Communication

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension

Management (PGDAEM)

Course 102

Communication and Diffusion of

Agricultural Innovations(3 Credits)

Block I

Communication

National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management(An Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India)

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India

www.manage.gov.in

Course 102

Communication and Diffusion of

Agricultural Innovations

(3 Credits)

Block I

Communication

Unit - 1 : Concept, meaning, process and factors

affecting communication 3-30

Unit - 2 : Models and Theories of Communication 31-42

Unit - 3 : Key Communicators - Identification and

their role in Agricultural development process 43-52

Unit - 4 : Feedback - Problems in Communication 53-66

Unit - 5 : Organisational Communication 67-94

Unit - 6 : Interpersonal communication skills 95-112

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

2

Published by

National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra

Pradesh, India

First Published: 2007

MANAGE, 2007

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other

means without permission in writing from the MANAGE.

Shri K.V. Satyanarayana, IAS

Director General

National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management

(MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030,

Andhra Pradesh, India

Program Coordinators

Dr. M.N. Reddy, Director (Agri. Extn. & Commn.) & Principal Coordinator (PGDAEM)

MANAGE, Hyderabad

Ph. Off: (040) 24014527, email: [email protected]

Dr. N. Balasubramani, Assistant Director (Agri. Extn.)

MANAGE, Hyderabad

Ph. Off: (040) 24016702-708 Extn. 275, email: [email protected]

Course Coordinator

Dr. P. Chandrashekara, Dy. Director

MANAGE, Hyderabad

Ph. Off: (040) 24015399, email: [email protected]

ContributorDr. G.V. Narayana Reddy

Retd. Professor, EEI

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

Concept, meaning, process and factors affecting communication Course - 102

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Unit 1

Concept, meaning, process and

factors affecting communication

Structure

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Concepts of communication

1.3 Meaning of communication

1.4 Process of communication

1.5 Factors affecting communication

1.5.1 Communicator

1.5.2 Message

1.5.3 Channel

1.5.4 Treatment

1.5.5 Audience

1.5.6 Audience response

1.6 Let us sum up

1.7 Key words

1.8 Further Readings

1.9 Answers / Hints to check your progress exercises

Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations Course - 102


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1.0 Objectives

After studying this unit, the reader should

Understand the concept and meaning of communication

Be able to know the process of communication

Explain the factors affecting communication

1.1 Introduction

Cant you see that for mighty thoughts and heroic aims, the words themselves must be

appropriate Aristophanes

But words are things and a small drop of ink, falling like dew upon a thought produces that

which makes thousands, perhaps millions think Byron Don Juan

Communication is sharing information or providing entertainment by speaking, writing or

other methods. People communicate in many ways, including talking by moving their hands and

even by making faces. People also use telephone calls and letters for personal communication. Without

communication parents would not know what their children need. Teachers could not help their

students learn. People could not share knowledge. Each person would have to learn everything for

himself or herself. Friends could not make plans with one another. Infact human beings probably

could not survive for long.

Mass communication is another important type of communication to send message to large

audience. Books are one of the oldest methods of mass communication. Television is one of the

networks. Newspaper and radio are other ways that information can be sent to many people. Modern

nations probably could not exists without mass communication.

People can communicate on many levels, for many reasons, with many people, in many

ways. Ruesch and Bateson have prepared a hypothetical example of the kinds of communication that

a typical man, Mister A, might use in an average day.

In the morning when Mr. A. enters his office he reads his incoming mail (written

communication). In sorting his mail he encounters a number of pamphlets which are designed to

describe the merits of various business machines (pictorial communication). Through the open window

the faint noise of a radio is heard, as the voice of an announcer clearly praises the quality of a brand

of toothpaste (spoken communication).


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When his secretary enters the room she gives him a cheerful good morning which he

acknowledges with a friendly nod of his head (gestural communication) while he continues with his

conversation on the telephone (spoken communication) with a business associate. Later in the morning

he dictates a number of letters to his secretary, then he holds a committee meeting (group

communication), where he gathers the advice of his associates. In this meeting a number of new

governmental regulations (mass communication) and their effect upon the policies of the firm are

discussed. Later in the meeting a resolution to the employees of the firm concerning the annual bonus

(mass and group communication) is considered.

After the committee has adjourned, Mr. A, engaged in thoughts concerning unfinished business

(communication with self), slowly crosses the street to his restaurant for lunch. On the way he sees

his friend Mr. B, who in a great hurry enters the same luncheon place (communication through

action), and Mr. A decides to sit by himself rather than to join his friend, who will probably gulp down

his coffee and hurry on (communication with self). While waiting, Mr. A studies the menu

(communication through printed word) but the odour of a juicy steak deflects his gaze (chemical

communication); it is so appetizing that he orders one for himself.

After lunch he decides to buy a pair of gloves. He enters a mens store and with the tips of his

fingers carefully examines the various qualities of leather (communication through touch). After leisurely

concluding the purchase, he decides to take the afternoon off and to escort his son on a promised trip

to the zoo. On the way there, John, watching his father drive through the streets, asks him why he

always stops at a red light and why he does not stop at a green light (communication by visual

symbol). As they approach the zoo, an ambulance screams down the street, and Mr. A pulls over to

the side of the road and stops (communication by sound). As they sit there he explains to his son that

the church across the street is the oldest in the state, built many years ago, and still standing as a

landmark in the community (communication through material culture).

After paying admission to the zoo (communication through action), they leisurely stroll over

to visit the elephants. Here John laughs at the antics of an elephant who sprays water through his

trunk at one of the spectators (communication through action), sending him into near flight. Later on

in the afternoon Mr. A yields to the pressure of his son, and they enter a movie house to see a cartoon

(communication through pictures). Arriving home, Mr. A dresses in order to attend a formal dinner

and theater performance (communication through the arts).


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Another hypothetical example on the various kinds of communication that an extension worker

might be using on a normal day is presented below:

An extension worker visits the village and meet a group of farmers. He greets (communication

through gestures) and talks to them (group communication) about SRI Cultivation and the importance

of laying the demonstrations . He also exhibits visuals on SRI cultivation (visual communication).

Further, he visits the plots (communication through action) and comes to his office and think

over (communication through self) the time, date and arrangements for training and demonstration

and discusses the same with his superiors (spoken communication)

After obtaining permission, he talks to selected farmers through telephone (spoken

communication) and informs them about the date and time for organizing the training and

demonstration.

The same is beamed through television, radio and newspaper (mass communication) and

prepares leaflets / folders / bulletins for distribution in the training.

1.2 Concepts / definitions of communication

1.2.1 Communication is the discriminatory response of an organism to stimulus (Berlo 1966).

1.2.2 Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts,

feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning,

intent and use of message (Leagans, 1960)

1.2.3 Communication is the process by which the message is transmitted from the source to

the receiver (Rogers, 1983)

1.2.4 Communication is the process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by

means of some channels in order to produce a response from the receiver in accordance with

the intention of the source (IRRI publication on communication process, 1992)

1.2.5 Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one

person to another (Brooker 1949)

1.2.6 Communication is a mutual interchange of ideas by any effective means (Thayer 1968)

1.2.7 Communication means the movement of knowledge to people in such ways that they

act on that knowledge to achieve some useful results (Winfield1967)


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1.2.8 Agricultural communication is defined as a planned transfer of farm technologies from

the research system to the farmers system through extension system and media with a view

to make desirable changes in respect of higher productivity, profitability and prosperity and

also get feedback from the clients

1.3 Meaning of communication

Everyday, everywhere, people converse with each other. They exchange ideas and information.

