from ten to one backwards


� 26 �

• Punch three small holes in the top of this paper with your pension point

• If you’re the first person to reach this point, Loudly call out “I AM THE FIRST PERSON TO

THIS POINT AND I AM THE LEADER IN FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS”

• Underline all even numbers on the left side of this paper

• Now that you have finished reading everything carefully do only sentences one and two

9. Exercise: Talkathon

Ask for two volunteers. Have them sit and face each other in front of the rest of the group. The

instructions are that both should begin talking simultaneously at the instructors signal. Each may

speak on any topic he or she desires. But they must maintain eye contact with one another. Gestures

are very much in order. The loser will be the speaker that stops talking first. It is a ridiculous scene but

typical of how often listen.

10. Exercise: Listen, report, reply

Choose a controversial topic: For example “is the quality of life in India improving or declining”

As for two volunteers holding contrary views on the issue. Sitting face to face in front of the group they

are to conduct a discussion on the topic. The rule for the discussion is this each must report to the

others satisfaction a summary of what the other speaker has said before themselves may reply: Listen,

repeat, reply

The two speakers are told to begin and the instructor watches and enforces the rule. The

instructor may interrupt either speaker from time to time to ask whether the listener is satisfied with

the summary the other has given, whether the listener has caught the thought fully. After the conversation

has gone on in this fashion for ten minutes or after the problems of communicating have become

clear, the instructor stops the demonstration by the two volunteers. Groups of three are formed with

the remaining numbers and with one member acting as monitor these groups practice the exercise for

20 or 30 minutes, changing the role of monitor after each 10 minute period. The group is reassembled

and the instructors needs a discussion and practices that help or hinder effective communication.


� 27 �

11. Exercise

The purpose of this exercise is to know how for the participants has understood the message

given by the speaker. One participant is enough to do this exercise. Hand over the paper and pencil

and asked him to sit in one of the corners of the room. The speaker explain the diagram orally and

without any hand signs and not showing the diagram to him. Fifty percent of the diagram is drawn

correctly, you can rate him a good communicator

1.6 Let us sum up

In this unit, we have briefly covered the concepts, meaning and the purpose of communication.

Communication is a popular term when a person gives a good public speech, we call him a good

communicator. If two people are talking, we say that they are communicating. Many people refer to

various media of communication viz., radio, film or television as communication. None of these is

true. Communication was a Latin root ‘communis’ which means common – It also requires a degree

of commonness between individuals for communication to occur. The purpose of communication is

to establish commonness. Communication, thus refers to the process of sharing information, feeling

ideas in a manner that there is common understanding of meaning, intent and use of the message.

Successful communication requires a skillful communicator sending a useful message through

proper channels effectively treated to an appropriate audience that responds as desired. The

communication task thus consists of the skillful handling of six key elements viz., communicator,

message, channel, treatment, audience and audience response.


� 28 �

1.7 Keywords

Interaction : It implies that more than one element is involved and that the elements are not

static but are changing and interacting

Process : Involves movement. It is a means of getting from one place to another.

Whenever, two or more functions are performed one after another to realize a

particular objective

System : A system is a combination of two or more components or parts, put together in

an orderly way to achieve a given purpose

Encoding : It is a process of interpreting the message

Decoding : It is a process of receiving the message

Knowledge : Intimate acquaintance with facts

Understanding : Relationship between facts

Communicator : He is the person who start the process of communication. He is the sender of

message

Message : It is the information the communicator wishes his audience to receive,

understand and act upon

Channel : It is anything which connects the communicator with the communicatee or

group of people

Treatment : It is the way we put across the message through channel

Audience response : It is the response given by the audience to the message of the communicator

Credibility : Trustworthiness and competence

Fact: It is a thing done, an actual occurrence, a piece of information having objective

reality

Interpretation : It is the explanation of the meaning of a fact or statement


� 29 �

Stimulus : A stimulus is any event which an individual is capable of sensing

Response : A response is anything that the individual does as a result of perceiving the

stimulus.


Chandrakandan. K, R. Netaji Seetharaman and R. Sathiyaseelan,1996, Communication: Perspectives

models and theories, Indian journal of Extension Education Vol.7 No.4, 1996

David K. Berlo, 1963, The process of communication – An introduction to theory and practice,

Holt, Rine hart and Winston, New York

Diwan Parag and Aggarwal L.N., 1997, Business Communication, Excel books, New Delhi

Legans, J.P. 1961, The Communication Process, Extension Education in Community Development,

Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi

Mcgrath, S.J., 1994, Basic Managerial Skills for all, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

Pattabhiram B.V., 2002, Communications, Emesco Books, Vijayawada

Pattabhiram B.V., 2005, Art of Communication, Emesco Books, Vijayawada

Ray, G.L., 1996, Extension communication and management, Naya Prakash, Calcutta

Rayudu CS, 1997, Communication, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai

Wakhul Arun, 1999, Managing from the heart, Unfolding spirit in people and organizations, Reponse

books, New Delhi

Wiseman Gordon and Barker Larry, 1974, Speech / interpersonal communication\ chandler publishing

company, New York and London


� 30 �

1.9 Answer / Hints to check your progress exercises


1. A working definition might be that communication is process which involves a series of

interaction where relationships are discovered and integrated towards a specific objective,

that of trying to influence one another.

2. i. True ii. False iii. False iv. True v. True

3. i. Ideation ii. Encoding iii. Transmission iv. Receiving v. decoding vi. Action


i. Communicator is the individual who starts the process of communication – Eg. VLW, Extension

Workers etc.

ii. Message is the information, the extension worker wishes his audience to receive, understand

and act upon

iii. Channel is the medium through which the messages travels to and fro

iv. Treatment is the way the information is put across the audience

v. Audience is the receiver of message. He is the consumer of message

vi. Audience response is the response of audience to the message given by the audience

2. Elements of communication process are:

i. Communicator ii. Message iii. Channel iv. Treatment v. Audience vi. Audience response

3. See section 1.5.1. and answer

4. See section 1.5.3 and answer


6. In three triangles, one word is extra. This is eye illusion

Models and Theories of Communication Course - 102

� 31 �

Unit-2

Models and Theories of Communication

Structure

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Concepts of model

2.3 Purpose of models

2.4 Models of communication

2.4.1 Aristotle’s model

2.4.2 Shanon-Weaver’s model

2.4.3 Berlo’s model

2.4.4 Schramm’s model

2.4.5 Leagan’s model

2.4.6 Rogers and shoemaker’s model

2.4.7 Westley and Maclean’s model

2.4.8 Model on Extension communication system

2.5 Theories of communication

2.5.1 Theories of interpersonal communications

2.5.2 Theories of mass communication

2.5.3 Theories of communication distortion



� 32 �

2.6 Let us sum up

2.7 Key words



2.0 Objectives

After studying this unit, the student should

� Be able to define what is a model

� Know the purposes of models

� Explain the different models of communication

� Explain the theories of communication

2.1 Introduction

Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations. They are useful

theoretical constructs that are frequently used in social sciences for explanatory purposes. They may

be used to show the size, shape or relationship of various parts or components of an object or process.

A model may also be useful in explaining the working of a system.

2.2 Concepts of model

i. It is representation of the process of communication in the same sense that a blueprint is a

representation of house

ii. Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations

2.3 Purpose of models

Communication models serve three main purposes

i. they describe the process of communication.

ii. they visually show relationship among the variables involved in communication and

iii. they aid in finding and in correcting communication problems


� 33 �

2.4 Models of communication

2.4.1 Aristotle’s model

According to Aristotle, communication has three ingredients

1. Speaker – the person who speaks

2. Speech – the speech that the individual produces

3. Audience – the person who listens

Audience Speech Speaker

Aristotle’s Model

2.4.2 Shannon- Weaver’s model

The Shannon-weaver (1949) model is consistent with Aristotle’s proposition. According to

them, the ingredients of communication are:

1. Source

2. Transmitter

3. Signal

4. Receiver

5. Destination

Source Transmitter Signal Receiver Destination

Shanmon and Weaver’s Model


� 34 �

Compared with the Aristotelian model, the source is the speaker, the signal is the speech and

the destination is the audience, plus two added ingredients, it transmits which sends out the source’s

message and a receiver which catches the message for the destination.

2.4.3 Berlo’s model

According to Berlo (1960) the model of communication consists of

1. Source

2. Encoder

3. Message

4. Channel

5. Decoder

6. Receiver

Communication

Source

Berlo’s Model

Code is a system of signals for communication. Encode means to put the message into code.

Channel means the medium through which the signals move, the decoder means which converts the

message in the code into ordinary language which may be easily understood.

He further elaborated that all human communication has some source, some person or group

of persons with a purpose. The purpose has source has to be expressed in the form of message. The

communication encoder is responsible for taking the ideas of the source and putting them in a code,

expressing the source’s purpose in the form of a message. A channel is a medium, a carrier of message.

For communication to occur there must be somebody at the other end, who can be called the

communication receiver, the target of communication.

2.4.4 Schramm’s model

According to Schramm (1961), the communication process involves –

1. Source

Encoder ChannelMessage DecoderCommunication

Receiver


� 35 �

2. Encoder

3. Signal

4. Decoder

5. Destination

Schramm’s Model

This model of communication is preferably relevant for the mass media. In human

communication it is most important whether people can properly encode or decode the signal (message),

and how they interpret in their own situations.

2.4.5 Leagan’s model

The communication model forwarded by Leagans (1963) has the following elements-

1. Communicator

2. Message

3. Channel

4. Treatment

5. Audience

6. Response

Leagan’s Model


� 36 �

The task of communication, according to him is to provide powerful incentives for change.

Success at this task requires thorough understanding of the six elements of communication, a skillful

communicator sending useful message through proper channel, effectively treated, to an appropriate

audience that responds as desired.

2.4.6 Rogers and shoemaker’s model

Rogers and shoemaker (1971) thought of the communication process in terms of the

S-M-C-R-E model, the components of which are –

1. Source

2. Message

3. Channel

4. Receiver

5. Effects

Rogers and shoemaker’s model

According to them a source (S) and message (M) via certain channels (C) to the receiving

individual (R), which causes some effects (E) i.e., changing the existing behaviour pattern of the

receiver.

2.4.7 Westley and Maclean’s model

‘A’ is source (Eg., ANGRAU), ‘B’ is receiver or public, ‘C’ is the mass media channel (eg., E-TV

Annadata), ‘A’ gets feedback from the public refines the message and ‘C’ also gets feedback and

refines and the total refinements are carried out by the interpreting source that is ‘C’ and then refined

messages are transmitted to the users. This is typical in a TV channel broadcast. Eg., Annadata of E-TV

does similar to explained above.


� 37 �

2.4.8 Model on extension communication system

Communication in extension may also be thought of as two-way stimulus – response (S-R)

situation in which the necessary stimulus is provided by the communicator, the extension agent, in

the form of a message which produces certain response on the audience, the farmers and vice-versa.

A favourable response by the audience reinforces learning. A diagrammatic representation of the

extension communication system on the basis of the model suggested by Leagans (1963) is presented

in the below figure.

Extension Communication System


� 38 �


1. What is model?

2. List out the purpose of models in communication

3. Mention the elements in Paul Leagan’s model of communication

2.5 Theories of communication

The theories of communication can be classified into three groups namely

Theories about any phenomenon in general will highlight the key concepts involved in it.

These theories of communication will be useful for a person who is trying to understand a given

communication event by way of providing a framework which suggests what he should look for.

These theories should be viewed based on the basic assumptions that communications is a transitive,

multidimensional, multipurpose process.

Obviously, no theory or model is going to do all we ask of it. All the models / theories to be

surveyed, atleast fail one or more of the criteria. It is the purpose of a theory or model to reduce reality

to a manageable number of elements and relationships among those elements. The students of

communication should be familiar with a variety of communication theories and models so that he or

she can use that one which is appropriate for the analysis of a given situation. The theories of

interpersonal communication as stated by various authors were:

2.5.1 Theories of interpersonal communications

1. Kelman paradigm, 2. Bauer’s scheme 3. Festinger’s scheme, 4. Attribution theory, 5. Game

theory, 6. Social comparison theory, 7. New comb’s theory 8. Stimulus response theory 9. Linguistic

theory, 10. Psycholinguistic theory and 11. Socio-linguistic theory.

In general, the theories of interpersonal communication explains it as the face to face interaction

between people who are consistently aware of each other. Here the mutual pressure of the message

generator and receiver is required. Each person assures the rules of sender and receiver of message

who are independent and interchangeable. The behavior of the participants in interpersonal

communication are so intertwined in the process that it is difficult to separate the sender from receiver.

Attribution theory gives stress to the psychological state, motives and intensions of the

individuals involved in communication.


� 39 �

Game theory views interpersonal communication as the process of transaction between the

people to balance possible gains and losses. Social comparison theory states that persons communicate

in order to verify their perceptions of the world assumptions about themselves. New comb’s theory

explains the thinking processes of people who are reacting to one another simultaneously – linguistic

theory deals with a description of language systems. Psycholinguistic theory focuses attention on the

behaviour of an individual in the use of language. Socio-linguistic theory explains patterns of variation

in language across different people, stimuli relationship, context and competence.

2.5.2 Theories of mass communication (message flow models) :

1. Hypodermic needle model, 2. One step flow model, 3. Two step flow model, 4. Multistep

flow model, 5. Theory of mass media effects, 6. Theory of individual difference, 7. Psychodynamic

model of persuasion process, 8. Theory of social categories, 9. Theory of social relationship, 10.

Socio-cultural model of persuasion process, 11. Free press theory, 12. Social responsibility theory,

13. Development media theory, 14. Democratic participant media theory

Several models have been conceptualized to explain the flow of message from the

communicator to the mass audience. Based on the number of ways involved in the flow of message

between sender and receiver theories like hypodermic needle, one step flow, two step flow, and

multistep flow are conceived. The response to mass media message is said to occur in line with the

psychological makeup of the individuals was taken as the assumption as per the theory of individual

differences. Psychodynamic model explains about the relationship between internal processes and

manifest overt behaviour of the persuader. Theory of social category emphasises that people who

have a number of similar characteristics are likely to have similar orientation and behaviour resulting

in a fairly uniform response to mass media. Free press theory stresses that the act of publication and

distribution should be open to the audience and no restriction should be placed on the publication of

new items, social responsibility theory states that media should accept and fulfil certain obligations to

society. Development media theory states that media should accept and carryout positive development

tasks in line with nationally established policy. The central point of the democratic participant media

theory lies with the needs, interests and aspiration of receiver in a political theory.

