Communication Studio 3 Publication

STEAL FROM YOUR MOTHERAn Illustrated Publication By James Alworth

WORTH IT PUBLICATIONSPresident and Publisher:

James Alworth

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Lane KinkadeEmi Tiramisu

Joey MannchildAlen Catolico

ASSOCIATE ART DIRECTORS

Lane KinkadeEmi Tiramisu

Joey MannchildAlen Catolico

Natalia Konovalovaonovalova

Printed byM&M PRINTING

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 99-0787432

ISBN 1-886578-78-2

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Copyright © 2011WORTH IT PUBLICATIONS, INC.

All rights reserved.

STEAL FROM YOUR MOTHERAn Illustrated Publication By James Alworth

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 / page 10Wave Patterns

Chapter 2 / page 22Fungal Patterns

Chapter 3 / page 34Snowflake Patterns

Chapter 4 / page 46Bamboo Patterns

Chapter / page 58Urchin Patterns

INTRODUCTION

The natural world in all its glory has a myriad of examples for us to photograph but we can start with the common things that we tend to overlook. Simply because of their familiar-ity they offer the very best opportunity for observation. Here we can find patterns in nature that can be circular, linear and random or indeed a combination of all three. Sometimes they are obvious and sometimes they require a little effort and imagination to search out. Nature is full of patterns that interact and play off of each other that are well worth seeing.

They offer a different view on our world, that if we are honest, with our ever-increasing hectic lifestyle we often take for granted. With a discerning eye for detail, pattern and colour we can look at any natural object as simply a series of shapes composed of lines, curves and circles. Then consider ways in which these shapes and patterns relate with one another. Often it is this interaction that provides such a rich and diverse array of patterns that can satisfy even the most inquisitive amongst us and provide the opportunity for unique photo subjects. nature-patterns.Finding patterns in nature is not all that difficult. Though to derive the most pleasure it requires an open mind, an almost childlike curiosity and imagination. Let us take for example the ubiquitous nasturtium that is so common in our summer gardens. It is such an attractive plant and yet one that is so often taken for granted. Why not find a little time to take a closer look and consider some of the intriguing patterns that are revealed.

In the case of the nasturtium leaf I see it resembling a wheel with the raised leaf veins representing the spokes radiating from the centre. It portrays a solid and unified structure. One that is not dissimilar to the mechanics of a spider’s web with all the components working together for each other. Furthermore the interplay of light can create further patterns, accentuating textures and other intricacies within the leaf adding more defini-tion to the subtleties and nuances contained therein. A similar pattern can also be found in a single rose. The rose has long been recognised as an emblem of simplicity and one of our most loved and beautiful flowers. The pattern emerges as the petals radiate spirally outwards from the centre and one is almost drawn into its glorious depths. With this power it is little wonder it is the flower of love.

Very often natural objects contain patterns within patterns that are only revealed by looking further and further into the subject. Indeed, nature is very generous and only too pleased to welcome us in to see all her glory. You can be assured that she will allow the very closest of inspections and will not disappoint. With this renewed awareness a simple nature photography walk takes on

new meaning. Just recently whilst walking on the beach I was at-tracted to the patterns of sand left behind as the water retreated down the beach with each wave. The patterns that were created suggest energy and motion reflecting both the fluidity and conti-nuity of the ebbing tide. This happens twice a day and has been doing so for countless years in the natural world but it is interest-ing that almost identical patterns can be found after each tide. I find this repetition intriguing as it shows a consistency throughout the ages. However, even though the patterns in nature may reoccur, the colours and reflections change dramatically with the changing light, time of day and weather conditions.

So even a visit to the same place will always provide something new and fresh to contemplate and challenge the mind.nature-patterns 3 Patterns are not only confined to small objects but are also there to be found in the grand scenic view and again it is the ability to really see that is all that is required. or straight and irregular are all combinations that reveal patterns. It is possible to find patterns in nature by simply isolating part of a larger scene. For example a lonely section of mountainside adorned with the golden flames of a single autumn tree can offer a very simple and often starkly dramatic pattern. Or it may be the randomly fallen leaves that decorate the woodland floor creating an abstract pattern whilst golden shafts of sunlight penetrate through the wooded canopy above to enhance their beauty.

There are also many patterns within the world’s fauna; a giraffe or zebra for example clearly exhibit very striking patterns. In these examples there are patterns with a purpose namely for camou-flage and defence. Closer to home, however, a simple feather can show wonderful linear patterns with the shaft, barb and barbules and their interlocking hooks combining together to provide both strength and flexibility. In particular the feathers of the much-maligned magpie have an iridescent sheen and offer wonderful colours to enhance the strong diagonal pattern.

So, with renewed vision and childlike wonder the natural world is without doubt a beautiful place that only requires time and an inquisitive mind to fully appreciate. With all the negatives that abound it is reassuring to know that satisfaction and contentment can be provided by the most simple of things.

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Chapter 1 Wave Patterns

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Wave PATTERNS


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The ocean surface is in continual motion. Waves are the result of disturbance of the water surface; waves themselves represent a restoring force to calm the surface. The standard example is the rock-in-the-pond scenario. The rock provides the disturbing force, and generates waves that radiate outward, eventually los-ing their momentum and dissipating their energy so that the pond returns to calm.

Characteristics of Waves

Wave characteristics include a crest at the top and a trough at the bottom. The difference in elevation be-tween the crests and trough is the wave height. The distance between the crest or the troughs of waves is termed the wavelength. The ratio of wave height to wavelength is the wave’s steepness.

A cohesive force, termed capillarity, holds the water molecules of the ocean surface together, allowing insects and debris to be supported. Capillarity is the initial restoring force for any body of water. The major disturbing force in the open ocean is wind. As winds begin to blow across the surface, they create pressure and stress. Small, rounded waves, called capillary waves, begin to form. These “ripples” have very short wavelengths, less than 1.74 centimeters (0.7 inch). For these small waves, capillarity is the restoring force that smoothes the surface.

As winds increase, capillary wave development increases and the sea surface becomes rough. This presents perfect conditions for the wind to catch more surface area of the wave, transferring increased energy to the water. As the young wave grows in height, gravity replaces capillarity as the restoring force, and the wave becomes a gravity wave with wavelengths exceeding 1.74 centimeters. These waves now exhibit the standard profile of a progres-sive wave.

Waves at the surface of the ocean and lakes are orbital progressive waves. This type of wave forms at the boundary of two liquids of different density, in this case air and water. The wave form moves forward with a steady velocity, so it is called “progressive.” The water itself moves very little: Like the crowd in

a football stadium doing “the wave,” individual particles of water move up and then down, but do not follow the moving wave form. The complete motion of the water particles is a circle, so that a small object floating on top of the wave actually describes a circle as the wave goes underneath it.Wave period is the length of time it takes for a wave to pass a fixed point (crest to crest). The speed of a wave is equal to the wavelength divided by the wave period. Wave steepness is defined as the ratio of the waveWaves with constant wavelength Waves touch bottom height to the wave length. When the wave builds and reaches a steepness greater than a ratio of 1:7, the wave breaks and spills forward. The wave has actually become too steep to support itself and gravity takes over. Break-ers are normally associated with shorelines, where they are known as surf, but can occur anywhere in the ocean.

The passage of a wave only affects the water down to the wave base, which is half the wave length. Below that depth there is negligible water movement. This is the part of the water column that submarines use for “clear sail-ing.” Waves in water deeper than half their wavelengths are known as deep water waves. Their speed in meters per second can be approximated by the equation Speed = gT/2π, where T is the wave period and g is the accel-eration due to gravity (9.8 meters per second squared).

