lnrernotionol Journrrlojtnnrerculfuml Relations, Vol. 15, pp. 311-321. 1991 0147.1767/91 $3.00 + .OO

Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. Copyright 0 1991 Pergamon Press plc

COMMUNICATION AND CROSS-CULTURAL ADAPTATION PATTERNS AMONG ASIAN INDIANS

HEMANT SHAH

School of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Wisconsin -Madison

ABSTRACT The Asian-Indian community in the United States has grown rapid- ly over the past 25 years. Many indicators of cross-cultural adaptation by Asian Indians have been examined. However, a significant gap in the research has been the role of communication in the process of cross-cultural adaptation by Asian Indians. Using X Kim’s theory of communication and cross-cultural adaptation as a framework, this study examines the relationship between several mass com- munication and interpersonal communication variables and cross-cultural adap- tation among Asian Indians living in the United States. Secondary analysis of data from a sample of 222 Asian-Indian Ynfluentials” indicates, generally, that use of US. communication channels contributes to cross-cultural adaptation by Asian Indians, while use of Asian-Indian channels of communication does not. Policy implications of the results and limitations of the study are discussed in the conclusion.

The Asian Indian community in the United States has grown rapidly over the last 25 years (Chandrasekhar, 1982a, 1982b). In fact, according to U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service records, Asian Indians are one of the fastest-growing immigrant groups in the United States (Saran, 1985, p. 26). Some demographers have predicted that the U.S. Asian Indian population soon will reach 1 million (India Abroad, 1990,

p. 12). One of the results of the emergence of this ethnic group has been a

handful of recent studies investigating how and to what extent Asian Indians are adapting to their new surroundings (Saran & Leonhard- Spark, 1980; Mohan, 1980; Sethi 8z Giglio, 1988; Katona-Apte & Apte, 1980). However, no studies have been conducted on the relationship be- tween patterns of communication among Asian Indians and their level of cross-cultural adaptation. Lack of research in this area is fairly surprising given the large body of previous research on other ethnic groups that has shown the importance of communication in the process of cross-cultural

The author thanks S. Prakash Sethi of the Institute for Management at Baruch College in

New York for providing the data on Asian Indian immigrants.

Reprint requests should be sent to Dr. Hemant Shah, School of Journalism, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 821 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706.

311

312 H. Shah

adaptation (see Y. Kim, 1988, and Subervi-Velez, 1986, for useful sum- maries of the literature).

This study will examine the relationship between patterns of interper- sonal communications and mass communication use among Asian Indi- ans and a single indicator of cross-cultural adaptation - attitudes toward marriage between Asian Indians and non-Asian-Indians.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Young Kim’s theory of communication and cross-cultural adaptation is used as the theoretical framework guiding this study. According to Kim, cross-cultural adaptation “refers to the process of change over time that takes place within individuals who have completed their primary social- ization process in one culture and then come into continuous, prolonged, first-hand contact with a new and unfamiliar culture” (Y. Kim, 1988, pp. 37-38). The theory focuses on a “stress-adaptation-growth dynamic” through which the immigrant develops competence in the communication system of the host society, which in turn facilitates the changes in the immigrant’s cultural identity and, ultimately, the process of cross-cultural adaptation. An integral part of the stress-adaptation-growth dynamic is the immigrant’s participation in social communication in the host society. Social communication refers to interpersonal communication and mass communication. Each of these forms of social communication can occur in host or ethnic contexts: An immigrant can engage in interpersonal communication with members of the host society or members of his or her own ethnic group, and an immigrant can use mass communication of the host society or of his or her own ethnic group. Use of host and ethnic social communication channels by an immigrant may have different ef- fects on his or her process of cross-cultural adaptation. In general, in- volvement with host social communication facilities cross-cultural adap- tation, while involvement with ethnic social communication, in the long run, tends to slow down, delay, or prevent the process.’