2.5.3 Theories of communication distortion

1. Theory of communication distortion and 2. Theory of communication distortion in transit.

The first one states that larger the volume of communication, larger would be the communication

distortion. Increasing the volume of communication increases more chances for misunderstanding,

mis-interpretation, less concentration and low priorities.


� 40 �

The second one emphasizes that messages pass through many layers in an organization.

Therefore repetition and reproduction of the same message is multiplied into many which reduces the

efficiency of communication.

The overview of communication theories suggests that communication can be described in

terms of networks, which give the observer some indication of who is communicating with whom it

can also be described in terms of the types of interactions which are occurring among communicators.

Further, it can be described in terms of message transactions, which indicate how the elements of

communication combine to produce a unique unrepeatable event. It can be also viewed from the

point view of an individual gathering information as he passes through his environment.

Check your progress-II

1. State the different theories of interpersonal communications

2. What is distortion?

3. Mention the theories of mass communication

2.6 Let us sum up

Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations. They are useful

theoretical constructs that are frequently used in social sciences for explanatory purposes.

Some of the models of communication are Aristotle’s model, Shannm-Weaver’s model, Berlo’s

model, Sehramm model and Roger’s and Shoemaker’s model

In examining the evolution of communication models, three phases become identifiable. In

the first phase, the emphasis was clearly on linear, one way manipulative communication.

In the second phase, communication models began to place emphasis on the organic nature

of communication. As a result, most of the models of this phase are circular, two-way and contextualized,

placing an enormous impact on knowledge generation and utilization activities.

In the third phase, communication models see communication as interactional in specific

socio-cultural contexts through shared meaning.

Thus, from the technology transfer viewpoint, it may be stated that human communication is

a complex, continuous circular, two-way process, in which certain key elements such as the source,

message, channel and receiver(s) are involved in some kind of dependence, co-orientation and


� 41 �

interaction through mutually understandable signs or symbols, including feedback and certain wanted

or unwanted effects in both the communicator and the receiver.

The theories of communication can be classified into three groups viz., theories of interpersonal

communication, and theories of mass communication and theories of communication distortion.

2.7 Keywords

• Transmitter: It is sending coded messages along a selected medium

• Signal: It is the actual message

• Source: It is the speaker’s mind. It is the source of idea

• Theory: Relationship between facts or the ordering them in some meaningful way.

• Technology: Application of science to the practical aim of human life

• Destination: It is the listener’s mind. It is the target of the message.


Chandrakandan K., Neetaji Seetharaman R and Sathiyaseelan R., 1996,Communication, perspectives,

models and theories, Indian journal of Extension Education. Vo1. 7 No.4, 1996

Dipak De and Srinivasa Rao M., 2000, Techniques of theory building, Ganga Kaveri Publishing

House, Varanasi

Ray G.L., 1996, Extension communication, and management Naya Prakash, Calcutta

Wiseman Gorden and Barker larry, 1974, Speech – interpersonal, Communication, Chandler

publishing company, Newyork



1. It is representation of the process of communication in the same sense that a blue print is a

representation of house

2. Purpose of models are

a. They describe the process of communication


� 42 �

b. They visually show relationship among the variables involved in communication and

c. They aid in finding and in correcting communication problems




2. Different interpretation given to the original message is known as distortion

3. See section 2.5.2 and answer

Key communicators - Identification and their role in

Agricultural development process Course - 102

� 43 �


Unit-3

Key communicators – Identification and their role in

Agricultural development process

Structure

3.0 Objective

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Identification methods of key communicators

3.2.1 Socio-metric method

3.2.2 Self designation technique

3.2.3 Information ratings

3.3 Characteristics

3.4 Role of key communicators

3.5 Let us sum up

3.6 Key words



3.0. Objectives

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to

� Define who is a key communicator


� 44 �

� Be able to know the identification methods in a social system

� Explain the role of key communicators in agriculture development process

3.1 Introduction

“To be a leader you have got to lead human beings with affection” J.R.D. TATA.

“The key is to select good people, be accessible to them when need you but leave them free

to operate” Russi Modi

Key communicators or opinion leaders are persons in any social system who are sought out

for information and advice on general or specific topics. Rogers and Kincoid (1981) define opinion

leadership as the degree to which an individual is able to informally influence other’s knowledge,

attitudes, or overt behaviour in a desired way with relative frequency. It is assumed that such persons

are respected persons in each social system to whom some people look for advice and information

and who through such consultations, influence their behaviour and actions.

The concept of key communicator was first developed by Katz & Lazarfield etal (1944). Since

then they have been variously called as fashion leaders, influencers, information leaders, opinion

leaders, spark plugs, style-setters, taste- makers etc. However, all these names have been used more or

less for individuals operating in a social system who are more important in the communication of

information than others. Research evidence suggests that each social system has it s own opinion

leaders.

3.2 Identification methods of key informants

Three methods are in common use for identifying key-informants. These methods are (i)

Sociometric method, (ii) self-designation technique and (iii) information ratings.

3.2.1 Sociometric method

In this method, members of a social system are asked to name the person(s) to whom they go

for advice and information on a particular topic. It has several advantages over other methods in so

far as sociometric questions are easy to administer and are adaptable to different situations This method

has also relatively higher validity. However, the use of this method requires a large number of

respondents and complex statistical analysis.

This is concerned primarily with obtaining choices in interpersonal relations, such as with

whom one would like to work, play, etc. or to whom one would go for advice on farming or other



� 45 �

problems. It attempts to describe social phenomena is quantitative terms. It may be used in selecting

both professional and lay leaders, but a greater use of it is made in the latter case.

It is necessary that the persons involved in a sociometric test known one another. It is also to

be emphasized that the grouping of individuals upon the basis of sociometric tests is in terms of

choices relative to specific popularity. In a sense, the persons chosen by several others are popular,

but it is popularity or acceptance in terms of specific activities. Sociograms for the same individuals

will manifest differences when the choices are in relation to different activities.

This method is very useful to the Extension Workers in finding out the natural or local or

informal leaders in the villages, who are the influential persons that help in the introduction and

popularization of new, improved practices in their communities or neighbourhoods. As extension

workers goes into a given area and asks the farmers to indicate whom they ordinarily consult for

advice on farming (or any particular aspect of farming in which the extension worker wants to introduce

some improvement). Usually after a few interviews, it becomes apparent which farmer is the influential

person or natural leader. Figure (sociogram) illustrates this type of test.

Sociogram

When ‘H’ is interviewed he may indicate that he generally goes to ‘B’ for advice on farming.

‘G’ , ‘F’ and ‘D’ may also say that ‘B’ is the one whose advice they take on farming. Then ‘B’ is the

operational or potential, ‘natural’ leader for these people and therefore if the extension worker succeeds

in inducing ‘B’ to take up certain new practice, it is quite likely that others will be influenced by his

behaviour. It should be remembered that ‘B’ is the natural leader or the one who initiates action for

the others. ‘B’ may or may not hold an office or leadership position in organizations in this area. He

may not even think of himself as a leader and may insist that he is not a leader. However, so far as

these farmers are concerned, ‘B’ is the operational leader in relation to farming practices.


� 46 �

3.2.2 Information ratings

In this method, some members of a social system are purposively or randomly selected and

asked to designate persons giving advice and information on a general or particular topic. This

method is economical and quick as it saves cost and time. However, it is limited to the extent each

informant is thoroughly familiar with the social system.

3.2.3 Self-designating method:

In this method, each selected person is asked a series of questions designed to determine the

degree to which he perceives himself to be a key-communicator. This method has one important

advantage in so far as it also measures the individual’s perception of his being a key-communicator,

which in turn influences his behaviour. However, its accuracy is limited to the extent the respondents

can identity and report their self-image correctly.

3.3 Characteristics

Key-communicators have been found to have distinctive characteristics. On the basis of a

review of a large number of research studies, Rogers and Shoemarker (1971) drew the following

conclusions regarding characteristics of key-informants.

(i) External communication

a. Key-communicators have greater exposure to mass media than their followers

b. Key-communicators are more cosmopolitan than their followers.

c. Key-communicators have greater change agent contact than their followers

(ii) Accessibility:

Key-communicators exercise relatively greater social participation than their followers in a

social system

(iii) Social status:

Key communicators enjoy a relatively higher social status than their followers as far as conditions

in that social system exists.

(iv) Innovativeness

a. Key-communicators are more innovative than their followers



� 47 �

b. When the social system’s norms favour change, key-communicators are more innovative but

otherwise not especially so.

c. When the norms of a system are more modern, key-communicators are more monographic.

Monography is the tendency of a key-communicator to act as such for only one topic.

(v) Relationship to the social systems:

According to Shankaraiah (1969), the key-communicators under Indian conditions are:

a. Perceived as the best farmers when the social system is actively modern

b. Social stars when the social system is relatively traditional

On the basis of a review made by Sandhu (1970) of a large number of research conducted

under Indian conditions, no specific conclusions could be drawn regarding age, education, farm size,

etc., although, key-communicators tend to belong to the middle-age group i.e. 30 to 50 years, be

somewhat better educated and own relatively larger farms than their followers.

Check your progress-1:

1. Mention different methods of identification of key communicators

2. Sociometric method means………………………..

3. List out characteristics of key communicators

3.4 Role of key communicators

1. Communication of the new technology to other villages

2. Keeping in touch with the scientists, other institutions, media and sources of information

3. Coordinating the functions of the village organizations and the institutions and channelizing

them towards the adoption of technologies for greater production

4. Assisting the villagers in securing the supplies and services required by them

5. Guiding and helping people in getting assistance from government

6. Helping the fellow villagers in the preparation of the action plans


� 48 �

7. Giving constant guidance and acting as the local consultants

8. Focusing on the problems of villager and helping the extension workers and

9. Serving as the demonstrator in the case of agricultural innovations


1. State the roles of key communicators you have studied

2. Legitimisation means………………………..

3. Leadership quiz

Leadership Quiz

All of us have some basic notions and assumptions about leadership. What are yours? Do you

agree or disagree with the following?

1. An effective leader varies their use of authority according to the

group and situation. Sometimes they merely announce their

decision, at other times they persuade, consult or leave the decision

to the group, all depending on the group and situation.

2. An effective leader sees more clearly than a less effective one the

strengths and weaknesses of individual members of their team.

3. An effective leader realizes people have mixed feelings towards

authority; i.e., they both like it and do not like it.

4. To be an effective leader one must decide whether they are going

to be democratic or autocratic and then stick to it.

5. Effective leaders tend to smooth over or avoid conflicts between

members of the group rather than confront them.

6. An effective leader thinks in terms of duties and activities rather

than results and objectives.

7. An effective leader is one who keeps their desk neat and clean.

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Agree Disagree



� 49 �

( ) ( )

Agree Disagree

8. An effective leader puts a great value on humour and uses it to keep

a sense of perspective when the group is struggling with a problem.

9. Besides the authority of their position, an effective leader tries to

develop other forms of influence, i.e., personality, competence and

character.

10. An effective leader is one who leads a group to its goals

11. An effective leader encourages honest disagreement in order to find

better solutions.

12. An effective leader treats each member of the group in the same

way.

13. An effective leader is one who usually gets his or her way in a

group discussion.

14. An effective leader builds on the strengths of the group, doing the

things they do well and omitting those they cannot

15. An ineffective leader often gets lost in the jungle of duties and

loses track of objectives.

16. An effective leader considers their men, their quality and

development, to be the most important resources -— far more

important than materials or money.

17. An effective leader is sensitive both to group and individual needs

as well as the demands of the situation

18. Leadership should be shared in a group, moving from one member

to another, according to the competence required in the situation.

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )


� 50 �

3.5 Let us sum up

Key Communicator or opinion leaders are persons in any social system who are sought out for

information and advice on general or specific topics. They have been also called as fashion leaders,

influence, information leaders, opinion leaders, spark plugs, style-setters, taste makers etc. Three

methods are in common use for identifying key-communicators. They are 1) Sociometric method 2)

Self-designation technique 3) Information ratings

Key-communicators have been found to have distinctive characteristics viz., external

communication, accessibility, social status, innovativeness.

Key-communicators play a large variety of roles within their social system viz., spokesman,

harmonizer, planner, organizer, educator, symbol of group ideals, legitimizer, motivator, etc., facilitator

of extension activities etc.

3.6 Key words

1. Innovation - Innovation is an idea, practice that is perceived as new by an individual

2. Innovativeness - It is the degree to which an individual is earlier in adoption when compared

with the other members of society

3. Self Image - It is the way we see ourselves

4. Legitimization - Certain people or groups that seem to have the right authority and prerogative

to pass on things to make them legitimate ideas. Ex. Village Officers, Panchyat,

President etc.


Dubey, V.K., 1972, Identification of opinion leaders and their characteristics. Indian journal of

Extension Education, VIII 76-83

Mcgrath, S.J.,1994,Basic managerial skills for all, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,

Narasimhaiah, 1996, A critical study on farm leaders with special reference to their characteristics

and roles for agricultural development, Ph.D. thesis, Acharaya, N.G. Ranga Agricultural

University, Hyderabad, 1996

Sahay B.N.,1996,Communication Strategy for Rural Development, Kurukshetra (India’s Jounral of

Rural Development, Vol. XLIV, Nos.4-5, Jan – Feb.



� 51 �

Sandhu, A.S., 1993 Textbook on agricultural communication process and methods oxford and

IBH



1. i. Sociometric method ii. Information ratings iii. Self-designating methods

2. Sociometric method: This is concerned primarily with obtaining choices in interpersonal

relations, such as with whom one would like to work, play etc. or to whom one would go for

advice on farming or other problems. It attempts to desirable social phenomena in quantitative

terms. It may be used in selecting both professional and lay leaders, but a greater use of it is

made in the latter case.