Shallow water waves are those moving in water less than one-twentieth the depth of their wavelength. Waves approaching shallow water at a shoreline are in this category. In these waves, the orbits of water particles are flat ellipses rather than circles. Shallow water wave movements can be felt at the bottom, and their interac-tion with the bottom affects both wave and sea floor. Shallow water waves include both seismic sea waves (tsunamis) generated by earthquakes at sea, and tide waves generated by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun on the ocean. Both of these wave types have such long wavelengths that average ocean depths are easily less than one-twentieth that value. The speed of shallow water waves decreases as the water depth decreases; it is equal to 3.1 times the square root of depth. Transi-tional waves have wave lengths between 2 and 20 times the water depth; their speed is controlled in part by water depth and in part by wave period.As waves approach landmasses, the wave base begins

to contact the sea floor and the huge wave’s profile begins to change. This friction slows the circular orbital motion of the wave’s base, but the top continues at its original speed. In effect, the wave begins leaning forward on its approach to shore. When the wave’s steepness ratio reaches 1:7, the wave’s structure collapses on top of itself, forming a breaker.A spilling breaker is the classic rolling wave coming up a gradually sloping sandy beach. The long incline drains the energy of the wave over a large area.

A plunging breaker approaches a steeper beachfront and forms a curling crest that moves over a pocket of air. The curling water is traveling fasterThe classic curl of a breaking wave is associated world-wide with surfing. As a wave approaches shore, friction slows the bottom of the wave while allowing the top to continue moving, which causes the top to lean forward in this manner.The classic curl of a breaking wave is associated world-wide with surfing. As a wave approaches shore, friction slows the bottom of the wave while allowing the top to continue moving, which causes the top to lean forward in this manner.than the slowing wave base, and the water outruns itself with nothing beneath for support.

Along oceanfronts with steep inclines or cliffs, a wave’s energy is expelled in a very short distance, often with great force. These surging breakers develop and break right at the shoreline, proving dangerous and sometimes fatal to unsuspecting beachgoers. The tremendous energy dissipated at the ocean-level interface results in enormous erosion and deposition.Wave Refraction, Reflection, and Diffraction

Seldom do wave fronts approach the shore parallel to the beach. Rather, their direction of approach varies according to the prevailing winds and the contour of the oceanfront. As a wave approaches a straight shoreline at an angle, one part of the wave base may begin to feel the bottom first and begins to slow before the rest of the wave. This causes the wave crest to bend towards the shore, termed refraction, allowing waves to break more closely parallel to the beachfront than was their original direction. Along irregular shorelines, waves also refract, but tend to converge on headlands, causing erosion of

WAVE LIFE


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Shallow water wave movements can be felt at the bot-tom, and their interaction with the bottom affects both wave and sea floor. Shallow water waves include both seismic sea waves (tsunamis) generated by earthquakes at sea, and tide waves generated by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun on the ocean. Both of these wave types have such long wavelengths that average ocean depths are easily less than one-twentieth that value. The speed of shallow water waves decreases as the water depth decreases; it is equal to 3.1 times the square root of depth. Transitional waves have wave lengths between 2 and 20 times the water depth; their speed is controlled in part by water depth and in part by wave period.Breaking Waves.

As waves approach landmasses, the wave base begins to contact the sea floor and the wave’s profile begins to change. This friction slows the circular orbital motion of the wave’s base, but the top continues at its original speed. In effect, the wave begins leaning forward on its approach to shore. When the wave’s steepness ratio reaches 1:7, the wave’s structure collapses on top of itself, forming a breaker.

A spilling breaker is the classic rolling wave coming up a gradually sloping sandy beach. The long incline drains the energy of the wave over a large area.

A plunging breaker approaches a steeper beachfront and forms a curling crest that moves over a pocket of air. The curling water is traveling fasterThe classic curl of a breaking wave is associated world-wide with surfing. As a wave approaches shore, friction slows the bottom of the wave while allowing the top to continue moving, which causes the top to lean forward in this manner.The classic curl of a breaking wave is associated world-wide with surfing. As a wave approaches shore, friction slows the bottom of the wave while allowing the top to continue moving, which causes the top to lean forward in this manner.than the slowing wave base, and the water outruns itself with nothing beneath for support.

Along oceanfronts with steep inclines or cliffs, a wave’s energy is expelled in a very short distance, often with

great force. These surging breakers develop and break right at the shoreline, proving dangerous and sometimes fatal to unsuspecting beachgoers. The tremendous energy dissipated at the ocean-level interface results in enormous erosion and deposition. Wave Refraction, Reflection, and DiffractionSeldom do wave fronts approach the shore parallel to the beach. Rather, their direction of approach varies according to the prevailing winds and the contour of the oceanfront. As a wave approaches a straight shoreline at an angle, one part of the wave base may begin to feel the bottom first and begins to slow before the rest of the wave. This causes the wave crest to bend towards the shore, termed refraction, allowing waves to break more closely parallel to the beachfront than was their original direction. Along irregular shorelines, waves also refract, but tend to converge on headlands, causing erosion of sediments; they disperse in bays, causing deposition.

As waves contact the oceanfront, not all their energy is expelled. The wave will tend to reflect back to sea at an angle equal to its approach. The reflected waves may form wave interference patterns with the original incom-ing wave fronts.

Wave diffraction is the creation of a wave around an ob-stacle and depends on the interruption of the obstacle to provide a new point of departure for the wave. As waves approach a chain of islands, some of the approaching wave’s energy is directed through the spaces between the islands. These spaces serve as a starting point for new waves that spread across the ocean surface beyond the island chain.

Waves refract (bend) as they approach shallow water. Waves also can diffract (bend) around an obstacle, or re-flect (bounce back) when encountering a vertical barrier. Wave refraction patterns are visible in the shallow water to the left of this point, which is Point Udall in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.Waves refract (bend) as they approach shallow water. Waves also can diffract (bend) around an obstacle, or re-flect (bounce back) when encountering a vertical barrier. Wave refraction patterns are visible in the shallow water to the left of this point, which is Point Udall in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.

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waves with the longest wave lengths travel fastest; these large waves traveling away from a storm are called swell Swell waves are long-crested, uniformly symmetrical waves that have traveled outside the area of their origin. Swell waves expel little energy and travel vast areas of the ocean, fanning out from approaching storm systems. Wave dispersion begins to take effect and the swell waves becomes grouped by their wavelength. Waves with longer wavelengths travel faster and soon outrun the slower waves with shorter wavelengths. The long-wavelength waves do not have steep wave heights but move out of the generating area first, with wave groups of progressively shorter wavelengths following. This procession is termed a “swell wave train” and can travel long distances, breaking on distant shores.

As storm systems approach shore from far at sea, swell will begin to break, forming long, low rolling surf. Medium size swell follows with taller, curling breakers. As the storm system nears shore, the swell comes in high and fast with plunging breakers and crashing surf.Interference.

As swell wave trains fan out across the Earth’s oceans, waves from different storm systems will eventually meet and collide, causing interference and interesting wave behavior. When swell wave trains collide they can pro-duce several types of interference.

Constructive interference occurs when two swell wave trains have the same wavelength and they combine in-phase. There is no affect on wavelength, but wave height increases.

Destructive interference occurs when the wave crest of one swell combines with the wave trough of another. The energy from these swells cancels each other out .wwaves with the longest wave lengths travel fastest; these large waves traveling away from a storm are called swell Swell waves are long-crested, uniformly symmetrical waves that have traveled outside the area of their origin. Swell waves expel little energy and travel vast areas of the ocean, fanning out from approaching storm systems. Wave dispersion begins to take effect and the swell waves becomes grouped by their wavelength. Waves with longer wavelengths travel faster and soon

waves with the longest wave lengths travel fastest; these large waves traveling away from a storm are called swell Swell waves are long-crested, uniformly symmetrical waves that have traveled outside the area of their origin. Swell waves expel little energy and travel vast areas of the ocean, fanning out from approaching storm systems. Wave dispersion begins to take effect and the swell waves becomes grouped by their wavelength. Waves with longer wavelengths travel faster and soon outrun the slower waves with shorter wavelengths. The long-wavelength waves do not have steep wave heights but move out of the generating area first, with wave groups of progressively shorter wavelengths following. This procession is termed a “swell wave train” and can travel long distances, breaking on distant shores.

