M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015
What is Communication?Communication can best be summarized as
the transmission of a message from a sender to a receiver in an
understandable manner. The same basic principles apply whether
humans, animals, other forms of life, or combinations of these are
involved. In humans communication is the process used to achieve
understanding. When you want others to understand what is in your
mind, you choose words to form your message to your intended
receiver. The receiver must read the message as it comes in if he
or she is to understand the ideas you are trying to get across.Then
the receiver reacts to your ideas, which is called feedback.The
Communication Process The communication process consists of a
message being sent and received. The message may be verbal or
non-verbal. Effective communication involves a message being sent
clearly and received as intended. Addedto this is the element of
feedback to ensure that the message sent was received exactly as
intended.
The Elements of the Process1. Sender2. Message3.
Channel/Medium4. Receiver5. Feedback
ReceiverDecodes message; creates feedbackSenderConceptualizes
and encodes message
FeedbackCome over this evening after
six!Medium/Channelemail/internetspeech/telephoneMessageI want to
see you!SENDER
The Steps in the Process1. Conceptualization2. Encoding3.
Selection of channels/mediums4. Decoding5. Interpretation 6.
Feedback
An Example from the Classroom
Sending the Message First, the teacher (sender) formulates the
message he/she intends to communicate (conceptualization). Next,
sheconsiders possible barriers that may affectthe message. This
includes difficulty of the topic,theterms she willuse, and the
students feelingtoward the subject. External barriers suchas
noisemust also be considered. Next, she puts the message into the
words she wants to use (encoding), and plans a lesson the students
will find interesting (selection of channels/mediums). Then, she
clearly communicates(sends) the message.
Receiving theMessage
The students (receivers) will first hear and/or see the message
the teachersent. The message is affected by external barriers, like
noise outside the classroom that drowns the teachers voice or that
result in lack of concentration. Possible internal barriers may
include the students experience level, their understanding of the
terms used, and their attitude towardthe material, orthe way they
feel about the teacher. The students absorbthe message through the
use of mental images (decoding). They retain knowledge of the
concept taught depending on their understanding (interpretation).
They may ask questions for further clarification, they may make
notes, or they may do well or poorly on the test set on the concept
(feedback).
Communication ProcessBy: Nick SanchezCommunication can best be
summarized as the transmission of a message from a sender to a
receiver in an understandable manner. The importance of effective
communication is immeasurable in the world of business and in
personal life. From a business perspective, effective communication
is an absolute must, because it commonly accounts for the
difference between success and failure or profit and loss. It has
become clear that effective business communication is critical to
the successful operation of modern enterprise. Every business
person needs to understand the fundamentals of effective
communication.Currently, companies in the United States and abroad
are working toward the realization of total quality management.
Effective communication is the most critical component of total
quality management. The manner in which individuals perceive and
talk to each other at work about different issues is a major
determinant of the business success. It has proven been proven that
poor communication reduces quality, weakens productivity, and
eventually leads to anger and a lack of trust among individuals
within the organization.The communication process is the guide
toward realizing effective communication. It is through the
communication process that the sharing of a common meaning between
the sender and the receiver takes place. Individuals that follow
the communication process will have the opportunity to become more
productive in every aspect of their profession. Effective
communication leads to understanding.The communication process is
made up of four key components. Those components include encoding,
medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback. There are also two
other factors in the process, and those two factors are present in
the form of the sender and the receiver. The communication process
begins with the sender and ends with the receiver.The sender is an
individual, group, or organization who initiates the communication.