In conversing, the one who has the information or knowledge communicates or makes it

common property. This sharing of information with one or more persons is communication.

Farm people want knowledge to improve themselves and their community. They want

knowledge to improve their ways of living and their living itself. Scientists and technicians, who are

always in the pursuit of knowledge, have what farmers want.

Farm and home advisers, extension workers and information people obtain the knowledge

from the scientists, interpret it and select out of it what the farmers want, and communicate it to them.

Today, a large number of people are engaged in this process of passing on knowledge or

diffusing it among our farmers. Their communicating ideas, thoughts, impressions, feelings, or

information to enable farmers to learn new skills and do old things in a new and better way.

In its real sense, communication involves the complete transfer of an idea or thought from

ones mind to that of another. It is not, therefore, enough if you tell the farm people about a new idea.

They must hear it, understand it and remember it. In other words, communication is telling someone

something in such a manner that he gets it.

People get an idea when they receive it through one or more of their senses when they are

seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling and tasting. When they get it, you say that your communication has

produced a stimulus in them. The stimulus leads them to think and to act. When they do that, you

say that the stimulus has brought out a response.

Communication is the process of unfolding understanding and meaning. It is about achieving

a communion of understanding a coming together in mind. If understanding has not occurred,

communication has not happened. An enthusiastic tourist in a foreign country drew a mushroom, like

this to indicate his need to the waiter for mushroom soup. The waiter nodded his head, rushed off and

returned with an umbrella. These two certainly did not come together in mind. So while ideas and


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feelings were expressed, communication did not happen. Whatever its purpose, every communication

involves atleast two entities or people- a sender and receiver. One person or entity alone cannot

communicate. You might well ask what about a person who is talking to himself? In that case also

there is one part of his mind talking to the other:

1.4 Process of Communication

Most of us are familiar with the five-step process occurring between a sender and receiver

when they communicate :

1. The sender generates an idea in the mind.

2. The idea is then converted into words, pictures, sounds, symbols, actions. This is called

encoding the idea.

3. The encoded idea is transmitted to the receiver.

4. The receiver receives the encoded message through the senses and perceives it in the mind.

5. The receiver then decodes or converts the messages back into meaningful ideas in his / her

own mind.

Communication has been defined as a process. The process is a concept which is dynamic

and ever-changing in nature. It implies that events and relationships are seen as dynamic, flexible and

continuous and must be considered as a whole, a dynamic interaction both affecting and being affected

by many variables. Thus, process has at least four elements acts or action, a continuous change in

time, advancement or progress over time, and a goal or result. Therefore, process implies a time

dimension as well as a space dimension in which action unfolds in a continuously changing progression

towards some goal.


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The five-stepped sequence is illustrated below:

Communication being a process, requires at least two persons a sender and a receiver

irrespective of the mode of communication. The sender or source conceives the idea, gives it a shape,

decides the mode of communication which may be used to convey the idea, and conveys it. The

receiver receives it, tries to understand it, and finally takes an action which may be either to store the

information or to send the message to the original source or take any other line of action as required

by the source. The whole process, thus, may be depicted as follows:

The entire process of communication requires at least the above six steps, i.e., Ideation,

Encoding, Transmission, Receiving, Decoding and Action. These steps are discussed breifly:

Ideation: The first step in communication is ideation. Here the sender thinks of an idea which

he wants to communicate to the other party. This is the content and the basis of the message. He must

have something to say before he really says it. The sender must also keep in mind the party to whom

the message is intended to be conveyed, and also the channel to be used.


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Decoding

Decoding the

message

Ideation

Conceiving of

the idea by the

sender or

source

Transmission

Transmission

of the message

Encoding

Encoding the

message

Receiving

Receiving of

the message by

the receiver

Action

Behavior or

action on the

message


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Encoding: Under this step, messages are composed of symbols having a certain meaning for

the sender and the receiver. Encoding is, thus, translation of an already conceived idea by the sender

into a message appropriate for transmission. Encoding includes selection of the mode of communication.

The wording of the message may be different for different methods of communication to be used. A

telegram may be differently worded from a letter. A telephonic conversation may be different from a

face to face conversation. A green signal and a whistle from the guard are sufficient signals to the train

driver for starting the train, such signals are not sufficient for an aeroplane to take off.

Transmission: The third step is transmission or conveying the message as encoded by the

sender. Transmission conforms to the method selected by the sender in the preceding step. The

sender also chooses the channel or path of communication through which the message is to travel

from the sender to the receiver. The channel may be mass media such as newspapers, radio, television,

films etc., or inter-personal involving direct exchange between source and receiver such as telephone,

correspondence, or non-verbal symbols like hands or facial gesture, or other body movements. The

sender must consider the effectiveness of the channel in making his selection. A lengthy message

cannot be sent through a telegram. A channel should be such that it minimizes the possibility of

distortion of the message.

Receiving the message: The next step is the receiving the message by the receiver. The receiver

must pay due attention to the message he receives. Any neglect on the part of the receiver may make

the communication ineffective so that the message is lost. Thus, the receiver should be a good listener

in the case of an oral message; however, listening alone is not sufficient, he/she should also be willing

to understand.

Decoding: Decoding is the reverse of encoding. It means translation of symbols etc., encoded

by the sender into an idea for understanding. The receiver decodes the message by changing the

symbols into a meaning. Understanding the message sent by the sender is the key to the decoding

process. If the receiver could not decode the message correctly to make it understandable, or

misunderstands it, or pretends to misunderstand it whereas he understands it well, the communication

is rendered ineffective. This happens because perceptions of two persons may be quite different.

Action: It is the response by the receiver of the communication. He may ignore the message

completely, or may store it, or may act as directed by the sender. Thus, it is an action or reaction on

the part of the receiver in response to the message received by him from the sender. He may also send

a message to the sender in response to the original message from the sender.


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Rule of Five In Communication

In the above process of communication, out of six steps, the first three are to be taken by the

sender and the last three by the receiver. There may be two more steps Acceptance and Feedback.

which are not necessary for the completion of the communication process. Sometimes the sender

wants that his message must be accepted by the receiver for two reasons (i) to improve cooperation or

motivation, and (ii) to know whether the message has been correctly understood by the receiver.

Similarly, the sender also wants feedback. It means a message by the receiver to the sender in

response to the senders original message.

This may help the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message so that he may improve

his subsequent messages. These two steps are not necessary for completing the communication process;

however. these are essential in generating an effective long-term working relationship. When all the

expectations of the receiver in the communication process are considered they are sometimes called

the Rule of Five in communication. They represent five steps from the side of the receiver (i) receiving

(ii) understanding (iii) acceptance (iv) action and (v) feedback. If these five steps are complete from the

receivers side, the communication is effective.

Check your progress-1

1. Communication has been defined by many scholars in different ways but a look at some of

the key ideas found in most of the definitions will help to form a working definition. Thus a

working definition may be that communication is ...

2. True or false

i. Communication is the exchange of ideas and mutual understanding.

ii. Communication is mere telling.

iii. Radio, newspaper is communication.

iv. The encoder is the sender of the messages.

v. The receiver and decoder are one and the same.