As storm systems approach shore from far at sea, swell will begin to break, forming long, low rolling surf. Medium size swell follows with taller, curling breakers. As the storm system nears shore, the swell comes in high and fast with plunging breakers and crashing surf.Interference.

As swell wave trains fan out across the Earth’s oceans, waves from different storm systems will eventually meet and collide, causing interference and interesting wave behavior. When swell wave trains collide they can pro-duce several types of interference.

Constructive interference occurs when two swell wave trains have the same wavelength and they combine in-phase. There is no affect on wavelength, but wave height increases.

Destructive interference occurs when the wave crest of one swell combines with the wave trough of another. The energy from these swells cancels each other out .w

Formation of Waves at Sea

Most waves are formed by wind, usually by storm sys-tems. Unlike storm systems that are observed over land, ocean storm systems can be quite large, some exceeding 805 kilometers (500 miles) in diameter. These systems break up as they approach land, but over the ocean there is little to affect them. The wind transfers its energy to the water through wave-building directly under the storm sys-tem in an area of mixed wave types simply termed “sea.” Factors that affect the amount of energy transferred to the waves depend on wind speed, the duration of time the wind blows in one direction, and the “fetch,” the distance over which the wind blows in one direction.

Sea-wave heights determine the amount of energy transferred. Normal sea-wave heights average less than 2 meters (6.6 feet) but have been observed reaching 10 meters (33 feet.) Once the wave steepness reaches the critical 1:7 ratio of wave height to wavelength, the wave breaks and openocean breakers are formed, termed whitecaps.

At a given wind speed, there is a maximum wind duration and fetch which allow the waves to be fully developed. This “fully developed sea” is in equilibrium and is defined as the maximum size to which waves can grow under given conditions of wind speed, duration, and fetch. At this point, the waves of a fully developed sea will gain as much energy from the wind as they lose to gravity as breaking whitecaps.Storm-Generated Waves: Swell

The most intense wave generating activity is where the winds are strongest, directly under the storm system. As waves radiate out from the center, theEvidence of wave action is seen in these giant sand-waves as viewed from a helicopter during a Lidar survey off Florida’s coast. Lidar is an acronym for light detection and ranging.Evidence of wave action is seen in these giant sand-waves as viewed from a helicopter during a Lidar survey off Florida’s coast. Lidar is an acronym for light detection and ranging.winds decrease near the margins of the storm system. The waves soon begin to outpace the wind speeds;


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Rivers/Waterfalls

In the flow of rivers, the source is a branching structure connecting to a

central and larger flow of water. Here, the shape

of the land , a context called geomorphology,

provides a structural template

form that shapes the flow of water. But,

then the river path in the terrain becomes shaped by the dynamic

flow function of water and other ecological processes.Form and function become interrelated.

Through the interplay of form and function, a pattern in nature is

formed. Running water ecosystems illustrate several

principles governing the interaction of landscape form

and ecological function sometimes called “functional ecomorphology”. Of particular note are ecosystem-

level interactions between geologic form and biog eochemical

processes integrated by the flow

of water.


1716

RIVERS/WATERFALLS

In the flow of rivers, the source is a branching structure connecting to a

central and larger flow of water. Here, the shape

of the land , a context called geomorphology,

provides a structural template

(form) that shapes the flow of water. But,

then the river path in the terrain becomes shaped by the dynamic

flow (function) of water and other ecological processes.Form and function become interrelated.

Through the interplay of form and function, a pattern in nature is

formed. Running water ecosystems illustrate several

principles governing the interaction of landscape form

and ecological function sometimes called “functional ecomorphology”. Of particular note are ecosystem-

level interactions between geologic form and biog eochemical

processes integrated by the flow

of water.

Tumbling cascades,Crashing upon moss-strewn rocks,

Glinting in the sun.


1918

sediments; they disperse in bays, causing deposition.

As waves contact the oceanfront, not all their energy is expelled. The wave will tend to reflect back to sea at an angle equal to its approach. The reflected waves may form wave interference patterns with the original incom-ing wave fronts.

Wave diffraction is the creation of a wave around an ob-stacle and depends on the interruption of the obstacle to provide a new point of departure for the wave. As waves approach a chain of islands, some of the approaching wave’s energy is directed through the spaces between the islands. These spaces serve as a starting point for new waves that spread across the ocean surface beyond the island chain.

Waves refract (bend) as they approach shallow water. Waves also can diffract (bend) around an obstacle, or re-flect (bounce back) when encountering a vertical barrier. Wave refraction patterns are visible in the shallow water to the left of this point, which is Point Udall in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.Waves refract (bend) as they approach shallow water. Waves also can diffract (bend) around an obstacle, or re-flect (bounce back) when encountering a vertical barrier. Wave refraction patterns are visible in the shallow water to the left of this point, which is Point Udall in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.Formation of Waves at Sea

Most waves are formed by wind, usually by storm systems. Unlike storm systems that are observed over land, ocean storm systems can be quite large, some exceeding 805 kilometers (500 miles) in diameter. These systems break up as they approach land, but over the ocean there is little to affect them. The wind transfers its energy to the water through wave-building directly under the storm system in an area of mixed wave types simply termed “sea.” Factors that affect the amount of energy transferred to the waves depend on wind speed, the duration of time the wind blows in one direction, and the “fetch,” the distance over which the wind blows in one direction.

Sea-wave heights determine the amount of energy transferred. Normal sea-wave heights average less than

2 meters (6.6 feet) but have been observed reaching 10 meters (33 feet.) Once the wave steepness reaches the critical 1:7 ratio of wave height to wavelength, the wave breaks and openocean breakers are formed, termed whitecaps.

At a given wind speed, there is a maximum wind duration and fetch which allow the waves to be fully developed. This “fully developed sea” is in equilibrium and is defined as the maximum size to which waves can grow under given conditions of wind speed, duration, and fetch. At this point, the waves of a fully developed sea will gain as much energy from the wind as they lose to gravity as breaking whitecaps.Storm-Generated Waves: Swell

The most intense wave generating activity is where the winds are strongest, directly under the storm system. As waves radiate out from the center, theEvidence of wave action is seen in these giant sand-waves as viewed from a helicopter during a Lidar survey off Florida’s coast. Lidar is an acronym for light detection and ranging.Evidence of wave action is seen in these giant sand-waves as viewed from a helicopter during a Lidar survey off Florida’s coast. Lidar is an acronym for light detection and ranging.winds decrease near the margins of the storm system. The waves soon begin to outpace the wind speeds; waves with the longest wave lengths travel fastest; these large waves traveling away from a storm are called swell.

Swell waves are long-crested, uniformly symmetrical waves that have traveled outside the area of their origin. Swell waves expel little energy and travel vast areas of the ocean, fanning out from approaching storm systems. Wave dispersion begins to take effect and the swell waves becomes grouped by their wavelength. Waves with longer wavelengths travel faster and soon outrun the slower waves with shorter wavelengths. The long-wavelength waves do not have steep wave heights but move out of the generating area first, with wave groups of progressively shorter wavelengths following. This procession is termed a “swell wave train” and can travel long distances, breaking on distant shores.

As storm systems approach shore from far at sea, swell

http://www.heatingoil.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/wave-power-


1918

will begin to break, forming long, low rolling surf. Medium size swell follows with taller, curling breakers. As the storm system nears shore, the swell comes in high and fast with plunging breakers and crashing surf.Interference.

As swell wave trains fan out across the Earth’s oceans, waves from different storm systems will eventually meet and collide, causing interference and interesting wave be-havior. When swell wave trains collide they can produce several types of interference.

Constructive interference occurs when two swell wave trains have the same wavelength and they combine in-phase. There is no affect on wavelength, but wave height increases

Destructive interference occurs when the wave crest of one swell combines with the wave trough of another. The energy from these swells cancels each other out and the surface becomes calmer.

Commonly, however, swell wave trains combine in mixed interference, producing unpredictable and complex wave patterns and heights. This type of interference may pro-duce rogue waves, extremely large unpredictable waves that can be very dangerous to ships.