3. Characteristics of key communications

a. External communication

b. Accessbility

c. Social status

d. Innovativeness


1. See section 3.4. and answer

2. Legitimization: In almost every community, or social system, there are certain people or

groups that seem to have the right authority and prerogative to pass on things to make them

legitimate ideas. These people are called “Legitimizers. The initiating set usually takes the

problems to legitimizer. To by-pass this group usually spells failure. Legitimizer may be

formal administrators village officers, panchyat presidents etc., and informal. A legitimizer

may have power because of money, famility prestige, key position , knowledge, past correct

judgments etc.

3. Scoring – Many social scientists would disagree with 4 through 7 and 12 and 13.


� 52 �

Feedback - Problems in communication Course - 102

� 53 �


Unit-4

Feedback - Problems in communication

Structure

4.0 Objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Meaning of feedback

4.3 Characteristics of feedback

4.4 Problems in communication

4.4.1 Insufficient information

4.4.2 Information overload

4.4.3 Over confidence

4.4.4 Language or code

4.4.5 Not listening

4.4.6 Too head of understanding

4.4.7 Lack of empathy

4.4.8 Closed Dogmatism

4.4.9 Ignoring the leaders

4.4.10 Prejudices

4.4.11 Beliefs


� 54 �

4.4.12 Disorganized communication

4.4.13 Inarticulateness

4.4.14 Physical Environment

4.4.15 Life positions

4.4.16 Egoism, complacency, overconfidence, dogmatism and the feeling of omniscience

4.4.17 Difference in thinking or perceptions

4.5 Critical factors in communication

4.6 Let us sum up

4.7 Key words



4.0 Objectives

After studying this unit, the learner should

� Be able to state the meaning of feedback

� Explain the characteristics and types of feedback

� Be able to explain the problems and critical factors of communication

4.1 Introduction

The importance of feedback cannot be overemphasized and needs no special elucidation.

Feedback is the yardstick which measures the effectiveness of communication and is used for evaluation

review and to amend the message in the light of response. Efficient workers have reliable feedback

and they succeed in their effective communication.

In a continuing human relationship, successive cycles of communication have a cumulative

meaning and effect. Every human relationship is always in a state of change. It is constantly getting

better or worse. Unfortunately, all change is not necessarily progress. For, progress results from change

should occur only in desirable direction. There are powerful forces that tend to slow down changes in


� 55 �

people’s behaviour. To overcome these forces, a powerful communication effort by extension workers

must be constantly exerted. Progress sometimes is as difficult for rural development worker to achieve

as it is for a swimmer to make his way upstream in a swift current.

From the forgoing propositions emerge some key problems and critical factors of

communication program for change. Fortunately for the extension worker, there are things known

about communication that when understood will help him communicate more effectively.

4.2 Meaning and characteristics of feedback

4.2.1 Meaning of feedback

The only real hope of an improvement in our communication system is for the sender to

assure himself that his communication has been thoroughly understood by the receiver. All the way

through a communication, he must use a control that will ensure the degree of meaning which has

placed on his words is appreciated when received. A peace of message transmitted is said to be

effective only when there is a provision for feedback in communication. A communication process is

said to have feedback, when the receiver of the message has given his response to the sender’s

message. On the other hand the communicator must known how well the message has been received

by the receiver, understood, interpreted and acted upon. Feedback helps to determine this process.

Sending back the knowledge about the message to the communicator is known as feedback. Thus,

feedback is one of the important elements of the comunciation process. A communication process

without a provision for feedback is not an effective communication.

Two-way communication is essential in good feedback between the sender and receiver which

promotes good relations between them and motivates them to do their best. Feedback is the means of

receivers getting through the sender and getting approval and encouragement for what they are doing.

An effective two-way communication occurs when the sender transmits message and the

receivers involves in feedback to the sender which is illustrated below.


� 56 �

4.2.2 Characteristics of feedback

i. Intention : Effective feedback is directed towards improving work performance and making

the worker a more valuable asset. It is not a personal attack. Feedback is directed towards

aspect of the job.

ii. Specificity: Be specific rather than saying things like “you always” or “you never” . Vague

criticism causes resentment.

iii. Description: Effective feedback can also be characterized as descriptive rather than evaluative.

It tells the receivers what he or she has done in objective terms, rather than presenting a

value judgement.

iv. Usefulness: Effective feedback is information that the receiver can use to improve performance.

If it is not something the receiver can correct, it is not worth mentioning.

v. Timeliness: There are considerations in timing feedback properly. As a rule, the more

immediate the feedback, the better. This way the receiver has a better chance of knowing

what the sender is talking about and can take corrective action.

FEEDBACK


� 57 �

vi. Clarity: Effective feedback must be clearly understood by the recipient. A good way of

checking this is to ask the recipient to restate the major points of discussion.

vii. Validity: In order, for feedback, to be effective, it must be reliable and valid.

viii. Readiness: In order, for feedback, to be effective, the receiver must be ready to receive.

When feedback is imposed upon the receiver it is much less effective.

Feedback should be a continuous process as the audience and communicators are neither

always the same persons, nor they are interacting in the same situation. The extension agent shall take

steps to analyze the responses of the audience, which may be positive, negative or no response. If

there has been no response or negative response to a message, the extension agent shall find out

reasons for the same. If it pertains to research, the problem should be referred as feedback information

to research, to find out solutions for the same.

If the problem does not relate to research, the extension agent shall find out whether the

message has been relevant to the audience, or whether the channel, treatment, audio-visual aids have

been appropriately used. If not, corrective steps should be taken without any loss of time. For a

season-bound program, if nothing can be done in that particular season, the extension agent shall take

appropriate steps in next season, so that the mistakes are not repeated.

If there has been a favourable response to the message by the audience, the extension agent

shall find out what next is to be done to reinforce the learning already made by the farmers. At this

stage, supply of critical inputs and services including credit are important.

Adequate and correct feedback are essential for purposeful communication; feedback

information provides the communicator an opportunity to take corrective steps in communication

work, helps in identifying subsequent activities, and acts as pathfinder for need-based research.

Check your progress-I

1. What is feedback ?

2. State the purpose of feedback?

3. Mention the characteristics of feedback


� 58 �

4.4 Problems in communication

Extension workers and farm advisers often find to their disappointment that farm people do

not seem to show the desired response after a message has been communicated. They wonder what

went wrong and where.

There can always be something that can stand between you and the person with whom you

are communicating, which prevents the easy and complete transfer of the information. This is the

problem in communication. You must be to able to trace out what and where this block is and

remedy it as soon as you can.

4.4.1 Insufficient information

One common block occurs when you are not careful enough in preparing yourself and your

information for communication. Sometimes you fail to provide complete information. If the information

you give answers the question of the farm people only in part, they will be at a loss to know what they

should do, as they need to have full information on all the facts required for taking action. This

happens when you take it for granted that the farm people already know some of the things, and

hence do not include them in the information you give out. One way out of this would be to put

yourself in the position of the receiver and ask yourself, if I were him, what is the information I would

like to have on this subject?. This empathy or putting yourself in the shoes of someone else, and

taking up the line of thinking which he normally is expected to do , helps in overcoming the defect

easily.

4.4.2 Information overload

A second kind of block comes into the picture when you do the opposite of giving insufficient

information – give too much of it. When you provide information in detail covering all aspects of a

subject without any thought to whether it is needed or not. You will be creating a strong problem to

the reception and understanding of the information by the receiver. He would need both time and

energy to sieve and sift the material, and pick out and use it. This will be expecting too much from

farm people who dislike mental effort as much as we do. A good advice often given to communicators

is decide what you want to say, say it, and then stop.

4.4.3 Overconfidence

A block appears when you take it for granted that your communication is clear and people

understand you all right, little suspecting that the opposite may be the case. Trying out the material

before hand on a person typical of the audience can help you in getting over such a block to some


� 59 �

extent . You can then find out whether what you communicate will be in a form that will be quickly

and clearly understood.

4.4.4 Language or code

Language or code becomes a problem in communication, if the sender and receiver do not

understand each others language. The problemof semantics is created between them. Communication

can be made effective if the message is conveyed in the language which is understood by the receiver.

The problem of language in communication cannot be taken lightly. It can cause problems of a

serious nature.

4.4.5 Not listening

Another common block occurs if your talk (person-to-person on the radio ) when peple are

not listening. Listening has to be preceded by a desire to listen. Besides, a listening audience is a

voluntary audience, not a captive one, and it is not bound to give you rapt attention. Even while

seeming to listen, the listener may be thinking of something else, in which case he is giving you as

good as a deaf ear.

4.4.6 Too ahead of audience understanding

The failure on your part to keep in mind that the level and speed of understanding of your

farm audience is rather low results in a problem. Farm people are not so happily placed as you are not

exposed to ideas as your are, not familiar with words that appear so common to you. They may not

think very far into the future as you do. The information you provide may be far ahead of the situation

they are in. If your information is on the treatment of seed, and if the audience is not aware that the

seed carries disease germs on its coat, you are one step ahead of their understanding, and thus the

information does not get taken in.

4.4.7 Lack of empathy

There is the failure on your part to see the other person’s point of view. You may with all

sincerity advise fertilizer use but the audience may have a deep-rooted feeling that fertilizer burns the

corps. Unless you are able to clear this point, your information on fertilizer application will meet with

a strong block.

4.4.8 Closed dogmatism

Some farm people have the proverbal ‘closed mind’. Generally when anything new is suggested,

they withdraw into their shells. Unless you first try to draw them out with strong appeals, information

communication will be completely blocked. When your audience has a good number of such people


� 60 �

with closed minds, you should first try and create a situation which makes them feel that they should

come out of their shells and listen to your message.

4.4.9 Ignoring the leaders

The key people or the leaders in a community exert a certain influence over a others. If you

ignore them or do not take them into confidence or do not direct your communication at them, you

are bound to fail. This block will be a strong one, and it is always good to keep in mind the role these

key people play in the community while preparing for your communication. This is also called the

concept of opinion leadership.

4.4.10 Prejudices

Do not let your own prejudices or dislikes influence your communication. If people do not

need information on certain points, satisfy them rather than ignore them just because such information

is unnecessary or unimportant in your opinion. Quite likely, such information is both necessary and

important to them.

4.4.11 Beliefs

Do not ignore the beliefs, customs, prejudices, dislikes and habits of the people with whom

you are communicating. These are a strong block against your communication. You have to help get

over these gradually. Use tact when your message has to go against any of their beliefs, and shape

your information in such a manner that you do not hurt them.

4.4.12 Disorganized communication

Organize you material for communication with care. Disorganized communication will only

lead to confusion and misunderstanding, which will be the strongest problem of them all. Planning

the information in an organized and orderly in a logical sequence is the basis of effective communication.

4.4.13 Inarticulateness

Some people prefer to remain silent and do not give vent to their feelings and emotions. This

creates barrier in communication.

4.4.14 Physical environment

Noise due to telephonic interruptions, or noise created by the machines can cause distraction.

Whispers or even the movements of people can come in the way of effective communication.


� 61 �

4.4.15 Life positions

Proper mindset is essential for effective communication. If people communicate from the life

position “ I am OK, you are not or I am not OK you are OK. Communication is bound to become

crooked. The ideal life position for effective communication is I am OK, you are OK.

4.4.16 Egoism, complacency, over-confidence, Dogmatism and the feeling of omniscience

that one knows everything:

These barriers come from within an individual from out of the inner works of his mind and

conflicting feelings. Such a person is difficult to deal with, because he will not listen to others.

4.4.17 Difference in thinking or perceptions

Our thinking patterns or perceptions may differ, human as we are. If two persons watch the

same event and give a description of it, there will be considerable difference in observation. It is

based upon experience, values, attitudes, expectations, emotional state etc.,

4.5 Critical factors in communication

Each act of communication has alteast three phases – expression, interpretation and response.

If the expression is not clear, the interpretation accurate and the response logical, one’s effort to

communicate will not succeed. As it is difficult to control how an audience shall interpret the message

and respond to it, a powerful communication effort by extension agent must be constantly exerted.

The critical factors in extension communication according to Leagans (1961) are as follows:

1. Communication is limited by one’s concept of the communication process.

2. Communication is two-way process, involving interaction between the communicator and

the receivers.

3. One must have ideas before one can communicate with others.

4. The system of symbols used to represent ideas, objects or concepts must be relevant, accurate

and skillfully used.

5. Cultural values and the social organization are determinants of communication.

6. The environment created by the communicator influences one’s effectiveness.

7. To make sense, the communication effort must be organized according to some specific

form or pattern.


� 62 �

8. Cooperation, participation and involvement are essential to communication.

9. Evaluation is necessary to improve communication.

Check the progress-2

1. List out the critical factors in communication

2. State any five problems of communication you have studied

3) Exercise

Directions for the trainers

1. Select any four participants to participate in the action

2. Ask one of them to be the ‘boss’ (A) and other three to be his sub-ordinates B, C, and D. Seat

them in Figure-1 in the presence of the rest of the group such that the group can observe

them well. ‘A’ has his back towards the sub-ordinates and sub-ordinates face the back of the

boss.

A (Boss)

B C D

Fig.1 : Closed, one-way communication between the boss and his sub-ordinates

3. Give ‘A’ the following diagram on a piece of paper. Let him not show it to his sub-ordinates.

Ask ‘A’ to explain verbally to his sub-ordinates the diagram such that they can reproduce it

on paper as per his directions.

4. ‘A’ should explain the diagram only verbally while the sub-ordinates must remain silent. No

questions are allowed among each other or to the boss


� 63 �

Fig –2 - Set of rectangles

5. Stop this activity after 7-10 minutes and collect the drawings from the participants

6. In the second round, have all four members sit in a circle facing inside. Allow interaction

among all members while A explains to B,C, and D the same diagram and ask them to reproduce it on

their own paper

(see Fig-3)

Fig-3- Open , two way communications between the boss and his sub-ordinates

7. A is allowed to explain the diagram in any way he deems fit, and to answer questions from

sub-ordinates. A is not allowed to show the paper with the diagram to his sub-ordinates

8. Note the length of time in which the drawing is completed by all three and collect the

drawings form the participants.