This source is initially responsible for the success of the
message. The sender's experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skill,
perceptions, and culture influence the message. "The written words,
spoken words, and nonverbal language selected are paramount in
ensuring the receiver interprets the message as intended by the
sender" (Burnett & Dollar, 1989). All communication begins with
the sender.The first step the sender is faced with involves the
encoding process. In order to convey meaning, the sender must begin
encoding, which means translating information into a message in the
form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process
translates the ideas or concepts into the coded message that will
be communicated. The symbols can take on numerous forms such as,
languages, words, or gestures. These symbols are used to encode
ideas into messages that others can understand.When encoding a
message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to
transmit. This decision by the sender is based on what he/she
believes about the receivers knowledge and assumptions, along with
what additional information he/she wants the receiver to have. It
is important for the sender to use symbols that are familiar to the
intended receiver. A good way for the sender to improve encoding
their message is to mentally visualize the communication from the
receiver's point of view.To begin transmitting the message, the
sender uses some kind of channel (also called a medium). The
channel is the means used to convey the message. Most channels are
either oral or written, but currently visual channels are becoming
more common as technology expands. Common channels include the
telephone and a variety of written forms such as memos, letters,
and reports. The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates
depending on the characteristics of the communication. For example,
when immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication channels
are more effective because any uncertainties can be cleared up on
the spot. In a situation where the message must be delivered to
more than a small group of people, written channels are often more
effective. Although in many cases, both oral and written channels
should be used because one supplements the other.If a sender relays
a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not
reach the right receivers. That is why senders need to keep in mind
that selecting the appropriate channel will greatly assist in the
effectiveness of the receiver's understanding. The sender's
decision to utilize either an oral or a written channel for
communicating a message is influenced by several factors. The
sender should ask him or herself different questions, so that they
can select the appropriate channel. Is the message urgent? Is
immediate feedback needed? Is documentation or a permanent record
required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or private? Is
the message going to someone inside or outside the organization?
What oral and written communication skills does the receiver
possess? Once the sender has answered all of these questions, they
will be able to choose an effective channel.After the appropriate
channel or channels are selected, the message enters the decoding
stage of the communication process. Decoding is conducted by the
receiver. Once the message is received and examined, the stimulus
is sent to the brain for interpreting, in order to assign some type
of meaning to it. It is this processing stage that constitutes
decoding. The receiver begins to interpret the symbols sent by the
sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences in
order to make the symbols meaningful. Successful communication
takes place when the receiver correctly interprets the sender's
message.The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the
message is directed. The extent to which this person comprehends
the message will depend on a number of factors, which include the
following: how much the individual or individuals know about the
topic, their receptivity to the message, and the relationship and
trust that exists between sender and receiver. All interpretations
by the receiver are influenced by their experiences, attitudes,
knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture. It is similar to the
sender's relationship with encoding.Feedback is the final link in
the chain of the communication process. After receiving a message,
the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the
sender. The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a long
sigh, a written message, a smile, or some other action. "Even a
lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response" (Bovee &
Thill, 1992). Without feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the
receiver has interpreted the message correctly.Feedback is a key
component in the communication process because it allows the sender
to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately
provides an opportunity for the sender to take corrective action to
clarify a misunderstood message. "Feedback plays an important role
by indicating significant communication barriers: differences in
background, different interpretations of words, and differing
emotional reactions" (Bovee & Thill, 1992).The communication
process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective
communication. When followed properly, the process can usually
assure that the sender's message will be understood by the
receiver. Although the communication process seems simple, it in
essence is not. Certain barriers present themselves throughout the
process. Those barriers are factors that have a negative impact on
the communication process. Some common barriers include the use of
an inappropriate medium (channel), incorrect grammar, inflammatory
words, words that conflict with body language, and technical
jargon. Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can occur
during any stage of the process. Noise essentially is anything that
distorts a message by interfering with the communication process.
Noise can take many forms, including a radio playing in the
background, another person trying to enter your conversation, and
any other distractions that prevent the receiver from paying
attention.Successful and effective communication within an
organization stems from the implementation of the communication
process. All members within an organization will improve their
communication skills if they follow the communication process, and
stay away from the different barriers. It has been proven that
individuals that understand the communication process will blossom
into more effective communicators, and effective communicators have
a greater opportunity for becoming a success.BIBLIOGRAPHYBurnett,
M.J., & Dollar, A. (1989). Business Communication: Strategies
for Success. Houston, Texas: Dane.Ivancevich, J.M., Lorenzi, P.,
Skinner, S.J., & Crosby, P.B. (1994). Management: Quality and
Competitiveness. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin.Gibson, J.W., &
Hodgetts, R.M. (1990). Business Communication: Skills and
Strategies. NY, NY: Harper & Row.Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V.