On rare occurrences in the open ocean, an unusually large wave may develop. These rogue waves are mas-sive, single waves that can reach extreme heights of 15 to 30 meters (50 to 100 feet) or more. It is believed that one cause for rogue waves is overlap of multiple waves that produce an extremely large wave; they tend to oc-cur most frequently downwind of islands and shoals. If storm winds push waves against a strong ocean current, rogue waves can develop. In the Agulhas Current off the southeastern coast of Africa, Antarctic storms push waves northeast into the oncoming current. Rogue waves have destroyed many ships in this region, capsizing them, smashing bow or stern, or lifting them amidships to snap the keel.

Internal waves are disturbances that occur at the bound-ary between two water masses of different density. The wave heights can be quite large, sometimes exceeding

100 meters (330 feet) and may be formed by tidal move-ment, turbidity currents, wind stress, or passing ships. The surface expression of the waves is minimal, but if the crests approach the surface they affect the reflection of light from the water. Excellent photographs of internal waves have been taken from the space shuttle. As internal waves approach a landmass, they build up and expend their energy as turbulent currents.Kelvin Waves.

Kelvin waves in the western Pacific Ocean are internal waves that form near Indonesia and travel east toward the Americas whenever the west-to-east trade winds diminish. A typical Kelvin wave is 10 centimeters high, hundreds of kilometers wide, and a few degrees warmer than surrounding waters. Scientists pay careful attention to these Kelvin waves because they may be precursors of the next El Niño.Tsunamis (Seismic Sea Waves).

Seismic waves are formed when a severe shock such as an earthquake affects the ocean. The largest seismic sea wake known from geologic history is the one created by the impact of the K-T meteor 65 million years ago. The 10-mile-wide asteroid hit Earth at 72,000 kilometers (45,000 miles) per hour and created a wave estimated to be 914 meters (3,000 feet) high that traveled throughout Earth’s oceans. Seismic waves are also referred to as tsunamis, their Japanese name. Sometimes they are incorrectly called tidal waves; they are not associated with the tides.

Tsunamis typically have wave lengths of 200km, which makes them shallow water waves even in the ocean. They travel extremely fast in open water, 700 km/h (435 m/h). These waves have insignificant wave heights at sea, but in shallow coastal waters they can exceed 30m (100 ft). They may travel thousands of kilometers across the ocean nearly unnoticed until they reach land. Earthquakes in the Aleutian Trench regularly send large seismic waves across the Pacific Ocean, affecting Ha-waii and the coastlines of the North Pacific Ocean.Seiche Waves.

The seiche phenomenon relates to the rocking of water in a confined space at a resonant frequency. When disturbed, water in a pan, bathtub, lake, harbor, or ocean

basin will slosh back and forth at a particular resonant frequency. The frequency will alter with changes in the amount of water and the size and shape of the confined space. This is one type of standing wave rather than a moving progressive wave. Seiche wave periods can last for a few minutes to more than a day and have extremely long wavelengths. Even so, damage from seiche waves is rare because wave height in the open ocean generally is only a few inches.

Large waves generated by hurricanes and other natural events can wreak havoc along the coast and cause flood-ing far from shore. Despite the sometimes spectacular damage caused along the coast, inland flooding causes approximately half of the hurricane-related deaths in the United States. These boats in a marina were tossed about by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, whose storm surge inundated areas from the northwestern Bahamas, through the southern Florida peninsula, up to the coast of Louisiana.Large waves generated by hurricanes and other natural events can wreak havoc along the coast and cause flood-ing far from shore. Despite the sometimes spectacular damage caused along the coast, inland flooding causes approximately half of the hurricane-related deaths in the United States. These boats in a marina were tossed about by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, whose storm surge inundated areas from the northwestern Bahamas, through the southern Florida peninsula, up to the coast of Louisiana.Storm Surge.

Another phenomenon, storm surge, is associated with weather and is very dangerous. The air pressure over a section of the ocean affects the sea level. Sea level under a strong high-pressure system is pushed downward to a level several centimeters below normal sea level. Conversely, under an area of extreme low pressure, such as a hurricane or tropical storm, a mound of water develops and is pushed along by the storm front. As the storm system approaches land, the mound of seawater becomes a mass of wind-driven, elevated water, usually associated with large storm waves.

Storm surges are most dangerous when they coincide with high tides. They are responsible for the majority of flooding and destruction associated with hurricanes.


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Chapter 2 FungalPatterns

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FungalPATTERNS


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Dr. Wheelwright contributed the fungal pattern to Sclerology in 1974. When fungus proliferation is the primary stress on a tissue, it can register as faint, feath-ery, wispy, disorganized lines in the affected area. Even so, the fungus markings only appear in the sclera for a few days or weeks and then change into an organized pattern such as a “Y” line or a “pocket line with a faint pinkish hue” as the body defines and attempts to limit fungal expression. [Examples of this pattern are taught in the International Sclerology Institute’s Art & Science of Sclerology Certification Course. See: www.sclerology-institute.org for more information.]

Thus, the opportunity to specifically pinpoint fungus by a line or marking in the sclera is extremely remote. While many people have fungal challenges affecting their health, the fungal involvement is not the primary stress pattern in the tissue. It is only a contributing stress and is often preceded by 1) constitutional weakness, 2) toxic terrain such as heavy metal accumulation, 3) pH imbal-ance; and accompanied by 4) bacteria, 5) parasites, and 6) viral involvements. These other contributors also exert a stress-registration in the sclera. Thus, the fungal stress is but one of several stressors that are reflected and registered as a particular stress pattern in the sclera.

In 20-years of clinical practice, I have seen five cases of true fungal lines appearing in the sclera. These were not people with a little candida overgrowth. Three were in a hospice situation, one was a medically-diagnosed fungus in a diabetic due to have an amputation, and one was in a patient with a lung disease. These were people whose lives were being threatened by a pathogenic fungal challenge.

For example, a 64-year old lady from South Texas was medically diagnosed with a rare fungal proliferation in her lungs. The fungus was resistant to drugs and her doctors were concerned that it would soon take her life.

The sclera revealed a large pocket in the lung zone encompassing 8:45 to 10:30 in her right sclera, as well as a smaller complimentary pocket in the left sclera. In these pocketed areas were the faint, feathery wisp mark-ings that Dr. Wheelwright discovered were reflective of a primary fungal offensive.

From a treatment perspective, I knew that it would be fruitless to “attack” fungus as the medical model did. If the fungus was resistant to powerful drugs, it would probably also be resistant to anti-fungal herbs. As a Naturopath, I knew the secret to winning this case and her life was to 1) change the terrain, 2) strengthen the immune system’s response, as well as 3) inhibit the fungal activity to hasten the results. This was done with classical homeopathy and three of Dr. Wheelwright’s bio-energetic herbal formulas. Here I saw the incredible beauty of Sclerology combined with the laws of natural cure.

So the point here is, if you do see the true fungal mark-ings in the sclera, you are dealing with a life and death situation. Otherwise, to evaluate that fungus is a con-cern or should be addressed in a treatment program, the Sclerologist must look at the whole picture in both the eyes and find the syndrome. Then, an anti-fungal program will benefit the patient and the practitioner can avoid putting people on anti-fungal programs and finding that the case was not cured.

The Fungus Syndrome

So, let’s look deeper at how fungus affects people and undermines their health, and how we can use Sclerology to recognize this. Since it is highly unlikely we will ever see the true fungus registration in the sclera, let’s avoid the practice of the inexperienced health practitioner and blame everything on fungus or candida. Such specious “diagnosing” has already brought much discredit to the natural health movement. Instead, let’s learn how to look at the whole picture, and like a smart detective, discover when fungus or candida is truly a predisposing condition and a treatment priority.

Fungus is most often a systemic condition. Candida (yeast overgrowth that converts to fungal pathogens) in the bowel is a systemic concern as it can effect the immune system and its by-products can cross the blood/brain barrier. Even external athlete’s foot fungus is a symptom that the immune system is not address-ing fungal pathogens adequately. [The book, Conquer Candida and Restore Your Immune System provides a questionnaire based on lifestyle and symptoms to help determine if candida and fungus are primary concerns.