� 64 �

9. Discuss the difference in the two situations in terms of

a. Quality of communication (compare the drawings)

b. Speed of communication (compare the length of time)

c. Satisfaction of members

d. Any other factors

4. Exercise (problem of difficult language)

Have you understand the meaning of the following

i. His vertically was reduced to horizontality

ii. “Ornithological specimens of identical plumage. habitually congregate together

iii. Hold an egg in the hollow of your Hand, make a perforation at the apex and a corresponding

one at the base, apply your lips to the aperture and inhale forcefully with lips in ‘O’ shape till

the cell is discharged of its contents.

5. Distortion Exercise: “Narayana Reddy is a owner of three Jewelery shops. on April 23 night

at 12.50, three thieves entered the house and terrorize the inmates and taken away 33 tulas

of gold, 650 grams of silver, 18250 Rupees. Among the thieves, two wore red shirts and

blue pant and the rest of the thief wore yellow pant and white shirt and having sword in his

hand”.

After communicating the message to the group ask them to write the same. Analyze how far

the message is received as it is or distorted

4.6 Let us sum up

Extension communication is never complete without feedback information. Feedback means

carrying some significant responses of the audience back to the communicator.

The characteristics of feedback is source oriented, feedback varies in different communication

situations, feedback affects the sources or communicator, feedback exerts control over future messages,

feedback affects communication fidelity etc.

Each act of communication has atleast three phases – expression, interpretation and response.

If the expression is not clear, the interpretation accurate and the response logical, one’s effort to

communicate will not succeed. As it is difficult to control how an audience shall interpret the message


� 65 �

and respond to it, a powerful communication effort by the extension agent must be constantly exerted.

The critical factors in extension communication are communication is limited by one’s concept of the

communication process, communication is a two-way process, one must have ideas before one can

communicate with others, the system of symbols used to represent ideas, objects, must be relevant,

accurate and skillfully used etc.

Extension workers and farm advisers often find to their disappointment that farm people do

not seems to show the desired response after a message has been communicated. They wonder what

went wrong and where.

There can always be something that can stand between you and the person with whom you

are communicating, which prevents the easy and complete transfer of the information. This is the

problem in communication. Some of the problems are, giving insufficient information, giving too

much information, fail to listen, fail to see the other point of view, disorganized communication etc.

4.7 Keywords

Feedback : It is stimulus –response interaction pattern

Communication fidelity : Faithful performance of communication process by all its elements.

Communicator, message, channel and receiver

Problem : There is something that stand between you and person with whom

you are communicating which interferes the complete transfer of

information

Positive feedback : This feedback show the communicator that his message was

understood

Negative feedback : This feedback show the communicator that his message was not

understood. It does not imply disagreement just a lack of understanding

Evaluation : Measuring the effectiveness of the message

Empathy : Empathy is “I feel how you feel”


� 66 �

4.8. Further Readings

Bajpai B.L.,1997, Making management still more effective, vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

Chalapathi Rao I.V., 1999,Communication and leadership skills and strategies, Booklinks corporation,

Hyderabad

David A. Colb, Irwan.M, Rubin, and James M., Mcintyrs, 1979, Organizational Psychology: An

experiential approach, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Kamath H.G.,1969,Writing for farm families, Allied publishers, Private limited, Bombay

Legans, J.P. 1961, The communication Process, Extension Education in Community Development,

Directorate of Extension, Minsitry of Food and Agri., Govt. of India , New Delhi

Sandhu A.S., 1993,Textbook on Agricultural communication process and methods, Oxford and

IBH

Ray, G.L., 1996, Extension communication and management, Naya Prakash, Calcutta

4.9 Answer / Hints to check your progress exercises

Check your progress -1

1. Feedback means carrying some significant responses of the auidence back to communicator

2. The purpose of feedback is providing the communicator an opporutnity to take corrective

steps in communication work, helps in identifying subsequent activities and act as pathfinder

for needbased research



1. See section 4.5 and answer

2. See section 4.4 and answer

3. i. He had a fall ii. Birds of the same feather will flock together iii. Put a hole in the egg and

suck it

4. Exercise

Organizational Communication Course - 102

� 67 �

Unit 5

Organizational Communication

Structure

5.0 Objectives

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Concept of Organization

5.3 Concept of Communication

5.4 Concept of Organizational Communication

5.5 Types of Communication in organization

5.6 Barriers to Organizational Communication

5.7 Types of Barriers

5.7.1 External Barriers

5.7.2 Organisational Barriers

5.7.3 Personal Barriers

5.8 7 C’s and 4S’s

5.9 Let us sum up

5.10 Key words


5.12 Answer/Hints to check your progress exercises



� 68 �

5.0 Objectives

After going through this unit, the reader should.

� Define organization, communication and organizational communication.

� Explain the types of communication in an organization.

� Explain the barriers of Communication in an organization.

5.1 Introduction

Communication is the most vital ingredient of an organization. In fact, an organization cannot

be conceived of without communication. An organization is a group of persons constituted to achieve

certain specific objectives. The achievement of these objectives largely depends upon a proper Co-

ordination and integration of human effort in an organization. The people working in an organization

are interrelated, their activities are also interrelated because all activities are performed only to achieve

the organizational objectives. Co-ordination and integration of various human activities are possible

only if there is an effective system of communication in the organization which provides for exchange

of information and sharing of various ideas. The more effective the system of communication is, the

better are the relations between the workers, and between workers and the management.

Communication is the nervous system of an organization. It keeps the member of the

organization informed about the internal and external happenings relevant to a task and of interest to

the organization. It co-ordinates the efforts of the members towards achieving organizational objectives.

It is the process of influencing the action of a person or a group. It is a process of meaningful interaction

among human beings to initiate, execute, accomplish, or prevent certain actions. Communication is,

thus, the life blood of an organization. Without communication, an organization is lifeless and its

very existence is in danger.

5.2 Concept of organization

Organization is the backbone of management. Without efficient organization, no management

can perform its functions smoothly. Hence let us define what an organizations is

• According to Allen, organization may be defined “as the process of identifying and grouping

the work to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority and establishing

relationship for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in

accomplishing objectives”.


� 69 �

• According to Harold Koontz and o’ Donnell – “organizing involves the grouping of activities

necessary to accomplish goals and plans, the assignment of these activities to appropriate

departments and the provision for authority delegation and co-ordination”.

• According to Prof. Haiman. “organization is a process of defining and grouping the activities

of the enterprise and establishing the authority relationship among them”.

• According to Mooney and Reiply – “organization is the form of every human association for

the attainment of a common purpose”

• In the words of chester Barnard – “ A system of co-operative activities of two or more persons

is called organization.

5.3 Concept of Communication

Communication is the nervous system of an organization. It is the life blood of an organization.

The following are the some of the definitions given by different authors.

• Communication is the sum of all things, one person does when he wants to create

understanding in the minds of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of

telling, listening and understanding”. Allen louis.

• Communication has been defined “As the transfer of information from one person to another

whether or not it elicits confidence”. Koontz and o’Donell.

• “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons”.

George Terry

• Communication is defined as “The process of passing information and understanding from

one person to another. It is essentially a bridge of meaning between people. By using the

bridge of meaning a person can safely cross the river of misunderstanding”. Keith Davis

Case Study

Communication Illustrated: Ram’s Half Hour

The role of communication in organized activities is perhaps best illustrated by a real situation.

By design, our case study is both detailed and cogent. It is detailed because it is made up of illustrations

of the case study specific communications events which occur in business. It is scant because at best

it covers only a sample of the almost infinite number of events.


� 70 �

For this review we could select any organization as communication is vital to every conceivable

type of organization. Our choice is “The Jean Company, “manufacturer of a line of Denim garments.

The Jean Company is moderately large, with scores of departments and hundreds of workers doing a

thousand and one tasks. It employs teams of sales force who sell the garments to wholesalers all over

the country. Like most companies in its field ‘The Jean’ works to help move its products from wholesaler

to retailer and from retailer to the final consumer.

And it works to keep the consumer happy with the purchase. The Jean Company is indeed

generic.

Our review begins with the workday of Ram, a clerk in Jean’s order department. Ram’s

communication activities begin each day the moment he awakens. But for our purposes we shall pick

up Ram’s activities as he goes to work in a chartered bus with three of his co-workers. Of course, Ram

and the members of his chartered bus communicate as they travel. Obviously, communication has a

social use, and going to work is a form of social occasion for Ram and his friends.

Most of their talk is about trivial matters. They talk primarily to entertain and to while away the

time. There is a joke or two, some comments on politics, a few words about a coming cricket game,

and some raves about the new receptionist. Such talk, of course, is of little direct concern to ‘The Jean’

except perhaps as it affects the general happiness and welfare of the company’s workers.

In time, the conversation drifts to subjects more pertinent to ‘The Jean’ and its operations.

Someone mentions a rumour about a proposed change in the promotion policy. Then Ram and the

others bring in their own collection of rumours, facts, and opinions on the subject. And, in the process

they form opinions and work up emotions concerning the Company and its policies. This

communication activity has little to do with manufacturing garments, nor is it related to Ram’s duties

at ‘The Jean’. But it has affected Ram’s outlook, and he just might not put out much work for ‘The Jean’

that day or any other day. He might not trust ‘The Jean’ quite so much the next time the union contract

problem comes up.

When the four reach the plant, the gate guard receives the message communicated by the

sticker on the windshield of the bus and waves the bus through. As Ram enters his work area, he files

past the time clock, punches his card and thereby communicates to the payroll department a record of

his attendance.

As Ram enters his work area, he engages in more social communication. He exchanges “good

mornings” with each of his colleagues, and he makes small talk with two of them as they wait for the

Company siren to communicate the message that it is time for work to commence. Although this


� 71 �

small talk with associates has little to do with manufacturing garments, it helps to create a happy and

friendly attitude among Ram and his co-workers. And such an attitude can be conducive to productivity.

When the 9 o’ clock siren blows, Ram begins his work as order clerk. The morning mail,

already delivered to his desk, produces first an order from one of Jean’s salespeople in the field. Using

the computer terminal at his workstation, Ram enters the pertinent information: quantities, types,

slaesperson credited, sales area, purchaser identification, and so on. As part of the Company’s database,

this information will become a part of a number of reports designed to serve the information needs of

Jean’s employees. Shipping department workers will get the information they need to fill the order.

The sales managers will receive summary reports of the activities of their salespeople. Production

planners will receive the inventory and product demand information they need to work out production

schedules. And the top executives will get the overall activity reports which give them the performance

information they need in guiding ‘Jena’s’ course.

Among those in the shipping department who will receive the order information is sharmila,

the department secretary; one of Ms. Sharmila’s duties is to send the shipping details to the customers

in individually adapted acknowledgement letters. The Jean company uses individually adapted letters

rather than a routine form of acknowledgment because the firm recognizes the good will building

effect of making every communication contact as favourable as possible. Obviously, individually

composed letters are extensive; so, Ms. Sharmila cheats a little by selecting from a half dozen basic

form letters stored in the memory of her word processor. Of course, the word processor will reproduce

the letter and Ms. Sharmila gives it some personal touches adapting it to the one customer.

Contents of the next envelope Ram opens are not so positive as the first. This one is a note

from a Jean salesperson in the field who reports on a difficulty a customer is having with a T-shirt.

Using his computer terminal, Ram feeds the pertinent facts into the Company’s database. There it will

become a part of summary reports which may be useful to production control and product design.

Then, Ram forwards this message through interplant mail to the customer services department. Here

Jean’s individualized attention will be given to the problem, for Jean knows that it is good business to

keep its customers satisfied. Probably someone in customer services will communicate with some of

Jean technical personnel in an effort to find the cause of the difficulty. Then they will pass on their

findings to the salesperson in the field, who will personally visit the customer to discuss the matter

with him.

Occasionally, such problems cannot be so easily solved. When a garment is defective, for

example, customer services will make a fair and speedy adjustment. Or, if the defect occurs frequently

enough, a full-scale investigation may be undertaken. Possibly one or more of the company’s technical

specialists will be assigned to the problem, and they will spend days or weeks or even longer periods


� 72 �

searching for an answer to the problem. When they find the answer, they will communicate this

information through some form of a written report.

As Ram opens the third envelope, he recognizes the familiar off-colour brown of industrial

relations stationery. Inside he finds a printed memorandum with an instruction sheet attached. This

memorandum, signed by the personnel manager, explains the new promotion plan Ram and his

friends had been discussing on the way to work. The instructions tell Ram to post the memorandum

on the department bulletin board. As Ram posts the memorandum, he reads the Company’s explanation.

There is much in it that he had not considered before, and some of the “facts” his friends had used in

their arguments are strongly refuted. Ram is now somewhat confused, but he begins to feel that the

company may have a point or two.

On the way back to his desk, Ram passes the office of Sheela. Last week, sheela was promoted

to chief order clerk- a job Ram had wanted Ram observes sheela sitting at her large desk. He sees

sheela’s name printed on the door, and he observes the carpeting on the floor. These objects clearly

communicate to Ram a message of Sheela’s success. Sheela is busily working and does not see Ram

go by. “That stupid, puzzled look on her face shows she doesn’t know what she’s doing, “Ram thinks.

“She sits at her desk so high and mighty. “Sheela certainly communicates a lot to Ram, and without

saying a word.

Ram passes the water cooler where Jamshed and another worker are standing. Ram does not

care much for Jamshed. In fact, he has had a few tiffs with the man since Jamshed joined the Jean three

weeks ago. Ram cannot understand exactly what went wrong. At the beginning Jamshed appeared to

be a pleasant enough fellow.