3. List out the six steps of communication process.


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1.5 Factors affecting communication

Successful communication requires a skillful communicator sending a useful message through

proper channels, effectively treated to an appropriate audience that responds as desired. The

communication task thus consists of the skillful handling of six key elements. These elements will

now be considered in the light of the guides already mentioned and in an attempt to show their

singular function, their relationship to each other and how they are to be dealt with in the total

process of communication for rural development.

1.5.1 Communicator

In the context of agriculture and rural development, extension agent is the communicator

who starts the process of communication. The extension agent and mass media like radio are sometimes

visualized as sources or originators of messages, which is not correct. Knowledge generates through

research and as such the Research Institutes, Universities are the originators of sources of message.

The extension agent obtains the required information from research and carries it to the audience, the

farmers. The extension agent is the communicator, a carrier of information. To enhance the process,

extension agents may take the help of some aids, known as audio-visual aids. They also carry back the

reactions of the farmers, their problems etc. as feedback information to research for finding out solutions

for the same.

The credibility of the communicator and the organization, the individual represents is important

for effective communication. CREDIBILITY means trustworthiness and competence. Before the

audience accepts any message he will judge whether the communicator and the organization the

individual represents, can be relied upon and is competent enough to give the information. Studies

have revealed that the scientists and extension agents having status, expertise, accomplishment, authority

and experience are perceived as highly credible by the farmers in communicating information on

agriculture and rural development, are therefore, very important in extension communication.

The characteristics of a good communicator are:

The individual knows :

i. the objectives - have them specifically defined;

ii. the audience their needs, interests, abilities, predisposition;

iii. the message its concept, validity, usefulness, importance;


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iv. channels that will reach the audience;

v. organization and treatment of the message;

vi. the professional abilities and limitations.

The individual is interested in:

i. the audience and its welfare;

ii. the message and how it can help people;

iii. the results of communication and their evaluation;

iv. the communication process;

v. the communication channels their proper use and limitations;

vi. improvement of the communication skill.

The individual prepares:

i. a plan for communication a teaching plan;

ii. communication materials and equipments;

iii. a plan for evaluation of results.

The individual has skill in:

i. selecting messages;

ii. treating messages;

iii. expressing messages verbal and written;

iv. the selection and use of channels;

v. understanding the audience;

vi. collecting evidence of results.


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Poor communicators, on the other hand:

i. Fail to have ideas to present that are really useful to the audience.

ii. Fail to give the complete story and show its relationship to peoples problems.

iii. Forget that time and energy are needed to absorb the material presented.

iv. Feel they are always clearly understood.

v. Refuse to adjust to closed minds.

vi. Talk while others are not listening.

vii. Get far too ahead of audience understanding.

viii. Fail to recognize others view-point.

ix. Fail to recognize that communication is a two-way process.

x. Let their own biases over-influence the presentation.

xi. Fail to see that everyone understands questions brought up for discussions.

xii. Fail to provide a permissive atmosphere.

xiii. Disregard the values, customs, prejudices and habits of the people, and

xiv. Fail to start where people are, with respect to knowledge, skill, interest and need.

To be a good communicator, the thumb rule is go to the village and listen to the people.

1.5.2 Message

The recommendations from research, the technology constitute the content or subject matter,

the message. Information which is relevant to particular set of audiences, constitute the messages,

otherwise for them this is noise. A good message clearly state what to do, how to do, when to do

and what would be the result.

To produce desirable changes in human behavior, the message must be motivating.

Messages which are relevant, interesting, useful, profitable, credible (latest and best, based on

research findings) and complete (neither too much, nor too little) are likely to motivate the people.


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A good message should be :

i. in line with the objective to be attained;

ii. clear understandable by the audience;

iii. in line with the mental, socio-economic and physical capabilities of the audience;

iv. significant economically, socially or aesthetically to the needs, interest and values of the

audience;

v. specific- no irrelevant material;

vi. simply stated covering only one point at a time;

vii. accurate scientifically sound, factual and current;

viii. timely - specially when seasonal factors are important and issues are current;

ix. supported by factual material covering both sides of the argument;

x. appropriate to the channel selected;

xi. appealing and attractive to the audience having utility and immediate use;

xii. applicable can apply recommendation to ones own particular situation;

xiii. adequate combining principle and practice in effective proportion and

xiv. manageable can be handled by the communicator and within the limits of time.

In contrast, poor communicators often

i. Fall to clearly separate the key message from the supporting content or subject-matter.

ii. Fail to prepare and organize their message properly.

iii. Use inaccurate or fuzzy symbols words, visuals or real objects to represent the message.

iv. Fail to select messages that are in line with the felt needs of the audience.

v. Fail to present the message objectively present the material, often biased, to support only

one side of the proposition.


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vi. Fail to view the message from the standpoint of the audience, and

vii. Fail to time the message properly within a presentation or within a total program.

1.5.3 Channel

Channel of communication constitutes the medium through which information flows from a

sender to one or more receivers. Face-to-face, word-of-mouth is the simplest and yet one of the most

widely used and effective means of communication, particularly for the developing countries. As

society changes from traditional to modern, the emphasis shifts from oral to media system of

communication. Because of the large number of audience or receivers of information and because of

physical distance of the communicator and the receivers of information, it is necessary to use different

communication channels. Even in interpersonal, face-to-face, word-of-mouth communication, it

becomes necessary to use some aids to make communication more effective.

The channels of communication may be classified into a number of ways according to different

criteria.

According to form

Spoken: Farm and home visit, farmers call, meetings, radio talk etc.,

Written: Personal letter, farm publications, newspaper etc.

According to nature of personnel involved

Personal localite: They are the local leaders and local people who belong to the receivers

own social system. Personal localite channels are important in traditional social system

Personal cosmopolite: These are the channels of communication from outside the social system

of the receiver. They are the extension agents of various organizations and are important in changing

the farmers from traditional to modern.

According to nature of contact with the people

Individual contact: The extension agent communicates with the people individually,

maintaining separate identify of each person. Examples are farm and home visit, farmers call, personal

letter etc.


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Group contact: The extension agent communicates with the people in groups and not as

individual persons. Examples are group meeting, small group training, field day or farmers day, study

tour etc.

Mass contact: The extension agent communicates with a mass of people, without taking into

consideration their individual or group identity. Examples are mass meeting, campaign, exhibition,

radio, television etc.

Many obstructions can enter channels. These are often referred to as noise that prevents the

message from being heard by or carried over clearly to the audience. Noise emerges from a wide

range of sources and causes. The following are some of them

i. Failure of channel to reach the intended audience. All people cannot or may not attend

meetings, all people may not have radio or TV, or may not tuned if they had or many people

cannot and some may not read the written materials.

ii. Failure on the part of the communicator to handle channels skillfully. In a meeting, who can

not hear what is said and see what is shown, do not receive the message.

iii. Failure to select channels appropriate to the objective of a communicator. If the objective is

to show how to do a certain thing, method demonstration and TV will be appropriate rather

than radio or newspaper.

iv. Failure to use channels in accordance with the abilities of the audience. Written materials

can not serve as useful channels of communication for an illiterate group of persons.

v. Failure to avoid physical distraction. Loud noise near a place of meeting or loadshedding at

the time of projecting visuals may cause distraction of the audience.

vi. Failure of an audience to listen or look carefully. There is a tendency of people not to give

undivided attention to the communication.

vii. Failure to use enough channels in parallel (simultaneously). Research indicates that upto five

or six channels used in combination are often necessary to get a message through to a large

number of people with enough impact to influence significant changes in behaviour; and

viii. Use of too many channels in a series. An important principle of communication is that the

more channels used in a series (communicating through several levels of line personnel) the

less chance a communicator has for getting the message through to the intended audience.