(1992). Business Communication Today. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill.Berko,
R.M., Wolvin, A.D., & Curtis, R. (1986). This Business of
Communicating. Dubuque, IO: WCB.Wright, P.M., & Noe, R.A.,
(1995). Management of Organizations. Chicago, IL: Irwin.
Feedback
The signals that a receiver continuously gives to a sender
indicating how well the message is being received are known as
feedback. Feedback is extremely important for senders, since it
allows them to discover such matters as whether they are speaking
too fast, using words that are too complex, or even whether they
are offending or angering their receivers.Feedback can consist of
words, nonverbal symbols, or both. Feedback makes it possible for
speakers to judge how well they are communicating. For example, in
a face-to-face conversation, interviews, and small group
discussion, a good balance of verbal and nonverbal feedback is
possible.Talking on the phone consists of verbal feedback. In
public speaking, the form of feedback is usually nonverbal. This is
because, if a large number of audience members begin responding
aloud, it would soon be impossible to hear the speaker. Most
audience speakers confine their feedback to kinesic
symbols--smiles, frowns, and nods of their heads. Some paralanguage
symbols such as yawning, occasional boos, or hisses and clapping
may also be used as feedback.Communication Channels or Mediums
Mass media
Mass media is media which is intended for a large audience. It
may take the form of broadcast media, as in the case of television
and radio, or print media, like newspapers and magazines. Internet
media can also attain mass media status, and many mass media
outlets maintain a web presence to take advantage of the ready
availability of Internet in many regions of the world. Some people
also refer to the mass media as the mainstream media, referencing
the fact that it tends to stick to prominent stories which will be
of interest to a general audience, sometimes ignoring controversial
breaking news. Many people around the world rely on the mass media
for news and entertainment, and globally, mass media is a huge
industry.Usually, mass media aims to reach a very large market,
such as the entire population of a country. By contrast, local
media covers a much smaller population and area, focusing on
regional news of interest, while specialty media is provided for
particular demographic groups. Some local media outlets which cover
state or provincial news may rise to prominence thanks to their
investigative journalism, and to the clout that their particular
regions have in national politics. The Guardian, formerly known as
the Manchester Guardian, for example, is a nationally-respected
paper in England which started as a regional daily.One of the
biggest criticisms of the mass media is that it is too topical.
When a media outlet is forced to cover national and international
news, it cannot address numerous interesting local stories because
these stories are not of interest to very many viewers. For
example, the residents of a community might view their fight
against development as critical, but the story would only attract
the attention of the mass media if the fight became controversial
or if precedents of some form were set.People often think of mass
media as the news, but mass media also includes entertainment like
television shows, books, and films. It may also be educational in
nature, as in the instance of public broadcasting stations which
provide educational programming to a national audience. Political
communications including propaganda are also frequently distributed
via mass media, as are public service announcements and emergency
alerts.