As Ram passes the cooler he waves his hand slightly in a feeble gesture of recognition. Jamshed

responds half-heartedly with a nod of the head: these sample gestures clearly communicate how these

men feel about each other. Ram’s thoughts now are even more hostile; he wonders how long it is

going to take Gopal, his department head, to notice how much time Jamshed spends at the water

cooler, toilet, and at canteen. Yesterday, Ram saw Jamshed getting ready to go home for the day a full

ten mintures before closing time. As Ram sees it, Gopal must like Jamshed. The two talk toghether

allot and Gopal has accepted a number of Jamshed’s suggestions. But Gopal always has had his

favourites, Ram thinks.

Ram returns to his desk; but before he can resume his work, Gopal walks up. “Have you

given any more thought to that reporting procedure change we talked about yesterday?” Gopal asks.

Gopal is referring to a change he has had in mind for quite a few years. Last week he asked jamshed

to do some research on the possibilities of the procedure. It was then that Jamshed talked to Ram


� 73 �

about the plan, and it was then that the two had another one of their quarrels. Gopal’s words bring

Ram’s temper to a slow boil. “Gopal certainly is sold on that asinine idea of Jamshed’s, “he thinks to

himself. “Sure, it will save time now, but it won’t give us much information. But you can’t fight the

boss.” Ram forces a smile which belies his inward feeling as he responds, “Yes, I have, Mr. Gopal. It

is a great idea. We should put it into effect right away”.

A few minutes later as Gopal walks away, Ram glances at his watch. It is 9:30 – half an hour

of a general day.

Reviewing Ram’s activities, We find that most of what he does involves communication in

one way or another. Some of the forms of communication are easily recognized, such is speaking,

listening, reading and writing. But some are more subtle. Primarily, these are the non-verbal types.

One form is body motions. Another is the communication message made by how far or close people

stand when communicating. Then there are the communications we make through facial expressions.

As we noted above, even objects like desks and carpeting communicate; and so can people, just by

being seen. Infact, it is impossible for people knowingly in the presence of each other not to

communicate.

Clearly, Ram communicated more than first meets the eye. From the moment he left home up

to the moment he looked at his watch, Ram was giving, receiving, or handling information. Nothing

that he did directly involved making jeans, which, of course, is the Jean Company’s main reason for

being. Yet there is no question of the importance of his activities to the Jean’s operations. Obviously,

Ram’s work assignment more directly involves communication that do many other assignments at the

Jean. But there are many other communication-oriented assignments in the company; and every Jean

employee’s workday is spotted, in varying degrees, with communication in one form or another. If

we were to trace the workdays of each jean employee and combine our findings, we would come up

with an infinitely complex picture of the communication that goes on at the Jean. We would see that

communicating truly plays a major role in the Jean’s operations.

5.4 Concept of Organizational Communication

“ Organisational Communication is an evolutionary, culturally dependent process of sharing

information and creating relationships in environments designed for manageable, goal oriented

behaviour.”

5.5 Types of Communication in organization

Communication in an organization carries innumerable kinds of messages which may be

difficult to map out; but it may be possible to classify communications in regard to how to transmit, or


� 74 �

A) According to organizational structure

1. Formal communication: Such communications are those communications, which are

associated with the formal organization structure. The travel through the formal channels -

Officially recognized positions in the organization chart. They are established mainly by the

organization structure. Formal communications are mostly in black and white. We generally

hear the phrase ‘ through proper channel”. It explains the essence of formal channels. Such

communications include orders, instructions, decisions or intensions etc., of the superior.

2. Informal Communications: Informal Communications are also known as “ Grapevine

Communications”. They are free from all sorts of formalities, because they are based on the

informal relationship between the parties, such as friendship, membership of the same club

or association or origin from the same place. Such communication include comments,

suggestions of any other informal reaction also. They may be conveyed by a simple glance,

gesture, nod, smile or mere silence too.

who communicates to whom, or what kinds of relationships communication develops. Thus,

Communication may be grouped on the following basis.


� 75 �

B) According to Direction of Communication

Vertical Communication: Upward and downward flow of messages constitutes vertical

communication.

1. Downward Communications: Communications which flow from the superiors to subordinates

are known as downward Communications. They include orders, rules instructions and policy

directives etc. Their nature is directive. It would be impossible to manage an enterprise

without downward Communications.

2. Upward Communications: Upward Communications are just reverse of the downward

Communications. It flows from the sub-ordinates to their superiors. Such communications

include reactions and suggestions from workers, their grievance etc. Contents of the upward

Communication are reports, reactions, suggestions, statements and proposals prepared for

the submission to the boss etc. Upward Communication is considered to be a main source

of motivation in employees.

Exhibit.1. Vertical Communication

Upward Downward

Communication Communication

3. Lateral / Horizontal Communication: This type of communication refers to communication

between various departments or units representing the same level, or people within the

same or different departments, without having a superior – sub-ordinate relationship viz.,

peer groups, friends and trainees. It flows between persons at the same hierarchical level.

The main object of this type of communication is to co-ordinate the efforts of different

departments performing different but related activities. Such communications may be oral

or written.

Exhibit –2: Lateral Communication

4. Diagonal Communication: In an organization, communication does not necessarily traverse

along a stipulated path. While vertical and lateral forms for transmission of messages are

important, there is yet another mode to be taken cognizance of, that is, the diagonal. In this


� 76 �

type of communications, there is no direct path chalked out for information to travel. It

could, at certain stages, take on the upward path, then a lateral direction and finally, move

downward, or it could even skip certain stages.

This channel proves to be very affective as hierarchical bindings are done away with and

communication flows irrespective of position or status. It also helps in building relationships

and binding ties between the superior and the subordinate.

Exhibit – 3 Diagonal Communication

c) According to expression and body language

According to way of expression, and body language, the communication may be oral or

written and Non- Verbal.

1. Oral or verbal communication: In oral communications both parties to the process of

communication exchange their ideas through oral words either in face-to face communication

or through any mechanical device such as telephone, etc. Meetings and conferences, lectures

and interviews are other media of such communications.

2. Written communication: They are communications on black and white. They include written

words, graphs, diagrams, pictures etc. They may take the form of circulars, notes, manuals,

reports, posters or memos etc.

3. Non-Verbal Communication: Non-Verbal Communication is an integral part of us and helps

in communicating effectively. The way an individual positions himself, holds his hands, tilts

his head, all transmit volumes about the individual.

A receiver observes non-verbal communication 55% of the time, which is much more than

listening merely to the words and the voice articulation. Lack of emphasis in this area is due to paucity

of material and lack of expertise.


� 77 �

Check your progress 1

1. Discuss the various types of communication highlighting the significance of non-verbal

communication

2. Distinguish between downward and upward communication

3. Explain formal and informal communication.

4. What do you understand by the term “grapevine communication.”?

5.6 Barriers to Organizational Communication

When a communication is sent to the receiver, it must be effective and it is effective only

when it has been understood by the receiver in the same sense in which the sender intended it. If it

is not properly understood by the receiver, the very purpose of communication is lost and the

communication proves ineffective. There may be so many obstructions in the way of its being effective.

The message may not reach the receiver; there may be some flaws in encoding and decoding the

message ; the channel used may be defective or there may be some noise in the channel, or the

channel used may be wrong, there may also be personal problems. Thus, for various reasons, the

message may not be received by the receiver as was intended by the sender.

5.7 Types of Barriers

Barriers, obstructions, and interruptions in communication may broadly be categorized into

the following groups:

1. External Barriers

2. Organisational Barriers

3. Personal Barriers

However, this classification does not suggest that these categories are mutually exclusive.

5.7.1 External Barriers

External barriers are those caused by factors other than organizational and personal factors.

Such external barriers may be (a) Semantic barriers, (b) emotional or psychological barriers.


� 78 �

(a) Semantic Barriers

These barriers are obstructions caused in the process of receiving or understanding a message

during the process of encoding or decoding it into words and ideas. The linguistic capacity of the two

parties may have some limitations, or the symbols used may be ambiguous. Symbols may have

several meanings and, unless the context is known to the receiver, he is likely to take the meaning of

the symbol according to his preconceived notion and misunderstand the communication. For this

purpose, a meaningful distinction should be made between inferences and facts. Inferences are

meaning taken out of the context of the communication and at times cannot be avoided in

communication process. Since inferences can give a wrong signal, one should be aware of them and

analyze them carefully. In case of any doubt, more feed back may be sought.

Symbols may be classified as language, picture, or action.

(i) Language :

In written or verbal communication, words used are important. A word used in the

communication may have several meanings. In a face-to-face communication, it is easy to seek

clarification of words used, if any doubt is encountered. In case of doubt feedback is required. Many

words which we use informally may be taken literally in other contexts, non-friendly situations, or in

written communication. Thus, effective communication is idea-centred rather than word-centred.

The communication may be decoded correctly by the receiver only if the context is known to him;

otherwise, it may be incorrectly interpreted. Without context, language is just like an eyesore that

irritates our senses and interferes with our perceptions.

Sometimes, lack of clarity and precision in a message makes it difficult to understand. Poorly

chosen and incorrect words and phrases, careless omissions, lack of coherence, bad organization of

ideas, awkward sentence structure, inadequate vocabulary, platitudes, numbing repetitions etc. are

some of the faults found in many cases of poor communication.

Communication with technical personnel and special groups may pose another type of language

problem. Such persons or groups use technical words in their messages. It creates hindrance in

communication with persons not in their speciality, area because of the receiver’s ignorance of this

type of jargon.

(ii) Picture

Picture is another type of symbol. Pictures are visual aids worth-thousands of words. An

organization makes extensive use of pictures like blueprints, charts, maps, graphs, films, three-


� 79 �

dimensional models, and other similar devices. A viewer may come to understand the whole story

when he sees them.

Sometimes, a picture creates confusion in the mind of the observer: it may be ambiguous if it

is not supplemented by words or actions.

(iii) Action

Action is another type of symbol. We communicate by both – by action or by lack of it. To do

or not to do, both have a meaning for the receiver. For example, if a subordinate does a good job,

patting and non-patting on his back by the superior, both have a meaning. Patting may inspire him to

do a better job again, and non-patting may make him disappointed. In this sense, we communicate

all the times on the job whether we intend to do so or not. Action or non-action may influence the

perception of the receiver.

Action speaks louder than words: if a person says something and does another, there is a

credibility gap. The bigger the gap, the less seriously people take him, and he will lose the confidence

of his subordinates. They will not take seriously what he says.

Body language is a type of action in which a message is communicated through the movement

of the whole body or a part of it. Mostly face and hands are used in body language. Examples are eye

contact, eye movement, smiles and frowns, touching a furrowed brow, closeness, lip movement,

breathing rate etc.

These different types of symbols are used in communication. If these are interpreted incorrectly,

the communication may not carry the sense intended by the source but something altogether different.

2. Emotional or Psychological Barriers

Personal or emotional or psychological barriers arise from motives, attitudes, judgment,

sentiments, emotions, and social values of participants. These create a psychological distance that

hinders the communication, or partly filters it out, or causes misinterpretation, thereby making the

communication inadequate.

The following are some emotional barriers:

(i) Premature evaluation

Premature evaluation is a tendency to evaluate a communication prematurely, rather than

keeping an open mind during the interchange. Such evaluation interferes with the transfer of information


� 80 �

and begets a sense of futility in the sender. This barrier can be remedied by empathy and non-

evaluative listening.

(ii) Loss in transmission and retention

When communication passes through various levels in a organization, successive transmissions

of the same message are decreasingly accurate. A part of information is lost in transit: it is said that

about 30% of the information is lost in each transmission. Poor retention of the information is again

a malady. Research reveals that workers retain only 50% of information, and the supervisors retain

60% of it.

(iii) Distrust of communicator

The communicator is sometimes distrusted by his own subordinates. It happens when he

lacks self-confidence, or is less competent in his position. He frequently makes ill-considered judgments

or illogical decisions, and then reviews his own decisions when he fails to implement them. Repeated

experience of this kind gradually conditions the receiver to delay action, or to act unenthusiastically,

hence making the communication ineffective, though apparently it is complete.

(iv) Failure to communicate

Sometimes, managers do not communicate the needed messages to their subordinates. This

might be because of laziness or procrastination on their part, or they arbitrarily assume that everybody

has got the information, or they may hide information deliberately to embarrass the subordinate.

(v) Undue reliance on the written word

In cases where the employees have undue reliance on the organisation’s written policies and

viewpoints and hesitate in accepting the face to face verbal communication of their superiors,

communication cannot be effective. This is because they will be disinclined to accept oral orders of

their superiors, which are not consistent with the written policies of the organization. Such a situation

embarrasses both the subordinates and the superiors, unless there is a high degree of mutual confidence

between the organization and its employees. A written communication might fail to explain the

purpose of the order, procedure, or directive. Written communication often tells what is to be done

bur not why it should be done and, thus, it lacks persuasion. Hence, written communication should

not be relied upon very rigidly, rather it should be used as supplementary to productive face to face

relationships.


� 81 �

(vi) Inattention

The preoccupied mind of the receiver and the resultant non-listening is one of the major

chronic psychological barriers. It is a common phenomenon that people simply fail to react to bulletins,

notices, minutes, and reports.

5.7.2 Organisational Barriers

An organization is a deliberate creation of management for the attainment of certain specific

objectives. The day-to-day functioning of the organization is regulated in such a way as to contribute

to the attainment of these objectives in the most effective manner. For this purpose, a variety of

official measures are adopted such as designing of the structure, arrangement of activities, formulation

of various policies, rules and regulations, and procedures, laying down of norms of behaviour, instituting

a reward and punishment system etc. All these variables markedly affect the organisation’s functioning.