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To help overcome some of the problems of communication, one should take the following

factors into account:

i. The specific objective of the message.

ii. The nature of the message degree of directness versus abstractness, level of difficulty,

scope, timing etc.

iii. The audience size, need, interest, knowledge of the subject etc.

iv. Channels available that will reach the audience, or parts of it.

v. How channels can be combined and used in parallel.

vi. How channels that must be used in a series can be needed to the minimum, and those used

made effective.

vii. Relative cost of channels in relation to anticipated effectiveness.

viii. Time available to the communicator and to the audience.

ix. Extent of seeing, hearing or doing that is necessary to get the message through, and

x. Extent of cumulative effect or impact on the audience necessary to promote action.

1.5.4 Treatment of message

Treatment means the way a message is handled, dealt with, so that the information gets across

to the audience. It relates to the technique or details of procedure or manner of performance, essential

to effective presentation of the message. The purpose of treatment is to make the message clear,

understandable and realistic to the audience

Treatment of the message by the communicator shall depend to a great extent on choice of the

channel and the nature of audience. The task cannot be reduced to a formula or recipe. Treatment is

creative task that has to be tailor-made for each communication function. For example, treatment of

a message will be different when it is conveyed in a meeting, or published in a folder or broadcast.

Similarly, there will be difference in treatment of the message according to the level of literacy, socio-

economic status and progressive of the audience.


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Designing treatment usually requires original thinking, deep insight into the principles of

human behaviour and skill in creating and using refined techniques of message presentation. The

following are the three categories of bases useful for varying treatment

Matters of general organization

i. Repetition or frequency of mention of ideas and concepts.

ii. Contrast of ideas.

iii. Chronological compared to logical and psychological.

iv. Presenting one side compared to two sides of an issue.

v. Emotional compared to logical appeals.

vi. Starting with strong arguments compared to saving them until the end of presentation.

vii. Inductive compared to deductive.

viii. Proceeding from the general to the specific and vice-versa and,

ix. Explicitly drawing conclusions compared to leaving conclusions implicit for the audience to

draw.

Matters of speaking and acting:

i. Limit the scope of presentation to a few basic ideas and to the time allotted too many ideas

at one-time may be confusing.

ii. Be yourself you cant be anyone else, strive to be clear, not clever.

iii. Know the facts- fuzziness means sure death to a message.

iv. Dont read your speech people have more respect for a communicator who talks to the

audience.

v. Know the audience each audience has its own personality, be responsive to it.

vi. Avoid being condescending (patronizing). Do not talk or act down to people, or over their

heads. Good treatment of message results in hitting the target. Never overestimate the

knowledge of an audience or underestimate the intelligence.


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vii. Decide on the dramatic effect desired effective treatment requires sincerity, smoothness,

enthusiasm warmth, flexibility and appropriateness of voice, gestures, movements and tempo.

viii. Use alternative communicators when appropriate, as in group discussion, panels, interviews

etc.

ix. Remember that audience appeal is a psychological bridge to getting a message delivered

and,

x. Quit on time-communicators who stop when they have finished are rewarded by audience

goodwill.

Matters of symbol variation and devices for representing ideas

Spoken words, written materials, audio-visual aids etc. belong to this category

1.5.5 Audience

The audience or receiver of message is the target of communication function. An audience

may consist of a single person or a number of persons. It may comprise men, women and youth. An

audience may be formed according to occupation groups such as crop farmers, fruit farmers, dairymen,

poultry keepers, fish farmers, home makers etc. Audience may also be categorized according to farm

size such as marginal, small, medium or big farmers; or according to social criteria whether they

belong to scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, etc.,

Communication to be successful, must be target oriented. The communicator must know the

target, their needs, interests, resources, facilities, constraints and even their appropriate number and

location.

The attitude of the audience toward the message largely depends upon who gives what message

through which channel; to what extent the content of the message satisfy their needs and intentions;

to what measures the suggestions contained in the message are in line with their preheld experiences

and preexisting preferences; and how far the message is compatible with group norms and value

system to which the audience belongs. In case the audience members feel that the communicator is

trustworthy, dependable and find the person communicating the message through the medium of

their choice, they are likely to receive the message, provided the presentation of the content appear to

the audience as interesting and comprehensive (Dey. 1993)


22

The communicator should, therefore, be careful in selecting message which are relevant to

the audience, choose channels compatible to their cultural pattern and make treatment of the message

appropriate to their levels of interest and understanding.

In addition to knowing the identity of an audience and some of its general characteristics,

there are other somewhat more specified aspects that help to clarify the exact nature of an audience

and how to reach it. The following are some of these

i. Communication channels established by the social organization.

ii. The system of values held by the audience what they think is important.

iii. Forces influencing group conformity custom, tradition etc.

iv. Individual personality factors change proneness etc.

v. Native and acquired abilities.

vi. Educational, economic and social levels.

vii. Pressure of occupational responsibility how busy or concerned they are.

viii. Peoples needs as they see them, and as the professional communicators see them.

ix. Why the audience is in need of changed ways of thinking, feeling and doing, and

x. How the audience views the situation.

It may be noted that the audience is not a passive recipient of message. The individuals are

rather selective in receiving, processing and interpreting messages.

Selective exposure, Klapper (1960) suggested that people expose themselves to messages

selectively. There is a tendency for individuals to expose themselves relatively more to those items of

communication that are in agreement with their ideas, beliefs, values etc.

Selective perception, Regardless of exposure to communication, an individuals perception of

a certain event, issue, person or else could be influenced by ones latent beliefs, attitudes, wants,

needs or other factors. Thus, two individuals exposed to the same message could go away with

different perceptions about it.


23

Selective retention. All information is not retained by the individuals. People generally tend

to retain that information in which they have some interest and which they consider to be important.

Research showed that even recall of information is influenced by factors such as individuals needs,

wants, moods, perceptions and so on.

The social categories to which people belong, their individual characteristics, and social

relationships greatly influence their acquisition and utilization of information.

1.5.6 Audience response

Response of the audience is the ultimate objective of any communication function. Response

of an audience to messages received may be in the form of some kind of action, mental or physical.

Until the desired action results, extension communication does not achieve its most essential objective.

The possible kinds of response to messages received are almost infinite. The following gives

an idea of possible variety in response that may result when a useful message is received by a typical

village audience

i. Understanding versus knowledge: People usually do not act on facts alone, but only when

understanding of facts is gained. Understanding is attained only when one is able to attach

meaning to facts, see the relationship of facts to each other and to the problem. Communication

must promote understanding

ii. Acceptance versus rejection: Audience response may be either way. Communication should

lead to understanding and acceptance of the idea

iii. Remembering versus forgetting: When opportunity for action is not immediately available

or action is delayed, the message may be forgotten. Transmitting the right message to the

right people at right time is often a crucial factor in successful communication

iv. Mental versus physical action: Changes in the minds of the people must always precede

changes in the action by hands. People should not only understand and accept the message

but shall also act on it; and

v. Right versus wrong: The goal of communication is to promote desirable action by the audience

as specified in the objective. If the response of the audience is in line with the objective, it is

assumed to be right action. However, noise may prevent in getting the desired response

from the audience.