Facilitators of CommunicationIn any communication model, noise
is interference with the decoding of messages sent over a channel
by an encoder. Facilitators are the opposite of noise:Environmental
Factors: working channels and mediums quiet access to channels and
mediumsPhysiological Factors: 20/20 vision Good hearing Use of
facilitative devices (braille, hearing aids) Sobriety Intelligence
HealthSemantic Factors: Knowledge of words (wide vocabulary)
Fluency in a language Correct register (appropriate use of
language)Syntactical Factors: Use of the Standard (English)
language Knowledge of grammar, syntax(sentence structure),
pronunciation Organizational Factors: Accuracy of information from
each source Timeliness of information Sharing of information with
all relevant parties Use of appropriate channels/mediumsCultural
Factors: Relevant cultural knowledge Diplomacy
ObservationPsychological Factors: Emotional equilibrium Objectivity
Sensitivity
Barriers (Communication Noise)In any communication model, noise
is interference with the decoding of messages sent over a channel
by an encoder. There are many examples of noise:Environmental
Noise: Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as
standing next to loud speakers at a party, or the noise from a
construction site next to a classroom making it difficult to hear
the professor.Physiological-Impairment Noise: Physical maladies
that prevent effective communication, such as actual deafness or
blindness preventing messages from being received as they were
intended.Semantic Noise: Different interpretations of the meanings
of certain words. For example, the word "weed" can be interpreted
as an undesirable plant in your yard, or as a euphemism for
marijuana.Syntactical Noise: Mistakes in grammar can disrupt
communication, such as abrupt changes in verb tense during a
sentence.Organizational Noise: Poorly structured communication can
prevent the receiver from accurate interpretation. For example,
unclear and badly stated directions can make the receiver even more
lost.Cultural Noise: Stereotypical assumptions can cause
misunderstandings, such as unintentionally offending Jews by
wishing them a "Merry Christmas."Psychological Noise: Certain
attitudes can also make communication difficult. For instance,
great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the
present moment. Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper
effective communication.
Forms of CommunicationHumans need to communicate because we are
social creatures by nature. There is a certain need to communicate.
Once we have decided to communicate with someone, our next step is
to use symbols to encode our ideas.You must then transfer ideas
into a symbol system, or code known to both you and your receiver,
and then hope that the receiver will decode, or translate the
symbols correctly.Verbal (Speech, Writing) Symbols
Words are language symbols. They are also called verbal symbols.
Language is a medium of exchange for ideas.
Nonverbal Symbols
These include all the ways you encode your ideas without words.
You can smile, nod, or tap your feet. OcculesicsOur eyes
communicate in ways other than facial expressions. Looking,
staring, and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviours.
When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of
blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can
indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest, and
attraction.
Kinesics (Facial and body motions)One nonverbal symbol is
kinesics, which is the use of facial or body motions to
communicate. Examples of kinesics is rolling one's eyes, frowning,
staring, laughing, gesturing, crossing one's legs, or any similar
body movement. Facial expressions (sticking out the tongue, yawning
sniffing raising of eyebrows and frowning, turning up of mouth) are
responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication.
Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a
frown. While non-verbal communication and behaviour can vary
dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for
happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the
world. Deliberate movements and signals (gestures) are an important
way to communicate meaning without words. Common gestures include
waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate number amounts.
Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
Proxemics is the study of spatial communication to communicate.
An example would be good friends sitting or standing closer to each
other rather than a new acquaintance. People often refer to their
need for personal space, which is also an important type of
nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the
amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a
number of factors including social norms, situational factors,
personality characteristics, and level of familiarity. For example,
the amount of personal space needed when having a casual
conversation with another person usually varies between 18 inches
to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when
speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.
Paralanguage refers to vocal communication that is separate from
actual language. This includes factors such as tone of voice,
loudness, inflection, and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that
tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a
strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval and
enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might
convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
Volume indicates how loudly or softly you are speaking.Pitch
(tenor) is how high or low the sounds of your voice are.Speaking
rate is how fast or slow you are speaking.Voice quality (Clarity)
is what makes people able to recognize your voice alone, and makes
people understand what you are saying.
HapticsCommunicating through touch is another important
nonverbal behaviour. There has been a substantial amount of
research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood.
Harry Harlows classic monkey study demonstrated how the deprivation
of touch and contact impedes development. Baby monkeys raised by
wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behaviour and social
interaction. (pat on the back, shaking of hands, hugging and
holding hands, rubbing ones head, caressing )
Artefacts Our choice of colours, clothing & accessaries,
hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also
considered a means of nonverbal communication. A police uniform, a
soldier uniform, a suit all provides nonverbal communication. The
same is true of the wardrobe of someone who is homeless and
unkempt. Research on colour psychology has demonstrated that
different colours can invoke different moods. Appearance can also
alter physiological reactions, judgment, and interpretations.