In the present study, Asian Indians’ attitude towards marriage between Asian Indians and non-Asian Indians living in the United States is used as an indicator of the immigrant’s level of cross-cultural adaptation. Previous studies show a positive relationship between intermarriage and successful cross-cultural adaptation (Alba, 1976; Alba & Chamlin, 1983; J. K. Kim, 1980; Siddiqi & Reeves, 1986), although it is recognized here that such a relationship shows only that intermarriage may be an indica- tor of cross-cultural adaptation. Nevertheless, it is assumed in this study that Asian Indians who view intermarriage as desirable show acceptance of the host society, its culture and its people, and have adapted to the host

IThis section draws heavily from Y. Kim (1988, pp. 16-19).

Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation 313

society to a greater degree than those who view intermarriage as undesir- able. Those who view intermarriage as undesirable also may have adapted to the host society to some extent but not to the degree that those who view intermarriage as desirable have adapted. It is also possible that those who view intermarriage as undesirable have not adapted at all.

HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTION

As mentioned earlier, there have been only a few recent studies of Asian Indian immigrants. The communication and cross-cultural adapta- tion patterns of other ethnic groups have received much more attention. (See for example, Y. Kim, 1977; Y. Kim, 1978; DeFleur & Cho, 1957; Deusen, 1982; Y. Kim, 1980; Subervi-Velez, 1986). From this research, a number of conclusions have consistently emerged. Most relevant for this study are the following:

1. Host communication is positively related to level of cross-cultural adaptation;

2. Ethnic communication is, in the long run, negatively related to level of cross-cultural adaptation; and

3. Interpersonal communication with members of the host society is a more important factor in cross-cultural adaptation than use of mass communication channels of the host society.

To determine if these patterns of communication and cross-cultural adaptation hold true for Asian Indians, the following hypotheses will be tested:

Hl: Host communication variables will be positively correlated with cross-cultural adaptation.

H2: Ethnic communication variables will be negatively correlated with cross-cultural adaptation.

H3: Interpersonal communication with members of the host society will be a stronger predictor of cross-cultural adaptation than will use of host mass communication channels.

Although the literature unequivocally indicates that reliance on ethnic communication channels slows down cross-cultural adaptation in the long run, it is unclear as to which channels of ethnic communication- interpersonal or mass communication-contribute more to lower levels of cross-cultural adaptation. For example, Jeffres and Hur (1981) found that use of ethnic mass communication is related to “strong ethnicity” (i.e., lower level of cross-cultural adaptation). Fathi (1973) also found a positive relationship between ethnic mass communication use and strong

314 f-i. Shah

feelings of ethnicity. However, Lazerwitz (1953) found the correlations between ethnic interpersonal communication variables and Jewish ethnic identification greater than those between reading Jewish publications (ethnic mass communication) and Jewish ethnic identification. Thus, in addition to testing the hypotheses, this study will address the following research question:

RQ: Which is the stronger negative relationship: between use of ethnic interpersonal communication and cross-cultural adaptation or be- tween use of ethnic mass communication and cross-cultural com- munication?

METHOD

This study is based on secondary analysis of data from a survey of 222 Asian Indian “influentials”-a term vaguely defined by the Baruch Col- lege research team as those people “playing an important role not only in the Asian-Indian community but also in the political, economic, and political affairs of the United States” (Sethi & Giglio, 1988, p. v). The respondents were asked about a wide range of issues, including work conditions, political participation, and race relations. Questions about communication patterns (mass media use and interpersonal) and atti- tudes about marriage and family Iife, along with a number of questions regarding basic demographics, were also included in the questionnaire.

The following variables, adopted from the Center for Management survey, were analyzed:

~r~~s-~~~t~r~l ~dapt~t~~n. This variable was constructed from four questions on the survey dealing with attitude toward marriage to non- Indians. The questions asked respondents to evaluate the desirability of Indian men marrying non-Indian whites and non-Indian nonwhites, and Indian women marrying non-Indian whites and non-Indian nonwhites. Respondents were asked to answer the questions on a scale ranging from 1 to 5, where 1 meant highly undesirable and 5 meant highly desirable. Each respondent’s answers to the four questions were summed and divid- ed by four to create a composite score indicating attitude toward inter- marriage as an indicator of the respondent’s level of cross-cultural adap- tation (alpha = .93). Thus, a score of one indicated that the respondent found each of the four possibilities for marriage between Asian Indians and non-Asian-Indians highly undesirable. Conversely, a score of 5 indi- cated that a respondent found each of the four possibilities for intermar- riage highly desirable. The higher the respondent’s score, the further along he or she is in the process of cross-cultural adaptation.

Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation 315

Host Interpersonal Communication (Host IC). This variable was measured as the number of hours per month the respondent socialized with his or her non-Asian-Indian neighbors.

Ethnic Interpersonal Communication (Ethnic IC). This variable was measured as the number of hours per month the respondent socialized with other members of the Asian-Indian community.

Host Mass Communication (Host MC). (1) One host MC measure was the frequency of reading U.S. publications. Respondents were asked to name up to five U.S. publications and how frequently they read them. Frequency of reading was measured on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 meant read only occasionally and 5 meant read very regularly. These scores were summed to indicate a respondent’s frequency of reading U.S. publica- tions. Thus the range of scores on this measure was zero to 25.2 (2) A second host MC measure was the number of hours per week a respondent watched public affairs/news programs on television. (3) Another host MC measure was the number of hours per week a respondent watched enter- tainment programming on television. (4) The final host MC measure was the number of hours per week a respondent watched American movies/ programs on his or her VCR.

Ethnic Mass Communication (Ethnic MC). (1) One measure of eth- nic MC was the frequency of reading Indian publications. This variable was measured in the same way as frequency of reading U.S. publications. (2) Another measure of ethnic MC was the number of hours per week a respondent watched Asian-Indian movies/programs on his or her VCR.3

Previous studies have shown that length of stay in the U.S. and socio- economic variables can have an impact on an individual’s level of cross- cultural adaptation (Y. Kim, 1988, p. 117). Thus, this study will use proportion of years in the U.S. (as a measure of length of stay in the United States)4 and family income (as a measure of socioeconomic status) as control variables.

2This procedure was undertaken by the Baruch College research team prior to the current

analysis. The data set report contains the scaled variable and does not include individual frequencies of reading for each publication. Thus, alpha coefficients for host MC and

ethnic MC could not be calculated.

sAlthough these measures do not exactly tap the concepts in Y. Kim’s theory of communica-

tion and cross-cultural adaptation, they are close approximations and are currently the best available measures for studying the relevant processes among Asian Indians in the United

States.

%ubervi-Velez (1986) suggests this strategy because the proportion of an immigrant’s life spent in a new culture is probably a better gauge of cross-cultural adaptation than number

316 H. Shah

RESULTS

The sample of respondents have lived in the United States for an aver- age of about 20 years (the range is 2 years to 35 years). A majority of the respondents (51 W) are between 40 and 49 years old. The annual family income for 56.7% of the respondents is between $50,000 and $150,000. These characteristics may be unique to Asian Indian “influentials” rather than the Asian-Indian community as a whole and must be carefully considered when interpreting the results of this study.

The data indicate more frequent use of U.S. publications than of Indi- an publications, which is consistent with previous studies describing me- dia use by Asian Indians (see Saran & Leonhard-Spark, 1980; Sethi & Giglio, 1988). Among the remaining variables, ethnic IC is the dominant communication pattern. In comparison, there is relatively little host IC (about the same frequency of use as watching television for entertainment and news/public affairs). VCRs are also used relatively infrequently for either American or Asian-Indian videos.

The relationships between host communication and cross-cultural ad- aptation and between ethnic communication and cross-cultural adapta- tion are in the hypothesized direction. Second-order partial correlations (controlling for length of stay and family income) show a positive rela- tionship between cross-cultural adaptation and the four host MC varia- bles and the host IC variable, and a negative relationship between cross- cultural adaptation and the two ethnic MC variables and the ethnic IC variable. Only one of eight of the partial correlations, however (between reading U.S. publications and cross-cultural adaptation), is statistically significant (r = .327, p c .OOl).