As such major organizational barriers are:

i. Organisation policy

The general organizational policy regarding communication provides overall guidelines in

this matter. This policy might be in the form of a written document, or it has to be inferred from

organizational practice, particularly at the top level. If the policy creates hindrance in the free flow of

communication in different directions, communication would not be smooth and effective.

ii. Organisational Rules and Regulations

More often, different activities of an organization are governed by specific rules and regulations,

Such rules and regulations prescribe the subject-matter to be communicated as also the channel

through it is to be communicated. The rules may restrict the flow of certain messages and may omit

many important ones. For example, the rules may prescribe that upward communication shall be

only through proper channel. Such restrictions may delay the message and may deter employees from

conveying any message. An employee may give up the idea of conveying a message to the top

executive to avoid the observance of rules. The message may be important to the organization. It may

also be the case that the superior may not allow him to convey the message. This barrier is strongly

operative in Indian public sector undertakings where observance of rules and regulations is more

rigid.

iii. Status Relationship

The placing of people in superior-subordinate relationship in a formal organization structure

also blocks the flow of communication and more particularly, in the upward direction the greater the


� 82 �

difference in hierarchical positions in terms of their status, the greater would be the worry of middle

managers about what their senior bosses might think; this leads to their paying little attention to the

needs and demands of their subordinates. The subordinates are reluctant to communicate, or the

managers in the middle of hierarchy may be reluctant to pass on their juniors’ communication to the

next higher executive, which their bosses do not like or which may have a negative effect on their

own relationships. Dislike, distrust, dissatisfaction with job and work environment are other reasons

for reluctance to tell anything to their bosses. Such obstruction may be overcome by creating an

atmosphere of trust and confidence in the organization.

iv. Complexity in Organisation Structure

In an organization where there are a number of managerial levels, communication gets delayed

as it moves along the hierarchical line. Also, chances of the communication getting distorted are

greater as the number of filtering points is higher. This is particularly true in upward communication

because people at intermediate levels do not like to pass on negative remarks either of themselves or

of their superiors.

v. Organisational Facilities

Certain organizations provide certain facilities for smooth, adequate, clear, and timely flow of

communication such as meetings, conferences, complaint or suggestion boxes, open door system etc.

If these facilities are not properly emphasized, people generally fail to communicate effectively.

5.7.3 Personal Barriers

As communication is basically an interpersonal process, many personal factors inherent in the

two parties to communication, the sender and the receiver, influence the flow of communication and

present many hurdles in the way of effective communication.

1. Barriers in Superiors

Superiors play an important role in communication. Because of their hierarchical position,

they act as barriers in a number of ways as follows:

(i) Attitude of Superiors

General attitude of the superiors about communication, or attitude towards a particular

communication, affect the flow of messages in different directions. If the attitude is unfavorable, there

is greater possibility of filtering or colouring of the information. Any information received from the top

may not reach the bottom in the same form, or even the reverse may happen. Managers at intermediate

levels may colour the information, sometimes intentionally, with a view to twist the situation in their


� 83 �

favour. In some cases the superior quotes his subordinate incorrectly or may say something against

him before his boss just to spoil his career, or his chance of promotion, or his image in the eyes of the

boss.

(ii) Fear of challenge to authority

The superiors in an organization generally try to withhold the information coming down the

line or going up as frequent passing of information may disclose their own weaknesses; thus what

happens generally happens when the superior lacks self-confidence and is afraid that someone else

might be promoted in his place if his weaknesses were to come to light.

(iii) Insistence on proper channel

There are channels of communication in an organization along which information passes

upward or downward. Some officers insist too much on communication through proper channel.

They do not like any bypassing in communication. But, sometimes, by passing becomes necessary in

the interest of the organization; however, the superiors think bypassing as thwarting of their authority

and block the flow of communication.

(iv) Lack of confidence in subordinates

The superiors generally perceive that their subordinates are less competent and, they are not

capable of advising their superiors. Therefore they feel, whether correctly or otherwise, that they are

overburdened and have no time to talk to their subordinates.

(v) Ignoring communication

Sometimes, the superiors ignore a communication or a part of it, to and from their subordinates,

to maintain their importance. In some cases, information does not reach the receiver in the same form

as it was received from the sender: the superiors filter the information.

2. Barriers Regarding subordinates

There are certain factors in the subordinates, which adversely affect their participation in the

communication process. Some factors like attitude, lack of time, applicable to the superiors are also

applicable here. Two more factors in the subordinates need special attention, which are responsible

for blocking communication in the upward direction.

(i) Unwillingness to communicate: The subordinates generally are not willing to communicate

upward any information, which is likely to affect them adversely. If they feel that supply of

such adverse information is necessary for control purposes they would modify it in such a

way so as not to harm their interest.


� 84 �

(ii) Lack of proper incentive: Lack of incentives to communicate also prevents the subordinates

from communicating upward. They are punished when they are wrong but may not be

rewarded when they work marvelously well and offer a novel suggestion

The superiors assume that better performance on the part of subordinates is their duty towards

the organization or it is in their own interest. The rewards and punishment system and the attitude of

the superiors towards their subordinates are responsible for this agony. If a novel suggestion by a

subordinate does not evoke any interest in the superior he would not convey it.

5.8 7 C’s and 4 S’s

In any business environment, adherence to the 7 C’s and the 4 S’s helps the sender in transmitting

his message with ease and accuracy. Let us first take a look at the 7 C’s:

• Credibility. If the sender can establish his credibility, the receiver has no problems in accepting

his statement. Establishing credibility is not the outcome of a one-shot statement. It is a

long-drawn out process in which the receiver through constant interaction with the sender

understands his credible nature and is willing to accept his statements as being truthful and

honest.

• Courtesy. Once the credibility of the sender has been established, attempts should be made

at being courteous in expression. In the business world, almost everything starts with and

ends in courtesy. Much can be accomplished if tact, diplomacy and appreciation of people

are woven in the message.

• Clarity. Absolute clarity of ideas adds much to the meaning of the message. The first stage

is clarity in the mind of the sender. The next stage is the transmission of the message in a

manner which makes it simple for the receiver comprehend. As far as possible, simple

language and easy sentence constructions, which are not difficult for the receiver to grasp,

should be used.

• Correctness: At the time of encoding, the sender should ensure that his knowledge of the

receiver is comprehensive. The level of knowledge, educational background and status of

the decoder help the encoder in formulating his message. In case there is any discrepancy

between the usage and comprehension of terms, miscommunication can arise. If the sender

decides to back up his communication with facts and figures, there should be accuracy in

stating the same. A situation in which the listener is forced to check the presented facts and

figures should not arise. Finally, the usage of terms should be nondiscriminatory, e.g. the


� 85 �

general concept is that women should be addressed for their physical appearance whereas

men for their mental abilities. This, however, is a stereotype and the time of addressing for

praising members of both the sexes, the attributes assigned should be the same. Similarly for

occupational references. In the business world almost all professions are treated with respect.

Addressing one individual for competence in his profession but neglecting the other on this

score because of a so-called ‘inferior’ profession alienates the listener from the sender.

• Consistency. The approach to communication should, as far as possible, be consistent. There

should not be too many ups and downs that might lead to confusion in the mind of the

receiver. If a certain stand has been taken, it should be observed without there being

situations in which the sender desires to bring about a change in his understanding of the

situation, he should ensure that the shift is gradual and not hard for the receiver to comprehend.

• Concreteness. Concrete and specific expressions are to be preferred in favour of vague and

abstract expressions. In continuation of the point on correctness, the facts and figures presented

should be specific. Abstractions or abstract statements can cloud the mind of the sender.

Instead of stating. “There has been a tremendous escalation in the sales figure”. Suppose the

sender made the following statement: “There has been an escalation in the sales figures by

almost 50% as compared to last year The receiver is more apt to listen and comprehend the

details.

• Conciseness. The message to be communicated should be as brief and concise as possible.

Weighty language definitely sounds impressive but people would be suitably impressed into

doing precisely nothing. As far as possible, only simple and brief statements should be

made. Excessive information can also sway the receiver into either a wrong direction or into

inaction. Quantum of information should be just right, neither too much nor too little, e.g.


� 86 �

EXHIBIT 4. 7 C’s

C’s Relevance

Credibility Builds trust

Courtesy Improves relationships

Clarity Makes comprehension easier

Correctness Builds confidence

Consistency Introduces stability

Concreteness Reinforces confidence

Conciseness Saves time

4 S’s : An understanding of the 4 S’s is equally important.

1. Shortness. “Brevity is the soul of wit, “it is said. The same can be said about communication.

If the message can be made brief, and verbosity done away with, then transmission and

comprehension of messages is going to be faster and more effective. Flooding messages

with high sounding words does not create an impact. Many people harbour a misconception

that they can actually impress the receiver, if they carry on their expeditious travails. Little

do they realize how much they have lost as the receiver has spent a major chunk of his time

in trying to decipher the actual meaning of the message.

2. Simplicity. Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas reveals a clarity in the thinking

process. It is normally a tendency that when an individual is himself confused that he tries to

use equally confusing strategies to lead the receiver in a maze. Reveal clarity in the thinking

process by using simple terminology and equally simple concepts.

3. Strength. The strength of a message emanates from the credibility of the sender. If the

sender himself believes in a message that he is about to transmit, there is bound to be

strength and conviction in whatever he tries to state. Half-hearted statements or utterances

that the sender himself does not believe in adds a touch of falsehood to the entire

communication process.


� 87 �

4. Sincerity. A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident to the receiver. If the sender is

genuine, it will be reflected in the manner in which he communicates. Suppose there is a

small element of deceit involved in the interaction or on the part of the sender. If the

receiver is keen and observant, he would be able to sense the make-believe situation and,

business transactions, even if going full swing, would not materialize.

EXHIBIT 5. 4 S’s

S’s Relevance

Shortness Economizes

Simplicity Impresses

Strength Convinces

Sincerity Appeals

Check your progress II

A. Match the following

A B

1. Feedback 1. Involuntary

2. Cues and signals 2. Cyclical

3. Vertical Communication 3. Upward and downward

4. Horizontal 4. Non-interactive

5. Body Language 5. Between Peers

6. Voice Articulation 6. Territory/Zone

7. Proxemics 7. 55%

8. Non-verbal Communication 8. Given by the receiver

9. Written Communication 9. Help in processing Communication

10. Process of Communication 10. 38%


� 88 �

B. True or False

1. Feedback must always be carefully interpreted.

2. Communication is the exchange of ideas.

3. Input is another word for channel.

4. The vertical channel of communication is used much more frequently in most

organizations than the horizontal channel.

5. The channels of communication are vertical, horizontal and diagonal.

6. Informal communication is also known as grapevine communication.

C. Fill up the blanks

1. Upward and downward flow of massages constitute ________________________

2. Body Language is _________________________

3. Very often _____________________ message is more important than the verbal one.

4. Semantic means __________________________

5. Mention two personal barriers.

1) ________________________ 2) _____________________________

5.9 Let us Sum up

Communication is the most vital ingredient of an organization. In fact, an organization cannot

be conceived of without communication. An organization is a group of persons constituted to achieve

certain specific objectives.

Communication is the nervous system of an organization. It keeps the members of the

organization informed about the internal and external happenings relevant to a task and of interest to

the organization. It co-ordinates the efforts of the members towards achieving organizational objectives.

It is the process of influencing the action of person or a group. It is a process of meaningful interaction

among human beings to initiate, execute, accomplish, or prevent certain actions. Communication is

thus the lifeblood of our organization. Without communication, an organization is lifeless and its

very existence is in danger.


� 89 �

Communication in an organization carries innumerable kinds of messages, which may be

difficult to map out, but it may be possible to classify communications in regard to how to transmit or

who communicates to whom, or what kinds of relationships communication develops. Thus

communication may be grouped on the following basis.

1. On the basis of Direction of communication

i) Vertical Communication

a) Downward communication

b). Upward communication.

ii) Horizontal or lateral communication

iii) Diagonal communication

2. On the basis of way of expression and body language.

a) Oral communication

b) Written communication

c) Non-verbal communication

3. On the basis of organizational structure

a) Formal Communication

b) Informal Communication

There is always something, which prevents reaching the message to the audience. This is

barrier in communication. The types of barriers are; External barriers, Emotional barriers, organizational

barriers and personal barriers.

In any business environment, adherence to the 7 c’s and 4s’s helps the sender in transmitting

his message with ease and accuracy.


� 90 �

5.9 Key Words

Organization It is a group of persons contributing their efforts

towards certain goals.

Formal organization It refers to the structure of jobs and position with

closely defused functions, responsibilities and

authority.

Grapevine Communication Informal channel of communication is known as

Grapevine

Downward Communication Information transmitted from the top management

to the employees working in the organization.

Upward Communication Information transmitted from the employees to the

top management.

Vertical Communication Upward and downward flow of messages

constitutes vertical communication.

Lateral Communication Interaction with peer, colleagues.

Diagonal Communication Take on the upward path, then a lateral direction

and finally, more downward, or it could even skip

certain stages.

Oral Communication Anything emanating from the mouth is referred as

oral.

Non-Verbal Communication All human communication that is neither spoken

nor written is called “Non-Verbal Communication”

Written Communication It is written in black and white and is used mostly

for Documentation of information

Barrier There is something which prevents communication

of message from sender to the receiver.


� 91 �

Credibility It is the trustworthiness’ and competency

Courtesy It is the manner in which it is stated brings about

a difference in approach.

Semantics Systematic study of meanings of the words


Chalapati Rao I.V., 1999, Communication and Leadership skills and strategies, Book links corporation,

Hyderabad.

Diwan Parag Aggarwal . L.N., 1997, Business communication, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Fisher Dalmaz, 1996, Communication in organization, Jaico Publishing House, Bombay.

Kaul Asha., 2000, Effective Business communication, prentice – Hall of India, New Delhi.




2. Downward:

a. Communication which flow from the superiors to subordinates. Eg. Orders, rules, instructions

b. Directives

Upward

a. Communications which are just reverse of the downward communication. Eg. Reports,

reactions, suggestions etc.

b. Non-directive

3. Formal communications

a. Communication which are associated with the formal organization structure

b. Travel through the formal channels


� 92 �

Informal communications

a. Communications are not planned or deliberately created channel of communication. It is

free from all formalities

4. Grapevine communication

The informal channel of communication is alos known as ‘Grapevine’. It is the result not of

any official action, but of the operation of social forces at work-place . The term ‘grapevine’ arose

during the days of U.s. Civil War. At that time, intelligence telephone lines were strung loosely from

tree to tree in the manner of a grapevine, and the message thereon was often distorted ; hence any

rumour was said to be from the grapevine. Today the term applies to all informal communication.