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal
communication; the way that one perceives and values time,
structures time and reacts to time frames communication. Across
cultures, time perception plays a large role in the nonverbal
communication process. It is important to be aware of the use of
time in communication. Effective public speaking and interviewing
are impacted by chronemics.
Graphic elements Pictures can convey certain information more
efficiently than words and are more easily read by some persons
than words. Verbal information can be supplemented with icons,
avatars and similar pictorial types of nonverbal communication.
Also much factual information can be through tables charts and
diagrams.
Communication ContextsThese are:1. Intrapersonal2.
Interpersonal3. Small group4. Organizational5. Academic6. Public7.
Intercultural8. Mass-Mediated9. Computer-MediatedCommunication
Contexts The communication contexts are the environment and
circumstances between the participants that are communicating. Here
is a story example of Sean to explain each context. The first is
intrapersonal communication. Intrapersonal communication is
communication in which there is one person. Sean may notice that
the local community Arts Center is falling into a state of
disrepair. As a musician, Sean may think to himself that the Arts
Center is vital to the well-being of the community and seeing the
poor shape of the building, Sean may think about taking up the
issue with the Community Council. Sean may think to himself about
the issue and when he mentions it to his roommate, Steve, there is
interpersonal communication, which is communication between two
people. Intrapersonal and interpersonal communication look alike,
but they are very different in that one is self-addresses (intra)
whereas the other in between two people (inter). Many scholars
recognize that communication begins with two people, which is
called a dyad, and not with one person, which is seen as an
interest to psychology and not to communication. Others believe
that Sean can debate whether or not to support the Arts Center by
himself and consider this important for communication studies. That
is, the debate is within one person but between two positions. Sean
and Steve both believe that the Arts Center is a really great idea,
but they do not have enough time between the two of them. They may
enlist some other friendsKevin, Mishka and Cara. When they all sit
down and discuss the Arts Center they are engaging in small-group
communication. In small group communication there is at least three
individuals and can range up to twelve. While there is at least
three, any less would be a dyad, the maximum number is defined by
the ability of all those involved to contribute regularly to the
discussion. Groups are usually task based whereas dyads are
relationally based (e.g., platonic/romantic). The more members of a
group there are, the more ideas and different perspectives can be
explored. Sean and all his friends all like the idea of rebuilding
the Arts Center, but he has to go to work at the music store
downtown. Sean goes off to work and talks to his coworkers and his
manager about starting a petition about the Arts Center. Sean was
so excited, he even wanted to tell the chief executive officer
(CEO) of the company, but he cannot. The business that he works at
is very large and the organizations home office is on the other
side of the country. Sean cannot just go into the CEOs office and
talk about a local Arts Center. The CEO is too busy making
decisions and sitting in conferences, which can be a type of small
group. Sean may decide to write an essay or research paper for his
workplace about the value of an Arts Centre. This would be academic
communication.Sean can, in addition, tell his supervisor directly
over him who can then tell the area manager, who can in turn tell
the district manager and eventually the message, if its important
enough, can get to the CEO. The national CEO would not need to
approve Seans use of the store to get people to sign a petition.
That decision may be made by the local or regional manager. That
is, the message would not get very high in the chain of command. On
the other hand, the CEO can send messages down through the chain of
command. For example, if the CEO of a company wants to implement a
change in the way the records are displayed, then that message
would be handed down through high-level managers to low-level
managers until the message was received by the workers who would be
affected by the change. This context in which messages go up and
down hierarchies is called organizational communication. If Sean
and his friends were highly successful in the efforts to rebuild
the Arts Center they may decide to operate their own organization
to build art centers throughout the world. They visit other
cultures and do research, they will find four major dichotomies:
individual and collective; high and low context, high and low power
distance; and feminine and masculine, which are the basic concepts
of intercultural communication, which is communication between
(inter) cultures. Individual oriented cultures focus on the
individual whereas a collective culture focuses on the communitys
interests. In high context cultures, meaning is in the setting and
therefore meaning is communicated implicitly whereas in low context
cultures, the emphasis is on the spoken word and meaning is
explicit. High and low power distance differ in that the former
values such things as birth order and occupation and in low power
distance cultures, everyone is considered equal. Lastly, is
feminine and masculine, which is different from woman and man.