More information at apple-a-daypress.com.

Fungus will become involved in the tissues that have a favorable terrain for its proliferation. Thus a tissue that is weak due to constitutional reasons, injury, congestion, accumulation of heavy metals and metabolic wastes, will be susceptible to fungus and other pathogens such as bacteria, virus, and parasites. The susceptibility appears first and establishes a line or marking in the sclera, or establishes the bio-energetic matrix in the sclera for a line to easily form.

Thus, once the constitutional stress-pattern is made evident by a certain line in the sclera, other opportunis-tic stressors such as bacteria or fungus, will generally “tag along” on the pre-existing line and not register a separately unique line configuration. If the unique fungal pattern emerges, the concern is great as it actually overrides the prior stress pattern. The same is true of a bacterial stress pattern where a simple lung line changes into a high stress pattern such as bronchitis.

Generally, when a fungus affects a susceptible tissue, it further stresses that already-weakened tissue. The fungus is doing its job according to the terrain that al-lowed it to proliferate, but its waste products are causing greater concern. This most often results in 1) the already-existing line registering a greater stress by darkening, 2) a “secondary stress line” evolving, or 3) an additional “Y” fork line developing. Thus most of the time, fungus involvement (or other pathogens) is a reason that a “simple stress line” evolves into a medium or high stress line thus revealing a greater degree of stress. So, fungal involvement is not a new, uniquely distinguishable line, just an elevation of the existing stress pattern.

Further, fungus stress is similar to the effects of bacteria and other parasites and often all three are involved together in a less than optimal terrain. They all feed off debris and excrete waste. Sometimes they feed off the tissue. So an inexperienced Sclerologist could easily assign the wrong name to the stress pattern and make a specious diagnosis by erroneously claiming "fungus" when really it is bacteria, general toxicity, micro-parasites, alkalosis, or a combination of concerns.

Fungus does have a unique vibratory characteristic – a

FUNGUS


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http://museumca.org/files/exhibitions/7/Red_Fungus.jpg

step above virus and a step below bacteria, so we might assume it could have a unique registration in the sclera. But since the real issues are 1) a weak immune system, 2) a favorable terrain, and 3) toxic by-products; the Sclerologist must look at a syndrome of markings, not a special line. This syndrome includes the thymus zone (immune stress registration), intestinal dysbiosis and pH imbalance (both terrain registrations), and the effects of fungal toxicity on the lymphatic system and liver (effects of toxic by-products). In natural medicine, we treat causes, not effects if we are true to our craft. A practitioner who treats fungus is only treating an effect and would benefit people more by obtaining a deeper understanding of the natural healing arts.

Wheelwright once stated, “Finding a fungus-specific marking is a one-in-a-million registration of many wispy-squiggly lines in a tissue reflex zone. The markings only appear when the person is desperately ill. When the immune system is compromised almost to the point of death, fungus-specific markings can be seen. Fungus-specific markings are not seen in a person with a viable immune system, but that person still can have grave fungal concerns.” Thus the Sclerologist must learn how to determine fungus from looking at the whole chart, not just one line or zone.How to identify fungal involve-ment.So to evaluate "fungus involvement," instead looking for a "line" you must look for a syndrome - a group of markings. In addition to the three areas already mentioned, the patient's case history (such as prior use of antibiotics), lifestyle, and overt symptoms that spell "pathogenic involvement" will provide more insight.

This is why it is important to chart the eyes on one piece of paper, not just look at each eye or photos individually. To detect fungus, the Sclerologist must take in the whole chart. When a Sclerologist sees an immune-compromise marking (8:50 in the right eye), lymphatic congestion (right eye 8:00 – 9:00), spleen line (left eye, 4:45), dys-biosis pattern (both eyes, 6:00); then a strong stress line in a specific tissue such as the liver or lymphatic system takes on new meaning – a meaning that may include fungal concern.

Once this overview state is reached, the Sclerologist can then narrow down the possibilities to consider that pathogenic organisms, some of which are fungus, are

proliferating in the patient's terrain. Here, other modali-ties (such as kinesiology, electro-acupuncture, biological terrain analysis) may be helpful to quickly differentiate fungus.

Fortunately, Dr. Wheelwright developed herbal blends that many doctors find to be most effective in addressing fungus, bacteria, parasites and virus. [More information on Dr. Wheelwright’s herbology is at www.jacktips.com. Natural health practitioners can easily help their patients overcome the CAUSE of fungus by changing the terrain through natural therapies, as well as specifically helping the body rid itself of opportunistic pathogens.

Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are Basidiomyce-tes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflect-ing the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a spore print, is used to help classify mushrooms and can help to identify them. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and cream, but almost never blue, green, or red.[1]

While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identifica-tion are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era, combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycolo-gists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens. Chemical tests are also used for some genera.[2]

In general, identification to genus can often be ac-complished in the field using a local mushroom guide. Identification to species, however, requires more effort;


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one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identi-fication of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints. [edit] Clas-sificationTrametes versicolor, a polypore mushroom Main articles: Sporocarp (fungi), Basidiocarp, and Ascocarp

Typical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of the order Agaricales, whose type genus is Agaricus and type species is the field mushroom, Agaricus campestris. However, in modern molecularly-defined classifica-tions, not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are in the Cantharellales, false chanterelles like Gomphus are in the Gomphales, milk mushrooms (Lactarius) and russulas (Russula) as well as Lentinellus are in the Russulales, while the tough leathery genera Lentinus and Panus are among the Polyporales, but Neolentinus is in the Gloeophyllales, and the little pin-mushroom genus, Rickenella, along with similar genera, are in the Hymenochaetales. Within the main body of mushrooms,

in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom (Marasmius oreades), shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, fly agarics, and other amanitas, magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe, paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc.

An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored parasitized fruitbody of a Russula or Lactarius, colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic Ascomycete Hypomyces lactifluorum.[3]

Other mushrooms are not gilled and then the term “mushroom” is loosely used, so it is difficult to give a full account of their classifications. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called boletes), others have spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi, and so on. “Mushroom” has been used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup fungi. Thus, the term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. There are approximately 14,000 described species of mushrooms.[4][edit] Toadstools Amanita muscaria, the most easily recognised “toadstool”, is frequently depicted in fairy stories and on greeting cards. It is often associ-ated with gnomes.[5]The terms “mushroom” and “toadstool” go back centuries

and were never precisely defined, nor was there con-sensus on application. The term “toadstool” was often, but not exclusively, applied to poisonous mushrooms or to those that have the classic umbrella-like cap-and-stem form. Between 1400 and 1600 AD, the terms tadstoles, frogstooles, frogge stoles, tadstooles, tode stoles, toodys hatte, paddockstool, puddockstool, paddocstol, toadstoole, and paddockstooles sometimes were used synonymously with mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns.[6]

The word has apparent analogies in Dutch padde(n)stoel (toad-stool/chair, mushroom) and German Krötenschwamm (toad-fungus, alt. word for panther cap). Others have proposed a connection with German “Todesstuhl” (lit. “death’s chair”).[7] Since Tod is a direct cognate to death, in that case it would be a German borrowing. However, there is no common word akin to “Todesstuhl” used in German referring to mushrooms, poisonous or not.

The term “mushroom” and its variations may have been derived from the French word mousseron in reference to moss (mousse). The toadstool’s connection to toads may be direct, in reference to some species of poison-ous toad,[8] or may just be a case of phono-semantic matching from the German word.[9] However, there is


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FUNGUS

Fungi are ubiquitous and diverse; estimates of global fungal diversity range upward of 1.5 million species (Hawksworth, 2001, 2004). At a lo-

cal scale, fungal diversity has important consequences for plant communities and ecosystems (van der Heijden et al., 2008). For example, higher saprotrophic fungal diversity increases decomposition rates (Setala and McLean, 2004; Tiunov and

Scheu, 2005), and higher mycorrhizal richness incre -

ases plant diversity, ecosystem productivity

and nutrient capture (van der Heijden et al., 1998). Despite theirimportance for

ecosystems, few studies have considered

which factors generate and maintain fungal diversity.