While formal communication exists to meet the utilitarian needs of the organization, informal

communication is the method by which people carry on social, non-programmed activities within the

formal boundaries of the system. It, thus, exists outside the official network. Though continuously

interacting with it . this informal channel is generally multiple in nature; same person having social

relationships with a number of people working in the same organization.

Many authors on this subject opine that the communication through informal channel generally

performs a positive service to the organization. It operates with much greater speed. Moreover there

might be certain subject matter of communication which do not require their transmission through

the formal channel. This channel also satisfies the communication needs of the various persons in

the organization, more particularly those persons who freely mix up with others and rely upon informal

relationships. Informal communication is thus a need fulfillment device generated when it is found

that the existing formal communication is inadequated or insufficient. The requirement of speedier

communication creates conditions for informal communication which is supplemental to the formal

one. Chester Bernard opines that ‘communication function of the executives includes the maintenance

of informal executive organization as an essential means of communication. The functions of informal

executive organization as the communication of intangible facts, suggestions, suspicions that cannot

pass through formal channels without raising issues calling for decisions without dissipating dignity

and objective authoritity.

Informal or grapevine communication has certain basic limitations also. It is less orderly and

less static. Sometimes messages communicated through the channel are so erratic that any action

based on these may lead to difficult situation in the organization. In this case, the irresponsibility of

the persons communicating through the informal channel is the most important factor. Since origin

and direction of the flow of information is hard to pinpoint, it is difficult to assign responsibility for

false information or morale lowering rumours. Moreover, as each person conveying the message may


� 93 �

add, subtract or change the original message according to his motive, informal communication problems

multiply. There is a change that by the time a communication complex journey it may be completely

distorted.

The informal communication is a part and parcel of the organizational process. The only thing

management can do in this respect is to take suitable action to minimize the adverse effect of this

channel. Management must be aware, through the understanding of the informal communication,

the utility and the positive contributions to the operation of the organization that the informal

communication can make. As such, proper analysis of informal communication and suitable

clarification in this respect will be helpful in making its use towards organizational efficientcy.

Types of Grapevine

Four types of informal communication channels have been identified so far : single strand,

gossip, probability and cluster.

In single standard network. The individual communicates with other individuals through

intervening persons. In the gossip network, the individual communicates non-selectively. In probability

network, the individual communicates randomly with other individuals according to the law of

probability. In the cluster network the individual communicates with only those individuals whom

he trusts. Out of these informal networks, the cluster is most popular.

Check your progress-II

A. i. 8 ii. 9 iii. 3 iv. 5 v. 7 vi. 10 vii. 6 viii. 1 ix. 4 x. 2

B. i. True ii. True iii. False iv. True v. True vi. True

i. Vertical communication ii. Involuntary iii. Non-verbal

iv. Systematic study of meanings of the words v. Attitude of superior v. Lack of confidence.


� 94 �

Interpersonal Communication Skills Course - 102

� 95 �

Unit 6

Interpersonal Communication Skills

Structure

6.0 Objectives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Interpersonal communication skills

6.2.1 Communication is two-way

6.2.2 Listen to learn-learn to listen

6.2.3 Concentrate.

6.2.4 Effective listening.

6.2.5 Empathy

6.2.6 Self-awareness.

6.2.7 The communication model.

6.2.8 Verbal and non-verbal communication

6.2.9 Memory

6.2.10 Encouraging people to like you

6.2.11 Handling people

6.2.12 Making an impression on others



� 96 �

6.3 Consequences of poor interpersonal communication skills

6.4 Let us sum up

6.5 Key words


6.7 Answer / hints to cheek your progress exercises

6.0 Objectives

After studying this unit, the reader should

� Explain the guidelines for handling people

� State the critical points in making a good impression on thers.

� Be able to understand interpersonal communication skills.

� Be able to know the practical tips to encourage people to like you

6.1 Introduction

“A spoken word flies, you won’t catch it”. A Russian proverb.

“I will pay more for the ability to deal with people than for any other ability under the sun”.

John Rockefeller.

“Trust is the single most important factor in both personal and professional relationships”

Interpersonal communication skills are much more important than technical skills if you want

to become a senior manager. Good communication is a very important aspect of interpersonal

relationships. Listening is one part of communication which sounds fine in theory but is rare to find

in practice. Empathy will help you to understand people and respond to their needs more effectively.

Understanding the basic communication model should help to improve your communication skills.

Experts maintain that, as much as 65 per cent of the message communicated is non-verbal or body

language. There are some practical tips you can apply to help people to like you more.

Similarly, an extension worker fails to achieve results in the absence of interpersonal

communication skills though he may be endowed with the best of the technology or even the best of

the strategies . The ability to get along with others is immensely helpful for getting success in almost


� 97 �

all walks of life. Whether one acts in role of extension worker, farmer, Village Developmental Officer,

Scientist, Research worker, the manner in which we interact with people would determine very largely

if life remains buoyant or miserable.

Research reveals that there is a positive correlation between good relationship and productivity,

profit. Success of an extension worker will largely depends upon an effective communication which

in turns depends upon the interpersonal communication skills such as empathy, listening, positive

attitudes, perception, presentation skills, written communication skills, courtesy, manners, a sense of

humour, etc.

6.2 Interpersonal communication skills

6.2.1 Communication is two-way

Communication is the art of sharing ideas, information, instruction or feelings. The basic

ingredients of good communication are clear thinking, clear speaking and clear writing. We spend

about 75 per cent of our waking hours in some form of communication such as talking, listening,

reading and writing.

There are 1 million words in the English language (about 200,000 of them are technical). The

average person has a recognition vocabulary of 10,000 wards and a conversation vocabulary of 2000

words. However, in everyday usage most people manage on a vocabulary of as little as 300 words.

In everyday conversation therefore, you should choose words that are most frequently used and

understood. It is also wise to keep sentences short and to the point. Avoid jargon and ‘in-company’

phrases, particularly when dealing with outsiders such as suppliers and customers.


� 98 �

6.2.2 Listen to learn – learn to listen

The average speaking rate is 175 words per minute, but we think at about 400 words per

minute. This gives each of us a lot of spare capacity for mental doodling. Try to counteract this

natural phenomenon by concentrating on what the speaker is saying and meaning. Focus an central

ideas rather than details. Use your spare mental capacity for summarizing main points anticipating

what is going to be said and observing body language.

6.2.3 Concentrate

Experts in communication estimate that only about one-quarter of all listeners are able to

understand the main idea when listening to a speaker. If you find your mind wandering when listening

to somebody, you must get back into focus. You can use the spare capacity productively. It makes

good sense to summarize in your own mind the key concepts and ideas the speaker is trying to

convey. If you are unsure about the message, be brave and repeat it back to the speaker’s satisfaction.

This is called feedback and ensures that two-way communication has taken place. Remember,

communication does not take place until it is understood. Speaking quickly and indistinctly may also

prove a barrier to communication.

You are now beginning to realize that communication is not as easy as it seems. We talk,

listen, read and write each day but we don’t give it much thought. However, we must continually

work at each of them if we are to become skilled in that most underrated art, communication.

Ask questions. Ask, don’t tell. Use open-ended questions. Questions beginning with who?

What? Where When? How and why? In dealing with enquiries we need to elicit information in order

to identify and solve the problem. So use this questioning technique.

6.2.4 Effective listening

Have you ever been at a meeting when nobody seems to listen to anybody else? Of course,

you have. The meeting consists of a series of monologues. The people are not really listening to each

other but thinking and planning what to say as soon as the other person pauses for a breath. Experts

maintain that the best way to make friends is to become an attentive listener. Many people fail to

make a favorable impression on others, simply because they do not take the trouble to listen.

Communication is a two way process and listening is very important aspect of it. Somebody once

said that the reason we have two ears and only one mouth is because we should listen twice as much

as we talk. Apart from anything else, it is just plain good manners to listen. The next time you are in

conversation with someone, lean a little forward to show your interest and be seen to be actively

listening and eager to help. Consider some of the barriers to effective listening are:


� 99 �

Wishful thinking: Most people only hear what they like to hear. This phenomenon is known

as wishful thinking.

Attention: Don’t permit your thoughts to stray or your attention to wander.

Semantics: This is the science, which deals with the development of the meaning of words.

Do not put an interpretation on words and phrases other than that intended by the speaker.

Talk person to person: Don’t be too formal. Be sincere and sympathetic in your manner.

Build trust. Never breach confidence. Make the other person feel welcome and important. Use little

courtesies such as ‘Good morning’, “please” ‘thank you’, and so on.

Attitude: Develop a positive attitude to others. Don’t close your mind to other people’s

opinions and viewpoints. There are enough ‘know alls’ in the world. Show respect for their opinions.

Don’t consider yourself too good to learn from others. Pride is one of the seven deadly sins. Listen,

you may learn something.

Get the facts: Don’t prejudge a person or situation. Many people stereotype others by their

nationality, colour, race, religion or appearance. Listen, understand and then judge. Don’t jump to

exclusions.

Excessive talking: How many of us are infatuated with the sound of our own voice? We

cannot listen and talk at the same time. Comment on what the speaker is saying without interrupting

the flow. Occasionally paraphrase what you hear. This provides vital feedback and ensures that the

message is being received and understood.

6.2.5 Empathy

Sensitivity is probably the most important factor in successful communication. Sensitivity in a

nutshell is the ability to see things from the other person’s point of view. Empathy, which means

listening with understanding, is the modern expression for the same idea. People have feelings, opinions,

fears and prejudices. Empathize with them and show concern and respect. People like to be

appreciated and made to feel important.

6.2.6 Self awareness

Self-awareness is a key factor in good personal relationships. Be aware of your strengths and

weaknesses. Optimise your strengths and minimize your weaknesses. You must be come aware of

your personal biases, likes and dislikes and shortcomings. If they are interfering with your social


� 100 �

skills, then you must eliminate them from your behaviour. Before you develop the ability to cope

with others, you must first have the ability to live with yourself. Keep your emotions under control.

Be cool, calm and collected. Never lose your temper with others. Remember, the best way to win an

argument is to avoid it and the best way to cook your goose is with a boiling temper.

There is an old Chinese proverb: ‘Man with sour face should not open shop’. Yet how many

times do we go into shops to be met by unsmiling, uncaring and disinterested faces? It does not cost

anything to smile. A smile says, ‘I like you’, I am glad you are here. When you meet people, do you

smile?. Develop a sense of humor. Don’t take yourself or life too seriously. Learn to laugh at yourself.

However, don’t laugh at others and avoid sarcasm at all costs.

Are you responsive to others? Listen and accept the feelings content as well as the word

content of the message. Listen and question for facts, feelings and opinions so that you have a total

understanding of the message. Be positive. Tell the person how you propose to solve the problem

and the action you will take with a specific comeback date.

6.2.7 The communication model

In the basic communication model there is a sender, a message and a receiver. In other

words, a speaker, words and a listener.

Sender

First the sender conceives an idea which must be translated into words. The effectiveness

with which the sender conveys the message will depend on choice and appropriateness of words,

vocabulary, tone and gestures. All these factors help to project the message with precision and

clarity. The message may be distorted, ignored or misunderstood, if any of these is mishandled by the

sender.

Message

The message consists of words and non-verbal cues, what are words? Words are symbols

which represent concrete objects and concepts. It is important to remember that words can create

understanding and inspire people to great deeds or they can create misunderstanding, distrust,

amnoyance and bad feeling. So pick your words with care and discretion.

Words are not necessarily the precision tools of description that they are made out to be.


� 101 �

For example:

• Words mean different things in different contexts. In the context of a training programme,

‘course’ means curriculum, but in the context of a horse or a greyhound race it means route.

Therefore meaning of words lies in the people and not in the words

• Words mean different things in different cultures.

• Words mean different things to different people. A bull to a farmer means livestock. On the

other hand, to a stockbroker, it means a person who buys shares.

Receiver

The third ingredient in the communication model is the receiver. The involvement of the

receiver can be considered in three ways. Firstly, the receiver recognizes what the speaker is saying

and tunes in. Secondly, the receiver interprets the meaning of what is being said by mentally

summarizing and reorganizing the idea. Thirdly, the receiver understands the message, which has

been assimilated, associates and consolidates with existing knowledge and only then responds to

what has been said. You can now see just how complicated communication is. Mishaps can occur at

any stage and interfere with the message. This is the communication cycle.

6.2.8 Verbal and non-verbal communication

The experts tell us that only 35 per cent of what we mean is in the verbal message. The other

65 per cent of the meaning is contained in the non-verbal communication. Facial expressions, eyes

and other body movements must be considered when interpreting meaning. In any social interaction

with other people you must be aware of the non-verbal cues and signals. Psychologists have been

paying increasing attention to these non-verbal aspects of communication. The following are some of

their findings.

Boredom: The hand over mouth to cover a yawn can mean boredom. Glances at watches,

frequent recrossing of legs, constant repositioning on seat, fidgeting and eyes wandering can also

indicate boredom, disinterest, impatience or tiredness.

Arms folded: Folded arms usually indicate resistance, the listener is forming a protective

barrier against you and your ideas. But beware, it can also mean other things.

Frown: The frown may suggest disagreement, lack of understanding or annoyance. Several

responses are possible. You can back up and restate your last point. You can pause and ask for

questions, or ask you can clarify your point.


� 102 �

Upward glance: Watch peoples eyes. The eyes are the mirror to the soul. The sky ward

glance may mean “I have heard that one before”. Eye contact is essential for good communication.