Feminine traits generally focus on nurturing whereas masculine
traits refer to assertiveness and competitiveness. Importantly, a
man can be nurturing just as a woman can be assertive. But if Sean
and his friends all just focus on their local Arts Center, they may
go to the library and uncover information about the citys budget
and the value of art to a community. He then arranges the
information so that the speech flows nicely. Next, he memorizes the
speech although he does not need to memorize the speech
word-for-word. He might compose some stylistic elements of the
speech, which he memorizes exactly but may not memorize other
lesser elements. Finally, he practices his delivery to get the most
out of it. These are the elements in the context of public
communication. Sean may have given his speech outside the Arts
Center, but many people were not around to hear it. He decides that
he will send a press release to the local television and radio
outlets that announce the date and time of his next speech. This
causes the outlets to come and record the speech and broadcast it.
Sean is now in the mass-mediated context. The difference between
the Seans public speaking and the broadcast of Sean speaking is
very important. In the public speaking context, Sean can see his
audience. In the mass-mediated context, Sean cannot see his
audience. The difference is slim but substantial. When Sean can see
the audience, he can change his speaking style to reflect the
audience. If the crowd is complacent, he can energize them; if they
are cheering, he can become louder or wait until they are done. If
he does not know the reactions of his audience, then he cannot do
this. Watching great speakers like Martin Luther King Jr. speak
show how reacting to the audience can do wonders for a speech. The
last context is the computer-mediated context. As its name suggests
it is communication mediated through computer technology especially
through the use of the Internet. Some people may record Seans
speech with their digital cameras and place it online. Whereas
mass-mediated communication only broadcast Seans speech to the
local community, the computer-mediated context allows anyone with
an Internet connection to view the speech. Thus, one of the major
differences between mass communication and computer communication
is the latters ability to transcend geographic limitations. That
is, with computer-mediated communication, people in India,
Luxemburg, or Samoa can view Seans speech. Not only can they view
the speech but they can also offer comments and make their own
videos responding to Seans. Some may argue that mass communication
can transcend geographical boundaries too. While they can to a
certain degree, computer-mediated communication is far superior.
You local television affiliate broadcasts news to your local
community, the national news networks broadcast to the country.
Some of these national networks are picked up around the worldjust
like Americans can watch the British news from the BBC on public
television. These are examples of mass-communication transcending
boundaries, but do you ever see local Barbadian news aired in
America? Have you ever seen the local news from a town in any
country in Africa? China? Russia? Probably not! Have you ever
watched videos on YouTube.com from Africa, China, or Russia?
Probably you have! And these videos do carry the extremely local
newsthe events at school or in the neighborhood and these events
that the local news would not broadcast to the area can be posted
for the entire world to watch. ACA Public Speaking Online
Guide:http://www.textcommons.org/node/99
The Purpose/Function of Non-Verbal Communication
Substituting : the use of movements to replace words
Nodding yesRaise of hand to indicate wait or stop
Reinforcing: the use of movements to complement/reinforce your
verbal sounds
ShruggingApplauding
Regulating: movements that keep the flow of interaction
orderly
Inclining of headNoddingHand gesture
Contradicting: the use of paralanguage and facial expressions to
oppose your verbal message, or deceive your audience
sarcasmsmile instead of a yawnmaintaining eye contact
Managing Impressions: the use of artefacts to create and control
how others perceive you
ClothingCars JewelleryBrands Cell phones
Establishing Relationships: the use of proxemics or artefacts to
establish or reveal a relationship
An engagement ring, identity braceletHuggingHolding hands
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