The third hypothesis was supported. The communication variables and the control variables were regressed on the dependent variable, cross- cultural adaptation. Standardized beta coefficients resulting from the regression procedure indicate that host IC is a stronger predictor of cross- cultural adaptation than any of the host MC variables (see Table 1). Among the host MC variables, use of U.S. publications is a far stronger predictor of cross-cultural adaptation than any of the other host MC variables, which is consistent with earlier research that found a strong and positive relationship between cross-cultural adaptation and use of primarily information-oriented mass media such as newspapers and mag- azines (Y. Kim, 1988, p. 117). Taken together, host and ethnic communica-

of years in a new country. For example, a 20-year-old Asian Indian who has lived in the U.S.

for 10 years is likely to exhibit different patterns of cross-cultural adaptation than a 60-year-

old Asian Indian who has lived in the U.S. for 10 years because the younger man has spent

more of his life in the U.S. Using number of years in a new country as an indicator of length of stay could not explain the difference in cross-cultural adaptation between the 20-year-old

and the 60-year-old.

Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation 317

TABLE 1 Standardized Regression Coefficients for Communication

Variables Predicting Level of Cross-Cultural Adaptation

Host Mass Communication Reading U.S. publications Watching TV news/public affairs Watching TV entertainment Watching U.S. video material

Host Interpersonal Communiction

Ethnic Mass Communication Reading Asian-Indian publications Watching Asian-Indian video material

Ethnic Interpersonal Communications

Adjusted R2 = ,205; F = 2.467.’ ‘p < .05, l *p < .Ol.

.314’

.024

.050

.035

.410**

- ,076 - ,163 - .284’

tion variables explain about 20% of the variance in the dependent variable.

Table 1 also sheds light on the research question regarding the relation- ship between use of ethnic communication channels and cross-cultural adaptation. The table shows that the negative relationship between ethnic IC and cross-cultural adaptation is stronger than the relationship between ethnic MC variables and cross-cultural adaptation. This finding indicates that, for Asian Indians, interpersonal contact with fellow Asian Indians is a greater obstacle to cross-cultural adaptation than is use of Asian- Indian publications or Asian-Indian video materials.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that in the context of communication and cross- cultural adaptation, Asian-Indian “influentials” are, in most respects, similar to other immigrant groups. For Asian-Indian “influentials,” as with other immigrant groups, use of host communication channels ap- pears to contribute to cross-cultural adaptation while use of ethnic com- munication channels does not. Also, host IC is the strongest predictor of cross-cultural adaptation. Ethnic IC was related to lower levels of cross- cultural adaptation, as in the study of Jewish identification (Lazerwitz, 1953). These results lend support to Y. Kim’s general theory of communi- cation and cross-cultural adaptation. Asian-Indian “influentials” who participate in host communication channels are characterized by higher levels of cross-cultural adaptation, as measured by their acceptance of intermarriage between Asian Indians and members of the host society.

These results also provide a basis for formulating effective policies, both public and individual, regarding communication and cross-cultural

318 H. Shah

adaptation of Asian-Indian immigrants. At the individual level, immi- grants should prepare themselves for adapting to a new society. They may acquire some language skills, familiarize themselves with customs, and anticipate ambiguity and uncertainty in day-to-day activities. Members of the host society may also prepare themselves for interaction with immi- grants. They can help immigrants adapt by initiating conversations with immigrants, understanding the frustration and fear many immigrants experience, and cooperating with immigrants’ efforts to learn a new lan- guage and cultural norms.

In terms of public policy, public institutions, such as schools, local governments, and volunteer organizations, may help immigrants adapt by providing opportunities to participate in the communication channels of the host society, perhaps by working with already established immi- grant organizations. Among members of the host society, public institu- tions may try to foster awareness of the problems faced by immigrants; minimize prejudice, discrimination, and ethnocentrism; and encourage education about different cultures. The goal of these private and public policies should be to create not a homogeneous society, but one that is diverse and, at the same time, integrated.