In general, fungal diversity or composition is thought to be in-fluenced by nitrogen availability (Allison et al., 2007), resource supply (Waldrop et al., 2006), atmospheric CO2 concentration

(Klamer et al., 2002) and soil depth.


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Fungi are ubiquitous and diverse; estimates of global fungal diversity range upward of 1.5 million species (Hawksworth, 2001, 2004). At a lo-

cal scale, fungal diversity has important consequences for plant communities and ecosystems (van der Heijden et al., 2008). For example, higher saprotrophic fungal diversity increases decomposition rates (Setala and McLean, 2004; Tiunov and

Scheu, 2005), and higher mycorrhizal richness incre -

ases plant diversity, ecosystem productivity

and nutrient capture (van der Heijden et al., 1998). Despite theirimportance for

ecosystems, few studies have considered

which factors generate and maintain fungal diversity.

In general, fungal diversity or composition is thought to be in-fluenced by nitrogen availability (Allison et al., 2007), resource supply (Waldrop et al., 2006), atmospheric CO2 concentration

(Klamer et al., 2002) and soil depth. Humanity's use of mushrooms extends back to Paleolithic

times. Few people-even anthropologists-comprehend how influential mushrooms have been in affecting the course of human evolution. Mushrooms have played pivotal roles in ancient Greece, India and Mesoamerica. Try to their be-guiling nature, fungi have always elicited deep emotional responses: from adulation by those who understand them to outright fear by those who do not.

The historical record reveals that mushrooms have been used for less than benign purposes. Claudius II and Pope Clement VII war both killed by enemies who poisoned them with deadly Amanitas. Buddha died, according to legend, from a mushroom that grew underground. Bud-dha was given the mushroom by a peasant who believed it to be a delicacy. In ancient verse, that mushroom was linked to the phrase "pig's foot" but has never been identified. (Although truffles grow underground and pigs are used to find them, no deadly poisonous species are known.)

The oldest archaeological of mushroom use discovered so far is probably a Tassili image from a cave which dates back 3,500 years before the birth of Christ. The artist's intent is clear. Mushrooms with electrified auras are depicted outlining a dancing shaman. The spiritual inter-pretation of the image transcends time and is obvious. No wonder that word "bemushroomed" has evolved to reflect the devout mushroom lover's state of mind.

In the winter of 1991, hikers in the Italian Alps came across the well preserved remains of a man who died over 5,300 years ago, approximately 200 years later than the Tassili cave artist. Dubbed the "Iceman" by the news media, he was well equipped with a knapsack, flint axe, a string of dried Birch Polypores (Piptoporus betulinus) and another yet unidentified mushroom. The polypores can be used as tinder for starting fires and as medicine for treat-ing wounds. Further, a rich tea with immuno-enhancing properties can be prepared by boiling these mushrooms. Equipped for traversing the wilderness, this intrepid ad-venturer had discovered the value of the noble polypores. Even today, this knowledge can be life-saving for anyone astray in the wilderness.

Fear of mushroom poisoning pervades every culture, sometimes reaching phobic extremes. The term mycopho-

bic describes those individuals and cultures where fungi are looked upon with fear and loathing. Mycophobic cultures are epitomized by the English and Irish. In con-trast, mycophilic societies can be found throughout Asia and eastern Europe, especially amongst Polish, Russian and Italian peoples. These societies have enjoyed a long history of mushroom use, with as many as a hundred common names to describe the mushroom varieties they loved.

The use of mushrooms by diverse cultures was intensively studied by an investment banker named R. Gordon Wasson. His studies concentrated on the use of mushrooms by Mesoamerican, Russian, English, and Indian cultures. With the French mycologist, Dr. Roger Heim, Wasson published research on Psilocybe mush-rooms in Mesoamerica, and on Amanita mushrooms in Euro-Asia/Siberia. Wasson's studies spanned a lifetime marked by a passionate love for fungi. His publications include: Mushrooms, Russia, & History;The Wondrous Mushroom;Mycolatry in Mesoamerica;Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada;and Persephone's Quest: Entheogens and the Origins of Religion. More than any other individual of the 20th century, Wasson kindled inter-est in ethnomycology to its present state of intense study. Wasson died on Christmas Day in 1986.

One of Wasson's most provocative findings can be found in Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality (1976) where he postulated that the mysterious SOMA in the Vedic literature, a red fruit leading to spontaneous enlightenment for those who ingested it, was actually a mushroom. The Vedic symbolism carefully disguised its true identity: Amanita muscaria, the hallucinogenic Fly Agaric. Many cultures portray Amanita muscaria as the archetypal mushroom. Although some Vedic scholars disagree with his interpretation, Wasson's exhaustive research still stands. (See Brough (1971) and Wasson (1972)).Aristotle, Plato, and Sophocles all participated in religious ceremonies at Eleusis where an unusual temple honored Demeter, the Goddess of Earth. For over two milennia, thousands of pilgrims journeyed fourteen miles from Athens to Eleusis, paying the equivalent of a month's wage for the privilege of attending the annual ceremony. The pilgrims were ritually harassed on their journey to the temple, apparently in good humor.

http://gliving.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/magic-mushrooms-superfood-011.jpg


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no clear-cut delineation between edible and poisonous fungi, so that a “mushroom” may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. The term “toadstool” is nowadays used in storytelling when referring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The classic example of a toadstool is Ama-nita muscaria.[edit] Morphology manita jacksonii buttons emerging from their universal veilsAn image of the gills of Lactarius indigo.

A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primor-dium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a “button”. The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil and therefore do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often there is a second layer of tissue, the partial veil, covering the bladelike gills that bear spores. As the cap expands, the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of Amanita, collar-like as in many species of Lepiota, or merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus Cortinarius. Mushrooms that lack a partial veil do not form an annulus.[10]

The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center and/or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus. In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the polypores that form shelf-like brackets. Puffballs lack a stalk but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms, like truffles, jellies, earthstars, bird’s nests, usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts.

The way that gills attach to the top of the stalk is an impor-tant feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Lepiota and Pluteus, among

others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus. There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions.[11][edit] Microscopic featuresMorchella elata asci viewed with phase contrast micros-copy

A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the non-gilled mush-rooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes of boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota, spores develop within a microscopic elongated, saclike cell called an ascus, which typically contains eight spores. The Discomycetes—which contains the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi—develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surface of cup fungi or within the pits of morels. The Pyrenomycetes, tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter, decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute flask-shaped structures called perithecia, within which the asci develop.[12]Austroboletus mutabilis spores viewed using electron microscopy

In the Basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the tips of thin projections called sterigmata, which extend from a club-shaped cell called a basidium. The fertile por-tion of the Gasteromycetes, called a gleba, may become powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns. Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells called paraphyses. Similar structures called cystidia often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota. Many types of cystidia exist and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify the identification of a mushroom.[12]

The most important microscopic feature for identifica-tion of mushrooms is the spores themselves. Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to chemical tests often can be the crux of an identifica-tion. Spores often have a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which is the point of attachment to the basidium, termed the apical germ pore, from which the hypha emerges when the spore germinates.[12][edit] GrowthMushroom popping up through macadam in summer near Paris

Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear over-night, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the English language including “to mushroom” or “mushrooming” (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and “to pop up like a mushroom” (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In real-ity all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids.

The cultivated mushroom as well as the common field mushroom initially form a minute fruiting body, referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in the primordia.

Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms, like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), that literally appear overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall.[13] The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions bal-loon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. They “mushroom” to full size.

Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruitbodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. For ex-ample Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now critically endangered.[14]


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Chapter 3 Snowflake Patterns

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SnowflakePATTERNS


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In mountainous regions, topographic structure and veg-

etation control patterns of snow deposition, climate condi-

tions, and snowmelt. A topographically distributed snow

accumulation and melt model (ISNOBAL) was coupled to

a wind field and snow redistribution model to simulate

the development and ablation of the seasonal snowcover

over a small mountainous catchment, the Reynolds

Mountain East basin (0.38 km) in southwestern Idaho,

USA. The model was driven by hourly terrain and canopy

corrected data grids derived from meteorological data

from two stations located within the catchment for four

water years (1986, 1987, 1989 and 1997). In the preceding

paper, Winstral and Marks (this issue) detail how terrain

and vegetation data were used to distribute station data to

simulate snow redistribution and create hourly images of

the snowcover energy and mass balance. The catchment

was divided into four shelter classes based on terrain and

vegetation that were used for an analysis of how the mass

and energy balance of the snowcover varies over the basin

as a function of terrain and forest characteristics for each

of the selected years.

As shown by the simulations and verified by detailed

point measurements and the late season areal pho-

tographs of snow covered area (SCA), in all years the

wind-exposed areas developed thinner snowcovers and

were essentially bare of snow prior to the onset of spring

meltout in wind-sheltered areas. The meltout of the wind-

sheltered drift and canopy-enclosed regions occurred in

conjunction with the springtime increase in solar radiation

generating the bulk of springtime runoff. Melt contribu-

tions from the drifts may continue into the late spring and

early summer. This research uses a unique set of point and

spatial verification data to show that a snow accumula-

tion and ablation model, adjusted for wind redistribution

effects, reliably simulated the topographic and vegetation

influences on snow distribution, the energy balance, and

the hydrology of snow and wind-dominated mountainous

regions.

The word “crystal” comes as from Greek word krystallos

meaning ice, crystal. At one time people believed that all

crystals were made up of water that was frozen so hard it

would never melt.

Don’t expect to easily find a perfect six-sided snowflake.

They occur more less than 25% of the time. Why? Because

a snowflake has a bumpy and difficult journey on it’s way

to earth. Each flake is buffeted by wind, water and other

snowflakes.

snow: the solid form of water that crystallizes in the atmo-

sphere and, falling to the Earth, covers, permanently or

temporarily, about 23 percent of the Earth’s surface.

If you are lucky you might be able to see some rare

snowflakes, like these on Sarah’s scarf, without needing

anything special. These near perfect flakes were formed

on a cold, (7° F), day with little wind.

When cloud temperature is at freezing or below and

the clouds are moisture filled, snow crystals form. The

ice crystals form on dust particles as the water vapor

condenses and partially melted crystals cling together to

form snowflakes. It is said that no two snowflakes are the

same, but they can be classified into types of crystals. All

snow crystals have six sides. The six-sided shape of the ice

crystal is because of the shape and bonding of the water

molecules. Basically there are 6 different types of snow

crystals: needles, columns, plates, columns capped with

plates, dendrites and stars. The type of crystals depends

on the amount of humidity and temperature present

when they are forming. That’s why when it’s very cold and

snowing, the flakes are small, and when it’s closer to 32 F.

the flakes are larger.

Catch Some Snowflakes

What you will need:

* black velvet or black construction paper * Magnifying Glass

* Snow

Since snowflakes melt so quickly you need to freeze your

cloth or paper. Have it ready frozen and ready to go for

the next snowfall, and go outside and let some snowflakes

land on the dark surface. Quickly, before they melt, exam-

ine the flakes with a magnifying glass. Many snowflakes

are “broken” and so you don’t see the whole six-sided

crystal, but with persistence you’ll see some beautiful

examples.

Keep Some Snowflakes

What you will need:

* Piece of glass * Hairspray (aerosol, NOT pump) * Snow

You can have a permanent record of your caught snow-flakes if you freeze a piece of glass and the hairspray before the next snowfall. (Both may be stored in the freezer until you need them.) When you’re ready to collect some snowflakes, spray your chilled glass with the chilled hairspray and go outside and let some snowflakes settle on the glass. When you have enough flakes bring the glass indoors and allow it to thaw at room temperature for about 15 min. Now you have a permanent record of your snowflakes!

Note: I received this e-mail from a Finnish meteorologist

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My boss (Pirkko Saarikivi) made her PhD thesis on snowflakes and she used a new version of the hairspray method: The Nobecutan method. Nobecutan (Trademark of Astra Meditec, Sweden) is normally used to cover small injuries especially in head and animals. I guess your drugstore has something similar.

Catch Snowflakes to View Under a Microscope Adapted from “Discovery On Ice” aired Feb. 21, 1995. Project contributed by Dr. Daniel Hutt.

Crystal Clear is a liquid plastic that can be sprayed on a surface and then hardens to form a thin transparent film. Spray the Crystal Clear onto one of the glass slides and let some snowflakes fall on it. The liquid plastic will slowly creep up over the snowflakes and form a shell that replicates every detail of each snowflake. After the plastic dries you will have a permanent replica.

Before you begin, it is important to leave the box with spray can and glass slides outdoors overnight so that everything is exactly the same temperature as the falling snow. If the spray or slides are just a little bit warm, the snowflakes will melt immediately when they land on the plate and be lost.

Now, spray one of the slides with the plastic, holding the slide out into the wind until you are ready to catch the snowflakes. There. Now for the fun part - hold the slide out and in just a few seconds you will have collected enough snowflakes. To keep the slide from getting too much snow, put it back into the box.

Leave the wet slide in the box for several hours until the plastic hardens. Later, when you bring the slide inside, the snowflakes will melt but the plastic shell will remain, preserving the shape of the snowflakes forever!

Once the replicas are dry you can carefully examine the snowflakes under a microscope without worrying about melting them. If you collect snowflakes you will notice that the beautiful star shaped snowflakes are rather rare. Often you have needle or column shaped crystals or irregular crystals. The shape of each snowflake depends on the variations of temperature and humidity it experienc-es along its path as it forms within the cloud and falls to the ground. Each snowflake follows a unique path which

is why all snowflakes are different from each other.More Snow Science Activities

* Make a snow gauge.

* Take an old clear plastic soda pop bottle and cut off the top half. Mark the outside in centimeters or inches with a permanent laundry marker and place it outside in a place where it can collect the falling snow. Measure how much melted snow it takes to make water.

* Collect some snow in a container and record the level of snow on the container. Let the snow melt. how much water is there? Are you surprised at the differ-ence? Make your own glacier.

* Fill a bowl with snow and bring it inside to partially thaw, then add more snow on top. Keep doing this all winter long. You will then have the “layers” of ice and snow like a glacier. Here is an activity sent in by Joyce from Tahoe Ca.Heat a 2 liter soda bottle in the microwave - have an adult help you do this! Put the lid on and put it outside in the cold.

Once on the ground, snow can be categorized as powdery when fluffy, granular when it begins the cycle of melting and refreezing, and eventually ice once it packs down, after multiple melting and refreezing cycles, into a dense mass called snow pack. When powdery, snow moves with the wind from the location where it originally landed, forming deposits called snowdrifts which may have a depth of several meters. After attaching to hillsides, blown snow can evolve into a snow slab, which is an avalanche hazard on steep slopes. The existence of a snowpack keeps temperatures colder than they would be otherwise, as the whiteness of the snow reflects most sunlight, and the absorbed heat goes into melting the snow rather than increasing its temperature. The water equivalent of snowfall is measured to monitor how much liquid is available to flood rivers from meltwater which will occur during the following spring. Snow cover can protect crops from extreme cold. If snowfall stays on the ground for a series of years uninterrupted, the snowpack develops into a mass of ice called glacier. Fresh snow absorbs sound, lowering ambient noise over a landscape because the trapped air between snowflakes attenuates

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_xEehooYC6Rk/TPHmx3wiolI/AAAAAAAAC6U/z6XCw2ligsU/s1600/snow_.jpg


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vibration. These acoustic qualities quickly minimize and reverse, once a layer of freezing rain falls on top of snow cover. Walking across snowfall produces a squeaking sound at low temperatures.