24


1. Define the following

i. Communicator

ii. Message

iii. Channel

iv. Treatment

v. Audience

vi. Audience response

2. List out the elements of communication process you have studied

3. Mention the qualities of a good communicator

4. Classify channels according to form and nature of contact

5. State the qualities of a good message

6. You can also communicate through eyes. Here, we have three triangles. Read the words in

triangles very quickly. Dont read once again.

Have you read it. Do you find any fault. If there is no fault, you have gone wrong. Once again

read it. Still there is no fault. Once again you have gone wrong.

See answer in your check your progress exercises.


25

7. The facilitator divides the group and passes the following message to a lead person who

passes it on to the next person, and the next

Message: The wolf ate the chicken at dusk under the tree

Write down the message as it finally was transmitted and analyze

8. Can you follow directions?

This is a tested test you have three minutes only

Read everything carefully before doing everything

Put your name in the upper right hand corner of this paper

Circle the word name in sentence two

Draw five small squares in the upper left hand corner

Put an X in each square

Put a circle around each square

Sign your name under the title of the paper

Put a circle completely around sentence number seven

Put an x in the low left corner of this paper

Draw a triangle around the X you just put down

One the back of this paper, multiply 703 by 66

Draw a rectangle round the word corner in sentence four

Loudly call out your first name when you get this far-a-long

If you have followed directions carefully to this point, call out I have

On the reverse side of this paper, add 8950 and 9805

In your normal speaking voice, count from ten to one backwards


26

Punch three small holes in the top of this paper with your pension point

If youre the first person to reach this point, Loudly call out I AM THE FIRST PERSON TO

THIS POINT AND I AM THE LEADER IN FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS

Underline all even numbers on the left side of this paper

Now that you have finished reading everything carefully do only sentences one and two

9. Exercise: Talkathon

Ask for two volunteers. Have them sit and face each other in front of the rest of the group. The

instructions are that both should begin talking simultaneously at the instructors signal. Each may

speak on any topic he or she desires. But they must maintain eye contact with one another. Gestures

are very much in order. The loser will be the speaker that stops talking first. It is a ridiculous scene but

typical of how often listen.

10. Exercise: Listen, report, reply

Choose a controversial topic: For example is the quality of life in India improving or declining

As for two volunteers holding contrary views on the issue. Sitting face to face in front of the group they

are to conduct a discussion on the topic. The rule for the discussion is this each must report to the

others satisfaction a summary of what the other speaker has said before themselves may reply: Listen,

repeat, reply

The two speakers are told to begin and the instructor watches and enforces the rule. The

instructor may interrupt either speaker from time to time to ask whether the listener is satisfied with

the summary the other has given, whether the listener has caught the thought fully. After the conversation

has gone on in this fashion for ten minutes or after the problems of communicating have become

clear, the instructor stops the demonstration by the two volunteers. Groups of three are formed with

the remaining numbers and with one member acting as monitor these groups practice the exercise for

20 or 30 minutes, changing the role of monitor after each 10 minute period. The group is reassembled

and the instructors needs a discussion and practices that help or hinder effective communication.


27

11. Exercise

The purpose of this exercise is to know how for the participants has understood the message

given by the speaker. One participant is enough to do this exercise. Hand over the paper and pencil

and asked him to sit in one of the corners of the room. The speaker explain the diagram orally and

without any hand signs and not showing the diagram to him. Fifty percent of the diagram is drawn

correctly, you can rate him a good communicator

1.6 Let us sum up

In this unit, we have briefly covered the concepts, meaning and the purpose of communication.

Communication is a popular term when a person gives a good public speech, we call him a good

communicator. If two people are talking, we say that they are communicating. Many people refer to

various media of communication viz., radio, film or television as communication. None of these is

true. Communication was a Latin root communis which means common It also requires a degree

of commonness between individuals for communication to occur. The purpose of communication is

to establish commonness. Communication, thus refers to the process of sharing information, feeling

ideas in a manner that there is common understanding of meaning, intent and use of the message.

Successful communication requires a skillful communicator sending a useful message through

proper channels effectively treated to an appropriate audience that responds as desired. The

communication task thus consists of the skillful handling of six key elements viz., communicator,

message, channel, treatment, audience and audience response.


28

1.7 Keywords

Interaction : It implies that more than one element is involved and that the elements are not

static but are changing and interacting

Process : Involves movement. It is a means of getting from one place to another.

Whenever, two or more functions are performed one after another to realize a

particular objective

System : A system is a combination of two or more components or parts, put together in

an orderly way to achieve a given purpose

Encoding : It is a process of interpreting the message

Decoding : It is a process of receiving the message

Knowledge : Intimate acquaintance with facts

Understanding : Relationship between facts

Communicator : He is the person who start the process of communication. He is the sender of

message

Message : It is the information the communicator wishes his audience to receive,

understand and act upon

Channel : It is anything which connects the communicator with the communicatee or

group of people

Treatment : It is the way we put across the message through channel

Audience response : It is the response given by the audience to the message of the communicator

Credibility : Trustworthiness and competence

Fact: It is a thing done, an actual occurrence, a piece of information having objective

reality

Interpretation : It is the explanation of the meaning of a fact or statement


29

Stimulus : A stimulus is any event which an individual is capable of sensing

Response : A response is anything that the individual does as a result of perceiving the

stimulus.


Chandrakandan. K, R. Netaji Seetharaman and R. Sathiyaseelan,1996, Communication: Perspectives

models and theories, Indian journal of Extension Education Vol.7 No.4, 1996

David K. Berlo, 1963, The process of communication An introduction to theory and practice,

Holt, Rine hart and Winston, New York

Diwan Parag and Aggarwal L.N., 1997, Business Communication, Excel books, New Delhi

Legans, J.P. 1961, The Communication Process, Extension Education in Community Development,

Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi

Mcgrath, S.J., 1994, Basic Managerial Skills for all, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

Pattabhiram B.V., 2002, Communications, Emesco Books, Vijayawada

Pattabhiram B.V., 2005, Art of Communication, Emesco Books, Vijayawada

Ray, G.L., 1996, Extension communication and management, Naya Prakash, Calcutta

Rayudu CS, 1997, Communication, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai

Wakhul Arun, 1999, Managing from the heart, Unfolding spirit in people and organizations, Reponse

books, New Delhi

Wiseman Gordon and Barker Larry, 1974, Speech / interpersonal communication\ chandler publishing

company, New York and London


30

1.9 Answer / Hints to check your progress exercises


1. A working definition might be that communication is process which involves a series of

interaction where relationships are discovered and integrated towards a specific objective,

that of trying to influence one another.