These conclusions must be considered in the context of several limita- tions characterizing this study. The most obvious limitation, perhaps, is the nature of the sample. Because the respondents to the survey were “influentials,” characterized by demographic features not likely to be representative of the Asian-Indian community as a whole, it would seem unwise to make generalizations about the patterns of communication and cross-cultural adaptation among all Asian Indians based on the results of this study. However, the pattern of communication and cross-cultural adaptation found among Asian-Indian “influentials” is consistent with Y. Kim’s theory, which is based on years of research with representative and nonrandom samples of various immigrant communities. Thus, there is no theoretical reason to expect that Asian-Indian “noninfluentials” would exhibit patterns of communication and cross-cultural adaptation differ- ent from those shown by Asian-Indian “influentials.” Nevertheless, this expectation can, and should be, empirically tested before generalizations about the Asian-Indian community as a whole are made from a research on Asian-Indian “influentials.”

Another limitation of this study is that it is a secondary analysis. The data analyzed were not gathered to examine the process of communica- tion and cross-cultural adaptation. Thus, the measures of communica- tion and cross-cultural adaptation may not be ideal indicators of the process under study. For example, the measure of cross-cultural adapta- tion used in this study is less than perfect because it taps only one of many possible dimensions of cross-cultural adaptation. But given the confines of the data set and previous research showing that intermarriage is a good indicator of cross-cultural adaptation, the measure is adequate.

Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation 319

A third limitation is that the study included no measures of the specific type of media content used by the respondents (although it did include two types of general television formats-entertainment and news/public affairs). Also, other than making a distinction between ethnic and host contacts, the study also did not include measures of the specific charac- teristics of interpersonal communications. Specific kinds of news and entertainment programs and interpersonal contact with specific catego- ries of people may have different effects on the patterns of cross-cultural adaptation. Those potential differences could not be examined in this study. Future studies of cross-cultural adaptation of Asian Indians, as well as other immigrant groups, should be designed with these issues in mind.

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ABSTRACT TRANSLATIONS

La communaute des ressortissants de 1’Inde vivant aux Etats-Unis a crO rapidement durant les 25 dernieres an&es. De nombreux indicateurs d’une adaptation culturelle de la part de ressortissants Indiens ont ete examines precedemment. 11 existe cependant une lacune importante dans la recherche: le role de la communication dans la processus d’adaptation culturelle des ressortissants indiens. Utilisant comme cadre la theorie de

Y. Kim sur la communication et I’adaptation culturelle, cette etude exam- ine la relation de plusieurs variables des communications de masse ou de la communication interpersonnelle avec l’adaptation culturelle de ressor- tissants de 1’Inde vivant aux Etats-Unis. Une analyse, utilisant des don- nees d’une autre recherche concernant un echantillon de 222 ressortis- sants indiens “influents”, indique de facon g&r&ale que I’utilisation des canaux de communication amtricains contribue a l’adaptation culturelle des ressortissants indiens, alors que l’utilisation des canaux de communi- cation de I’Inde n’a pas cet effet. Les implications de ces resultats dans la definition d’une politique, ainsi que les limitations de cette etude sont discutees en conclusion. (author-supplied abstract)

La communidad India-Asiatica en 10s Estados Unidos ha crecido rapi- damente en 10s ultimos 25 afios. Muchos indicadores de la adaptacidn

Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation 321

inter cultural de 10s Indio-Asiaticos han sido investigados. Sin embargo, un vacio significativo en la investigacidn ha sido el rol de la comunicaci6n en el proceso de la adaptacidn inter cultural de 10s Indio-Asiaticos. Usan- do la teoria de comunicaci6n y de la adaptaci6n inter cultural de Y. Kim coma marco, este estudio examina la relaci6n entre algunas variables de 10s medios de comunicaci6n y de comunicacidn interpersonal y la adapta- ci6n inter cultural entre 10s Indio-Asiaticos que viven en 10s Estados Unidos. Un analisis secundario de 10s datos de una muestra de 222 ‘in- fluyentes’ Indio-Asiaticos, generalmente, indica, que el uso de canales de comunicaci6n estadounidenses contribuye a la adaptaci6n inter cultural de 10s Indio-Asiaticos, mientras que el uso de canales de comunicaci6n Indio-Asiaticos no contribuye a dicha adaptaci6n. Las implicaciones politicas de 10s resultados y las limitaciones de1 estudio se discuten en la conclusi6n. (author-supplied abstract)