6.2.9 Memory

The average person has a poorly trained memory. Both the long-term and short-term memories

are important factors in communication. Research has shown that we forget 50 per cent of what we

read immediately unless we review. We forget 80 per cent of what we hear within 24 hours. We

forget 90 per cent within 48 hours. Don’t rely on your over worked memory that we tend to remember

what we like and forget what we dislike

6.2.10 Encouraging people to like you

There are some practical steps we can take to encourage other people to like us better. We

can put the following tips into practice straight away:

Positive Thinking. Many books have been written about the power of positive thinking. The

problem with negative thinking is that it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. The good news is that

positive thinking is likewise a self –fulfilling prophecy. Shakespeare said: There is nothing good or

bad except that thinking makes it so. Believe in yourself. Think positive experiences. Think about

your successes rather than your failures. Develop a mindset for success. Positive expectations are

more likely to lead to positive outcomes. Positive thoughts precede positive actions and positive

actions produce positive results. Negative expectations are more likely to lead to negative outcomes.

Positive thinking is about developing a favorable image of yourself. Remember there is often little

correlation between success and a positive self-image. Many successful, Hollywood stars have a very

negative self-image and commit suicide. Unless you have a favorable image of yourself you cannot

impress others favorably. You must be able to like yourself before you can like other people. Develop

faith in your own ability to handle colleagues and bring work task to completion. The more successful

you are the more confidant you will become in the future. Don’t underestimate yourself and never

sell yourself short.

Show interest. Take a genuine interest in the people around you and in the work environment.

To be interesting, be interested. Ask questions that the other person will enjoy answering. Encourage

them to talk about themselves and their achievements. Disraeli said: Talk to a man about himself and

he will listen for hours. Develop a friendly and helpful attitude. Always try and be sincere. If you are

artificial, people will eventually see through you. Be positive. If you don’t know something, say: ‘I

don’t know, but I ll certainly find out and let you know’, rather than a curt: ‘Don’t know’. Develop a

reputation for reliability. If you say you’re going to do something, do it!


� 103 �

Remember to smile. A smile is like a piece of sunshine. You’ll be surprised at the friendly

way people will react. Smiling facilitates positive thinking by giving you a psychological lift. You

can’t smile and entertain negative thoughts at the same time. Develop a cheerful disposition.

• Name: People like to hear the sound of their own names. One of the best ways of creating

goodwill is to remember names and use them. To remember names, relate them to the

person’s features and repeat the name frequently during the conversation.

• Manners: Good manners are a sign of good breeding. Manners help make living pleasant.

Like smiling, good manners cost nothing but reap many benefits.

• Learning is a lifelong continuous process: Seek out opportunities for self-development, not

only in your work life but also in your personal life. Action cures fear. Don’t procrastinate.

Undertake that educational programme now-whether formal, such as certificate, diploma or

degree programme, or informal, such as challenging recreational pursuits. It will make you

a more interesting person.

• Practice: Practice the previous advice. It’s like driving a car, if you practice these, they will

become automatic confident responses. Bernard Shaw once remarked: ‘If you teach a man

anything, he will never learn’. Learning is an active process. We learn by doing. Only

knowledge that is used sticks in your mind.

• Some experts maintain that the ability to handle people is three times more important than

technical expertise in determining the suitability of people for senior managerial positions.

So all the technical knowledge (or job knowledge) in the world is of relatively little use if you

aspire to senior management, without the social skills to handle people.

6.2.11 Handling people

The following guidelines will help you to handle people.

Tact. Don’t argue: The best way to win an argument is to avoid it. Let the other person do

most of the talking. Use the feedback technique. Ask questions in a friendly voice. Use the open-

ended questioning technique – Why? What? When? Where? How? And Who? Arguing encourages

emotional responses such as anger. Anger leads to irrational behavior and anything that encourages

anger should be avoided. If, despite everything, a person gets angry, don’t get angry back. ‘Anger

blows out the light of reason, but, after a roaring hurricane expends its fury, the full of calm sets in.’

Let the angry person blow themselves out.


� 104 �

Respect: Show respect for the other person’s feelings and opinions. Tact and diplomacy are

the watchwords here. Never say directly, or suggest to a person, ‘You ‘re wrong’. You could say you

may be right, but let’s look at the facts’. Nobody likes being told directly that they’re wrong especially

in front of a third party. Lord Chesterfield said to his son: ‘be wiser than other people, if you can; but

do not tell them so’. You may praise but never criticize in front of others. If you use diplomacy and

tact, they may admit to themselves that they are wrong. But never, if you crudely try to ram the fact

down their throats.

Empathize: See things from the other person’s point of view. How would you feel if you

were in their shoes? That is what empathy means. Think ahead and try and anticipate reactions.

Henry Ford said: ‘If there is any one secret of success it lies in the ability to get the other person’s point

of view and see things from his angle as well as from your own’.

Simple: Speak in simple language. Remember the KISS technique-Keep It Short and Simple.

Avoid jargon or technical terms. Don’t try to impress others by using big words. Always use the

simple work in preference to the long work. Keep your sentences short. Big words and long-winded

sentences amount to woolly thinking, confusing others as well as yourself.

Praise: Most people are very reluctant to praise others, even when it is due. We spend most

of our time knocking others. Treat people as winners and they will live up to your expectations. A

sincere compliment for work well done is a boost to morale and an incentive for sustained excellence

in the future. ‘You can always catch more bees with honey than you can with vinegar’. However,

insincerity is counterproductive. If you criticize for whatever reason, always soften the criticism with

praise first. Criticize the act not the person.

Appeal to senses: Dramatize your ideas and involve the other person. Appeal to as many of

the senses as possible – hearing, sight, taste, smell and touch. When making a presentation to a group

use visuals-a picture speaks a thousand words. Remember the old proverb: ‘I hear, I forget; I see, I

remember; I do, I understand’.

Synchronize with your listener: Watch for body language and non-verbal communication.

Try and synchronize your words with the speed of receptivity of the listener (you can gauge this from

the actions and expressions of the listener). Mirror your body language to that of the other person.

Sell: Make the other person feel the idea is theirs. This is the best way to implement your

ideas. Use the open-ended questioning technique to obtain viewpoints. Concentrate and develop

those on which there is common ground and agreement. Show what’s in it for them. Most people are

motivated by self-interest.


� 105 �

6.2.12 Making an impression on others

The critical points about making an impression on other people are

• Posture

• Look, listen and learn

• Expression

• Appearance

• Speech

• Eagerness to help

Posture: Your posture can indicate clearly whether or not you are going to be friendly and

helpful. Indifference, nerves, restlessness and lack of confidence can all be indicated by posture.

Look, listen and learn: For the total message listen for the words and observe the accompanying

body language. Pay attention to what they say and show that you are really interested in them.

People prefer to talk about themselves, rather than listen to you. Don’t interrupt the speaker or change

the subject or you will show lack of interest and may create resentment.

Expression: Most people look at your face, and particularly your eyes, at some point during

your conversation. Shakespeare said that the eyes are a mirror of the soul. Remember, your face and

eyes reveal your feelings. They show the other person not only how you yourself feel – tired, interested,

uninterested – but also how you feel about the other person. It’s polite and a sign of attentiveness to

look at the person who is talking to you (but avoid staring). Looking at a person also gives you an

opportunity to notice their expression. Use your mouth. A smile, especially when greeting someone,

can be the biggest icebreaker of all. Your mouth can show friendliness as easily as it reveals boredom

and hostility.

Appearance: When somebody comes up to you, both you and your work area are on view.

Do you give the impression that you are friendly, neat, well-groomed, smart and organized? Remember,

if you look untidy, your work may be untidy too. People act on impressions. Make sure that you are

neatly turned out and look after your appearance and personal hygiene.

Speech: Your first words create an impression, which colour the other person’s reply. If they

are friendly and positive, they invite a smile and a thank you from the other person. Nothing is more

annoying than unhelpful, negative remarks. Remember to use the person’s name. There is nothing


� 106 �

sweeter to a person’s ear than the sound of their own name. Use the name frequently during the

conversation. Link some outstanding feature with the person’s name to remember it better. To be

heard and understood, you need to speak clearly and look at the person as you speak. Do not use bad

language or slang in conversation. If you use bad language you will let yourself down and people will

judge you by the way you speak.

Eagerness to help: Adopt a positive attitude and helpful manner in your dealings with people.

Show in a positive way that your are enthusiastic, eager and willing to help solve problems. If you

want to make friends you must be seen to be obliging, unselfish and thoughtful.

6.3 Consequences of poor personal inter communication skills

• Stress

• Lack of communication

• Irritation

• Close mindedness

• No team spirit

• Lack of credibility

• Poor self-esteem

• Suspicion

• Loss of productivity

• Isolation

• Poor health

• Distrust

• Anger

• Prejudice

• Un co-operative behavior

• Conflict

• Frustration

• Unhappiness


� 107 �

Check your progress

i. What is the difference between an open mind and an empty mind?

ii. What are the factors that build trust?

iii. Explain the importance of smile in interpersonal communication?

iv. What are the qualities of a good listener?

v. What is the difference between appreciation and flattery?

vi. What is the difference between an argument and a discussion?

vii. What is the difference between sympathy and Empathy?

6.4 Let us sum up

Interpersonal communication skills are much more important than technical skills if you want

to become a senior manager. Good communication is a very important aspect of interpersonal

relationships. Listening is one part of communication, which sounds fine in theory but is rare to find

in practice. Empathy with help you to understand people and respond to their needs more effectively.

Understanding the basic communication model should help to improve your communication skills.

Experts maintain that as much as 65 per cent of the message communication is non-verbal or body

language.

Some important guidelines for handling people were tact, respect; empathize; simple; praise,

synchronize with your listener.

The critical points in making a good impression on others can be posture; look, listen and

learn, expression; appearance; speech, eagerness to help.

Consequences of poor interpersonal communication skills are stress; lack of communication;

irritation; close mindedness; no team spirit; lack of credibility; poor self esteem; suspicion; isolation,

poor health etc


� 108 �

6.5 Keywords

Listening It is a combination of hearing, understanding and

remembering

Wishful thinking It is hearing what they like to hear

Semantics Development of the meaning of words

Attitude Emotional reactions usually expressed as feelings

Empathy I feel how you feel

Sensitivity It is ability to see things from the other person’s point of

view

Words Symbols which represent concrete objects and concepts

Non-verbal communication All human communication that is neither spoken nor

written is called “non-verbal”

Memory It is the function of the mind by which it records, retains

and produces ideas

Positive thinking Getting rid of all your negative thought patterns

Negative thinking Negative thought patterns

Tact It is the ability to make a point without alienating the

other person

Posture It is the way a person stands, sits or moves about


Chalapati Rao I.V., 1999, Communication and leadership, skills and strategies, Book links Corporation,

Hyderabad

Kundu, C.L. & Tutoo D.N., 1985, Educational Psychology, Sterling publishers private Ltd., Bangalore

Samuel A. Malone, 1997, Mind skills for managers, Gower


� 109 �

Shiv Khera, 2002, You can win, winners don’t do different things they do things differently, MacMillan,

New Delhi

Wiseman Gordon & Barker and Larry, 1974, Speech – Interpersonal communication, Chandler

Publishing Company


Check your progress

i. An open mind is flexible, it evaluates and may accept or reject ideas and concepts based on

merit

An empty mind is a dumping ground for good and bad. It accepts without evaluation

ii. Trust building factors

• Reliability

• Consistency

• Respect

• Fairness

• Openness

• Congruence

• Integrity

• Character

• Courage

iii. Importance of smile :

A smile costs nothing, but it creates much

It enriches those who receive it without impoverishing those who give it.

It happens in a flash, and the memory of it may last forever.

None are so rich that they can get along without it, and


� 110 �

None so poor that they cannot be richer for its benefits.

It creates happiness in the home, fosters goodwill in a business, and is the countersign of

friends.

It is rest to the weary, day light to the discouraged, sunshine to the sad, and nature’s best

antidote for trouble.

Yet it cannot be begged, bought, borrowed, or stolen, for it is something that is worth nothing

to anyone until it is given away.

In the course of the day, some of your acquaintances may be too tired to give you a smile.

Give them one of yours. Nobody needs a smile so much as those who have none left to

give. Cheerfulness flows from goodness. A smile can be fake or genuine. The key is to have

a genuine one. It takes more muscles to frown than to smile. It is easier to smile than frown.

It improves face value. A smile is contagious and is an in expensive way to improve looks.

A smiling face is always welcome.

iv. Qualities of a good listener

• Encourage the speaker to talk

• Ask questions. It shows interest

• Don’t interrupt

• Don’t change the topic

• Show understanding and respect

• Pay attention, concentrate

• Avoid distractions

• Show empathy

• Be open-minded

• Concentrate on the message and not on the delivery

• Recognize the non-verbal communication, such as facial expressions, eye contact etc.

• Listen to feelings and not just words.


� 111 �

v. The difference is sincerity. One comes from the heart, the other from the mouth. One is

sincere and the other has an ulterior motive.

vi. * An argument throws heat; a discussion throws light.

• One stems from ego and a closed mind whereas the other comes from an open mind

• An argument is an exchange of ignorance where as a discussion is an exchange of

knowledge

• An argument is an expression of temper where as a discussion is an expression of logic

• An argument tries to prove who is right where as a discussion tries to prove what is right.

vii. Sympathy is, “I understand what you feel. “Empathy is, “ I feel how you feel”.


� 112 �

Block 1 : Communication

Unit 1 Concept, meaning, process and factors affecting communication

Unit 2 Models and Theories of Communication

Unit 3 Key communicators – Identification and their role in Agricultural development

process

Unit 4 Feedback - Problems in communication

Unit 5 Organizational Communication

Unit 6 Interpersonal communication skills

Block 2 : Mass Media Communication

Unit 1 Mass media-Concept and role of mass media in agricultural development

Unit 2 Print media, Radio Journalism, T.V. Journalism, Photo Journalism, Audience research

Unit 3 Community Radio-Meaning, Importance and Operationalisation of Community Radio

Unit 4 Traditional media – types, role and scope in agricultural extension

Block 3 : Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations

Unit 1 Diffusion And Adoption Process

Unit 2 Stages in Adoption and Innovation-Decision Process

Unit 3 Adopter categories and attributes of Innovation

Course102 : Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural

Innovations (3 Credits)

Date post:	22-Oct-2014
Category:	Documents
Upload:	masita-draneb
View:	62 times
Download:	7 times

Communication

Documents