2. i. True ii. False iii. False iv. True v. True

3. i. Ideation ii. Encoding iii. Transmission iv. Receiving v. decoding vi. Action


i. Communicator is the individual who starts the process of communication Eg. VLW, Extension

Workers etc.

ii. Message is the information, the extension worker wishes his audience to receive, understand

and act upon

iii. Channel is the medium through which the messages travels to and fro

iv. Treatment is the way the information is put across the audience

v. Audience is the receiver of message. He is the consumer of message

vi. Audience response is the response of audience to the message given by the audience

2. Elements of communication process are:

i. Communicator ii. Message iii. Channel iv. Treatment v. Audience vi. Audience response

3. See section 1.5.1. and answer

4. See section 1.5.3 and answer


6. In three triangles, one word is extra. This is eye illusion

Models and Theories of Communication Course - 102

31

Unit-2

Models and Theories of Communication

Structure

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Concepts of model

2.3 Purpose of models

2.4 Models of communication

2.4.1 Aristotles model

2.4.2 Shanon-Weavers model

2.4.3 Berlos model

2.4.4 Schramms model

2.4.5 Leagans model

2.4.6 Rogers and shoemakers model

2.4.7 Westley and Macleans model

2.4.8 Model on Extension communication system

2.5 Theories of communication

2.5.1 Theories of interpersonal communications

2.5.2 Theories of mass communication

2.5.3 Theories of communication distortion



32

2.6 Let us sum up

2.7 Key words



2.0 Objectives

After studying this unit, the student should

Be able to define what is a model

Know the purposes of models

Explain the different models of communication

Explain the theories of communication

2.1 Introduction

Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations. They are useful

theoretical constructs that are frequently used in social sciences for explanatory purposes. They may

be used to show the size, shape or relationship of various parts or components of an object or process.

A model may also be useful in explaining the working of a system.

2.2 Concepts of model

i. It is representation of the process of communication in the same sense that a blueprint is a

representation of house

ii. Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations

2.3 Purpose of models

Communication models serve three main purposes

i. they describe the process of communication.

ii. they visually show relationship among the variables involved in communication and

iii. they aid in finding and in correcting communication problems


33

2.4 Models of communication

2.4.1 Aristotles model

According to Aristotle, communication has three ingredients

1. Speaker the person who speaks

2. Speech the speech that the individual produces

3. Audience the person who listens

Audience Speech Speaker

Aristotles Model

2.4.2 Shannon- Weavers model

The Shannon-weaver (1949) model is consistent with Aristotles proposition. According to

them, the ingredients of communication are:

1. Source

2. Transmitter

3. Signal

4. Receiver

5. Destination

Source Transmitter Signal Receiver Destination

Shanmon and Weavers Model


34

Compared with the Aristotelian model, the source is the speaker, the signal is the speech and

the destination is the audience, plus two added ingredients, it transmits which sends out the sources

message and a receiver which catches the message for the destination.

2.4.3 Berlos model

According to Berlo (1960) the model of communication consists of

1. Source

2. Encoder

3. Message

4. Channel

5. Decoder

6. Receiver

Communication

Source

Berlos Model

Code is a system of signals for communication. Encode means to put the message into code.

Channel means the medium through which the signals move, the decoder means which converts the

message in the code into ordinary language which may be easily understood.

He further elaborated that all human communication has some source, some person or group

of persons with a purpose. The purpose has source has to be expressed in the form of message. The

communication encoder is responsible for taking the ideas of the source and putting them in a code,

expressing the sources purpose in the form of a message. A channel is a medium, a carrier of message.

For communication to occur there must be somebody at the other end, who can be called the

communication receiver, the target of communication.

2.4.4 Schramms model

According to Schramm (1961), the communication process involves

1. Source

Encoder ChannelMessage DecoderCommunication

Receiver


35

2. Encoder

3. Signal

4. Decoder

5. Destination

Schramms Model

This model of communication is preferably relevant for the mass media. In human

communication it is most important whether people can properly encode or decode the signal (message),

and how they interpret in their own situations.

2.4.5 Leagans model

The communication model forwarded by Leagans (1963) has the following elements-

1. Communicator

2. Message

3. Channel

4. Treatment

5. Audience

6. Response

Leagans Model


36

The task of communication, according to him is to provide powerful incentives for change.

Success at this task requires thorough understanding of the six elements of communication, a skillful

communicator sending useful message through proper channel, effectively treated, to an appropriate

audience that responds as desired.

2.4.6 Rogers and shoemakers model

Rogers and shoemaker (1971) thought of the communication process in terms of the

S-M-C-R-E model, the components of which are

1. Source

2. Message

3. Channel

4. Receiver

5. Effects

Rogers and shoemakers model

According to them a source (S) and message (M) via certain channels (C) to the receiving

individual (R), which causes some effects (E) i.e., changing the existing behaviour pattern of the

receiver.

2.4.7 Westley and Macleans model

A is source (Eg., ANGRAU), B is receiver or public, C is the mass media channel (eg., E-TV

Annadata), A gets feedback from the public refines the message and C also gets feedback and

refines and the total refinements are carried out by the interpreting source that is C and then refined

messages are transmitted to the users. This is typical in a TV channel broadcast. Eg., Annadata of E-TV

does similar to explained above.


37

2.4.8 Model on extension communication system

Communication in extension may also be thought of as two-way stimulus response (S-R)

situation in which the necessary stimulus is provided by the communicator, the extension agent, in

the form of a message which produces certain response on the audience, the farmers and vice-versa.

A favourable response by the audience reinforces learning. A diagrammatic representation of the

extension communication system on the basis of the model suggested by Leagans (1963) is presented

in the below figure.

Extension Communication System


38


1. What is model?

2. List out the purpose of models in communication

3. Mention the elements in Paul Leagans model of communication

2.5 Theories of communication

The theories of communication can be classified into three groups namely

Theories about any phenomenon in general will highlight the key concepts involved in it.

These theories of communication will be useful for a person who is trying to understand a given

communication event by way of providing a framework which suggests what he should look for.

These theories should be viewed based on the basic assumptions that communications is a transitive,

multidimensional, multipurpose process.

Obviously, no theory or model is going to do all we ask of it. All the models / theories to be

surveyed, atleast fail one or more of the criteria. It is the purpose of a theory or model to reduce reality

to a manageable number of elements and relationships among those elements. The students of

communication should be familiar with a variety of communication theories and models so that he or

she can use that one which is appropriate for the analysis of a given situation. The theories of

interpersonal communication as stated by various authors were:

2.5.1 Theories of interpersonal communications

1. Kelman paradigm, 2. Bauers scheme 3. Festingers scheme, 4. Attribution theory, 5. Game

theory, 6. Social comparison theory, 7. New combs theory 8. Stimulus response theory 9. Linguistic

theory, 10. Psycholinguistic theory and 11. Socio-linguistic theory.

In general, the theories of interpersonal communication explains it as the face to face interaction

between people who are consistently aware of each other. Here the mutual pressure of the message

generator and receiver is required. Each person assures the rules of sender and receiver of message

who are independent and interchangeable. The behavior of the participants in interpersonal

communication are so intertwined in the process that it is difficult to separate the sender from receiver.

Attribution theory gives stress to the psychological state, motives and intensions of the

individuals involved in communication.


39

Game theory views interpersonal communication as the process of transaction between the

people to balance possible gains and losses. Social comparison theory states that persons communicate

in order to verify their perceptions of the world assumptions about themselves. New combs theory

explains the thinking processes of people who are reacting to one another simultaneously linguistic

theory deals with a description of language systems. Psycholinguistic theory focuses attention on the

behaviour of an individual in the use of language. Socio-linguistic theory explains patterns of variation

in language across different people, stimuli relationship, context and competence.

2.5.2 Theories of mass communication (message flow models) :

1. Hypodermic needle model, 2. One step flow model, 3. Two step flow model, 4. Multistep

flow model, 5. Theory of mass media effects, 6. Theory of individual difference, 7. Psychodynamic

model of persuasion process, 8. Theory of social categories, 9. Theory of social relationship, 10.

Socio-cultural model of persuasion process, 11. Free press theory, 12. Social responsibility theory,

13. Development media theory, 14. Democratic participant media theory

Several models have been conceptualized to explain the flow of message from the

communicator to the mass audience. Based on the number of ways involved in the flow of message

between sender and receiver theories like hypodermic needle, one step flow, two step flow, and

multistep flow are conceived. The response to mass media message is said to occur in line with the

psychological makeup of the individuals was taken as the assumption as per the theory of individual

differences. Psychodynamic model explains about the relationship between internal processes and

manifest overt behaviour of the persuader. Theory of social category emphasises that people who

have a number of similar characteristics are likely to have similar orientation and behaviour resulting

in a fairly uniform response to mass media. Free press theory stresses that the act of publication and

distribution should be open to the audience and no restriction should be placed on the publication of

new items, social responsibility theory states that media should accept and fulfil certain obligations to

society. Development media theory states that media should accept and carryout positive development

tasks in line with nationally established policy. The central point of the democratic participant media

theory lies with the needs, interests and aspiration of receiver in a political theory.

2.5.3 Theories of communication distortion

1. Theory of communication distortion and 2. Theory of communication distortion in transit.

The first one states that larger the volume of communication, larger would be the communication

distortion. Increasing the volume of communication increases more chances for misunderstanding,

mis-interpretation, less concentration and low priorities.


40

The second one emphasizes that messages pass through many layers in an organization.

Therefore repetition and reproduction of the same message is multiplied into many which reduces the

efficiency of communication.

The overview of communication theories suggests that communication can be described in

terms of networks, which give the observer some indication of who is communicating with whom it

can also be described in terms of the types of interactions which are occurring among communicators.

Further, it can be described in terms of message transactions, which indicate how the elements of

communication combine to produce a unique unrepeatable event. It can be also viewed from the

point view of an individual gathering information as he passes through his environment.

Check your progress-II

1. State the different theories of interpersonal communications

2. What is distortion?

3. Mention the theories of mass communication

2.6 Let us sum up

Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations. They are useful

theoretical constructs that are frequently used in social sciences for explanatory purposes.

Some of the models of communication are Aristotles model, Shannm-Weavers model, Berlos

model, Sehramm model and Rogers and Shoemakers model

In examining the evolution of communication models, three phases become identifiable. In

the first phase, the emphasis was clearly on linear, one way manipulative communication.

In the second phase, communication models began to place emphasis on the organic nature

of communication. As a result, most of the models of this phase are circular, two-way and contextualized,

placing an enormous impact on knowledge generation and utilization activities.

In the third phase, communication models see communication as interactional in specific

socio-cultural contexts through shared meaning.

Thus, from the technology transfer viewpoint, it may be stated that human communication is

a complex, continuous circular, two-way process, in which certain key elements such as the source,

message, channel and receiver(s) are involved in some kind of dependence, co-orientation and


41

interaction through mutually understandable signs or symbols, including feedback and certain wanted

or unwanted effects in both the communicator and the receiver.

The theories of communication can be classified into three groups viz., theories of interpersonal

communication, and theories of mass communication and theories of communication distortion.

2.7 Keywords

Transmitter: It is sending coded messages along a selected medium

Signal: It is the actual message

Source: It is the speakers mind. It is the source of idea

Theory: Relationship between facts or the ordering them in some meaningful way.

Technology: Application of science to the practical aim of human life

Destination: It is the listeners mind. It is the target of the message.


Chandrakandan K., Neetaji Seetharaman R and Sathiyaseelan R., 1996,Communication, perspectives,

models and theories, Indian journal of Extension Education. Vo1. 7 No.4, 1996

Dipak De and Srinivasa Rao M., 2000, Techniques of theory building, Ganga Kaveri Publishing

House, Varanasi

Ray G.L., 1996, Extension communication, and management Naya Prakash, Calcutta

Wiseman Gorden and Barker larry, 1974, Speech interpersonal, Communication, Chandler

publishing company, Newyork



1. It is representation of the process of communication in the same sense that a blue print is a

representation of house

2. Purpose of models are

a. They describe the process of communication


42

b. They visually show relationship among the variables involved in communication and

c. They aid in finding and in correcting communication problems




2. Different interpretation given to the original message is known as distortion

3. See section 2.5.2 and answer

Key communicators - Identification and their role in

Agricultural development process Course - 102

43


Unit-3

Key communicators Identification and their role in

Agricultural development process

Structure

3.0 Objective

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Identification methods of key communicators

3.2.1 Socio-metric method

3.2.2 Self designation technique

3.2.3 Information ratings

3.3 Characteristics

3.4 Role of key communicators

3.5 Let us sum up

3.6 Key words



3.0. Objectives

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to

Define who is a key communicator


44

Be able to know the identification methods in a social system

Explain the role of key communicators in agriculture development process

3.1 Introduction

To be a leader you have got to lead human beings with affection J.R.D. TATA.

The key is to select good people, be accessible to them when need you but leave them free

to operate Russi Modi

Key communicators or opinion leaders are persons in any social system who are sought out

for information and advice on general or specific topics. Rogers and Kincoid (1981) define opinion

leadership as the degree to which an individual is able to informally influence others knowledge,

attitudes, or overt behaviour in a desired way with relative frequency. It is assumed that such persons

are respected persons in each social system to whom some people look for advice and information

and who through such consultations, influence their behaviour and actions.

The concept of key communicator was first developed by Katz & Lazarfield etal (1944). Since

then they have been variously called as fashion leaders, influencers, information leaders, opinion

leaders, spark plugs, style-setters, taste- makers etc. However, all these names have been used more or

less for individuals operating in a social system who are more important in the communication of

information than others. Research evidence suggests that each social system has it s own opinion

leaders.

3.2 Identification methods of key informants

Three methods are in common use for identifying key-informants. These methods are (i)

Sociometric method, (ii) self-designation technique and (iii) information ratings.

3.2.1 Sociometric method

In this method, members of a social system are asked to name the person(s) to whom they go

for advice and information on a particular topic. It has several advantages over other methods in so

far as sociometric questions are easy to administer and are adaptable to different situations This method

has also relatively higher validity. However, the use of this method requires a large number of

respondents and complex statistical analysis.

This is concerned primarily with obtaining choices in interpersonal relations, such as with

whom one would like to work, play, etc. or to whom one would go for advice on farming or other



45

problems. It attempts to describe social phenomena is quantitative terms. It may be used in selecting

both professional and lay leaders, but a greater use of it is made in the latter case.

It is necessary that the persons involved in a sociometric test known one another. It is also to

be emphasized that the grouping of individuals upon the basis of sociometric tests is in terms of

choices relative to specific popularity. In a sense, the persons chosen by several others are popular,

but it is popularity or acceptance in terms of specific activities. Sociograms for the same individuals

will manifest differences when the choices are in relation to different activities.

This method is very useful to the Extension Workers in finding out the natural or local or

informal leaders in the villages, who are the influential persons that help in the introduction and

popularization of new, improved practices in their communities or neighbourhoods. As extension

workers goes into a given area and asks the farmers to indicate whom they ordinarily consult for

advice on farming (or any particular aspect of farming in which the extension worker wants to introduce

some improvement). Usually after a few interviews, it becomes apparent which farmer is the influential

person or natural leader. Figure (sociogram) illustrates this type of test.

Sociogram

When H is interviewed he may indicate that he generally goes to B for advice on farming.

G , F and D may also say that B is the one whose advice they take on farming. Then B is the

operational or potential, natural leader for these people and therefore if the extension worker succeeds

in inducing B to take up certain new practice, it is quite likely that others will be influenced by his

behaviour. It should be remembered that B is the natural leader or the one who initiates action for

the others. B may or may not hold an office or leadership position in organizations in this area. He

may not even think of himself as a leader and may insist that he is not a leader. However, so far as

these farmers are concerned, B is the operational leader in relation to farming practices.


46

3.2.2 Information ratings

In this method, some members of a social system are purposively or randomly selected and

asked to designate persons giving advice and information on a general or particular topic. This

method is economical and quick as it saves cost and time. However, it is limited to the extent each

informant is thoroughly familiar with the social system.

3.2.3 Self-designating method:

In this method, each selected person is asked a series of questions designed to determine the

degree to which he perceives himself to be a key-communicator. This method has one important

advantage in so far as it also measures the individuals perception of his being a key-communicator,

which in turn influences his behaviour. However, its accuracy is limited to the extent the respondents

can identity and report their self-image correctly.

3.3 Characteristics

Key-communicators have been found to have distinctive characteristics. On the basis of a

review of a large number of research studies, Rogers and Shoemarker (1971) drew the following

conclusions regarding characteristics of key-informants.

(i) External communication

a. Key-communicators have greater exposure to mass media than their followers

b. Key-communicators are more cosmopolitan than their followers.

c. Key-communicators have greater change agent contact than their followers

(ii) Accessibility:

Key-communicators exercise relatively greater social participation than their followers in a

social system

(iii) Social status:

Key communicators enjoy a relatively higher social status than their followers as far as conditions

in that social system exists.

(iv) Innovativeness

a. Key-communicators are more innovative than their followers



47

b. When the social systems norms favour change, key-communicators are more innovative but

otherwise not especially so.

c. When the norms of a system are more modern, key-communicators are more monographic.

Monography is the tendency of a key-communicator to act as such for only one topic.

(v) Relationship to the social systems:

According to Shankaraiah (1969), the key-communicators under Indian conditions are:

a. Perceived as the best farmers when the social system is actively modern

b. Social stars when the social system is relatively traditional

On the basis of a review made by Sandhu (1970) of a large number of research conducted

under Indian conditions, no specific conclusions could be drawn regarding age, education, farm size,

etc., although, key-communicators tend to belong to the middle-age group i.e. 30 to 50 years, be

somewhat better educated and own relatively larger farms than their followers.

Check your progress-1:

1. Mention different methods of identification of key communicators

2. Sociometric method means..

3. List out characteristics of key communicators

3.4 Role of key communicators

1. Communication of the new technology to other villages

2. Keeping in touch with the scientists, other institutions, media and sources of information

3. Coordinating the functions of the village organizations and the institutions and channelizing

them towards the adoption of technologies for greater production

4. Assisting the villagers in securing the supplies and services required by them

5. Guiding and helping people in getting assistance from government

6. Helping the fellow villagers in the preparation of the action plans


48

7. Giving constant guidance and acting as the local consultants

8. Focusing on the problems of villager and helping the extension workers and

9. Serving as the demonstrator in the case of agricultural innovations


1. State the roles of key communicators you have studied

2. Legitimisation means..

3. Leadership quiz

Leadership Quiz

All of us have some basic notions and assumptions about leadership. What are yours? Do you

agree or disagree with the following?

1. An effective leader varies their use of authority according to the

group and situation. Sometimes they merely announce their

decision, at other times they persuade, consult or leave the decision

to the group, all depending on the group and situation.

2. An effective leader sees more clearly than a less effective one the

strengths and weaknesses of individual members of their team.

3. An effective leader realizes people have mixed feelings towards

authority; i.e., they both like it and do not like it.

4. To be an effective leader one must decide whether they are going

to be democratic or autocratic and then stick to it.

5. Effective leaders tend to smooth over or avoid conflicts between

members of the group rather than confront them.

6. An effective leader thinks in terms of duties and activities rather

than results and objectives.

7. An effective leader is one who keeps their desk neat and clean.

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Agree Disagree



49

( ) ( )

Agree Disagree

8. An effective leader puts a great value on humour and uses it to keep

a sense of perspective when the group is struggling with a problem.

9. Besides the authority of their position, an effective leader tries to

develop other forms of influence, i.e., personality, competence and

character.

10. An effective leader is one who leads a group to its goals

11. An effective leader encourages honest disagreement in order to find

better solutions.

12. An effective leader treats each member of the group in the same

way.

13. An effective leader is one who usually gets his or her way in a

group discussion.

14. An effective leader builds on the strengths of the group, doing the

things they do well and omitting those they cannot

15. An ineffective leader often gets lost in the jungle of duties and

loses track of objectives.

16. An effective leader considers their men, their quality and

development, to be the most important resources - far more

important than materials or money.

17. An effective leader is sensitive both to group and individual needs

as well as the demands of the situation

18. Leadership should be shared in a group, moving from one member

to another, according to the competence required in the situation.

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )


50

3.5 Let us sum up

Key Communicator or opinion leaders are persons in any social system who are sought out for

information and advice on general or specific topics. They have been also called as fashion leaders,

influence, information leaders, opinion leaders, spark plugs, style-setters, taste makers etc. Three

methods are in common use for identifying key-communicators. They are 1) Sociometric method 2)

Self-designation technique 3) Information ratings

Key-communicators have been found to have distinctive characteristics viz., external

communication, accessibility, social status, innovativeness.

Key-communicators play a large variety of roles within their social system viz., spokesman,

harmonizer, planner, organizer, educator, symbol of group ideals, legitimizer, motivator, etc., facilitator

of extension activities etc.

3.6 Key words

1. Innovation - Innovation is an idea, practice that is perceived as new by an individual

2. Innovativeness - It is the degree to which an individual is earlier in adoption when compared

with the other members of society

3. Self Image - It is the way we see ourselves

4. Legitimization - Certain people or groups that seem to have the right authority and prerogative

to pass on things to make them legitimate ideas. Ex. Village Officers, Panchyat,

President etc.


Dubey, V.K., 1972, Identification of opinion leaders and their characteristics. Indian journal of

Extension Education, VIII 76-83

Mcgrath, S.J.,1994,Basic managerial skills for all, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,

Narasimhaiah, 1996, A critical study on farm leaders with special reference to their characteristics

and roles for agricultural development, Ph.D. thesis, Acharaya, N.G. Ranga Agricultural

University, Hyderabad, 1996

Sahay B.N.,1996,Communication Strategy for Rural Development, Kurukshetra (Indias Jounral of

Rural Development, Vol. XLIV, Nos.4-5, Jan Feb.



51

Sandhu, A.S., 1993 Textbook on agricultural communication process and methods oxford and

IBH



1. i. Sociometric method i

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