The energy balance of the snowpack itself is dictated by several heat exchange processes. The snowpack absorbs solar shortwave radiation that is partially blocked by cloud cover and reflected by snow surface. A long-wave heat exchange takes place between the snowpack and its surrounding environment that includes overlying air mass, tree cover and clouds. Heat exchange takes place by convection between the snowpack and the overlaying air mass, and it is governed by the temperature gradient and wind speed. Moisture exchange between the snowpack and the overlying air mass is accompanied with latent heat transfer that is influenced by vapor pressure gradient and air wind. Rain on snow can add significant amounts of thermal energy to the snowpack. A generally insignificant heat exchange takes place by conduction between the snowpack and the ground. The small temperature change from before to after a snowfall is a result of the heat transfer between the snowpack and the air.

The term snow storm can describe a heavy snowfall while a blizzard involves snow and wind, obscuring vis-ibility. Snow shower is a term for an intermittent snowfall, while flurry is used for very light, brief snowfalls. Snow can fall more than a meter at a time during a single storm in flat areas, and meters at a time in rugged terrain, such as mountains. When snow falls in significant quantities, travel by foot, car, airplane and other means becomes

highly restricted, but other methods of mobility become possible: the use of snowmobiles, snowshoes and skis. When heavy snow occurs early in the fall, significant damage occurs to trees still in leaf. Areas with significant snow each year can store the winter snow within an ice house, which can be used to cool structures during the following summer. A variation on snow has been observed on Venus, though composed of metallic compounds and occurring at a substantially higher temperature.CauseSee also: Extratropical cyclone, Lake-effect snow, and Rainband Preferred region of heavy snowfall (“Banded Snowfall”) around the comma head of a wintertime low pressure area, shaded in green in the United States.

Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceed-ing 119 km/h (74 mph),[2] (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe). The band of precipitation that is associated with their warm front is often extensive, forced by weak upward vertical motion of air over the frontal boundary which condenses as it cools and pro-duces precipitation within an elongated band,[3] which is wide and stratiform, meaning falling out of nimbostratus clouds.[4] When moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass, overrunning snow can result within the poleward side of the elongated precipitation band. In the Northern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the North Pole, or north. Within the Southern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the South Pole, or south.

Within the cold sector, poleward and west of the cyclone center, small scale or mesoscale bands of heavy snow

can occur within a cyclone’s comma head pattern. The cyclone’s comma head pattern is a comma-shaped area of clouds and precipitation found around mature extra-tropical cyclones. These snow bands typically have a width of 20 miles (32 km) to 50 miles (80 km).[5] These bands in the comma head are associated with areas of frontogenesis, or zones of strengthening temperature contrast.[6]Lake-effect snow bands near the Korean Peninsula

Southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake-effect snow bands. Those bands bring strong localized snowfall which can be understood as follows: Large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differ-ences (larger than 13 °C or 23 °F) between the water surface and the air above.[7] Because of this tempera-ture difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes.[8]

In mountainous areas, heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains and squeeze out precipitation along their windward slopes, which in cold conditions, falls in the form of snow. Because of the ruggedness of terrain, forecasting the location of heavy snowfall remains a significant challenge


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Snowflakes are very easyto collect and ob-serve. All that is needed is a pieceof black

felt and a magnifying glass. During a snow fall, let a few crystals land on the felt

and look at them with the magnifying glass. But you must be careful not to

breath on them. The warmth from your breath will cause them to melt and disappear as you are

looking at them. What you see may astound you! The first thing you may notice is that snow-

flakescome in a variety of patterns. In 1951, the Inter-national Commission on Snow and Ice defined seven

different patterns of snowflakes (correct terminol-ogy defines a single unit of snow as a snow crystal. A snowflake is more than one crystal or pieces of

crystals joined together. However, since most people are familiar with the

term snowflake, I will continue to call all snow crystals snowflakes). The patterns are: star, plate, needle, column, column with a cap at each end, spacial dendrite and irregular. Many snowflakes

did not fit easily into this classification, so a couple of snow researchers created another

classification that contained one hundred and one different patterns of snowflakes! It is not

necessary that snowflake observers rec-

FLAKES


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Snowflakes are very easyto collect and ob-serve. All that is needed is a pieceof black

felt and a magnifying glass. During a snow fall, let a few crystals land on the felt

and look at them with the magnifying glass. But you must be careful not to

breath on them. The warmth from your breath will cause them to melt and disappear as you are

looking at them. What you see may astound you! The first thing you may notice is that snow-

flakescome in a variety of patterns. In 1951, the Inter-national Commission on Snow and Ice defined seven

different patterns of snowflakes (correct terminol-ogy defines a single unit of snow as a snow crystal. A snowflake is more than one crystal or pieces of

crystals joined together. However, since most people are familiar with the

term snowflake, I will continue to call all snow crystals snowflakes). The patterns are: star, plate, needle, column, column with a cap at each end, spacial dendrite and irregular. Many snowflakes

did not fit easily into this classification, so a couple of snow researchers created another

classification that contained one hundred and one different patterns of snowflakes! It is not

necessary that snowflake observers rec-

http://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/images/SnowBeech.jpg

Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze. These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than −18 °C (0 °F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this “nucleus.” Experiments show that this “homogeneous” nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than −35 °C (−31 °F).[10] In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or “ice nucleus” must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Ice nuclei are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective,[11] although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei include particles of silver iodide and dry ice, and these are used to stimulate precipitation in cloud seeding.[12]

Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the supersatu-rated environment, which is one where air is saturated with respect to ice when the temperature is below the freezing point. The droplet then grows by diffusion of water molecules in the air (vapor) onto the ice crystal surface where they are collected. Because water droplets are so much more numerous than the ice crystals due to their sheer abundance, the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometers or millimeters in size at the expense of the water droplets by a process known as the Wegner-Bergeron-Findeison process. The corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the ice crystals grow at the droplets’ expense. These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are snowflakes, and are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground.[13] Guinness World Records list the world’s largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at Fort Keogh, Montana; allegedly one measured 38 cm (15 in) wide.[14] Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles.

The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed.[13]

The most common snow particles are visibly irregular. Planar crystals (thin and flat) grow in air between 0 °C (32 °F) and −3 °C (27 °F). Between −3 °C (27 °F) and −8 °C (18 °F), the crystals will form needles or hollow columns or prisms (long thin pencil-like shapes). From −8 °C (18 °F) to −22 °C (−8 °F) the shape reverts back to plate-like, often with branched or dendritic features. At temperatures below −22 °C (−8 °F), the crystal development becomes column-like, although many more complex growth patterns also form such as side-planes, bullet-rosettes and also planar types depending on the conditions and ice nuclei.[16][17][18] If a crystal has started forming in a column growth regime, at around −5 °C (23 °F), and then falls into the warmer plate-like re-gime, then plate or dendritic crystals sprout at the end of the column, producing so called “capped columns.”[13]

A snowflake consists of roughly 1019 water molecules, which are added to its core at different rates and in dif-feent patterns, depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere that the snowflake falls through on its way to the ground. As a result, it is extremely difficult to encounter two identical snowflakes.[19][20] Initial attempts to find identical snowflakes by photographing thousands their images under a micro-scope from 1885 onward by Wilson Alwyn Bentley found the wide variety of snowflakes we know about today.[21] It is more likely that two snowflakes could become virtu-ally identical if their environments were similar enough. Matching snow crystals were discovered in Wisconsin in 1988. The crystals were not flakes in the usual sense but rather hollow hexagonal prisms.

Types of snow can be designated by the shape of the flakes, the rate of accumulation, and the way the snow collects on the ground. Types which fall in the form of a ball due to melting and refreezing cycles, rather than a flake, are known as graupel, with ice pellets and snow pellets as types of graupel associated with wintry precipitation.[23][24] Once on the ground, snow can be categorized as powdery when fluffy, granular when it begins the cycle of melting and refreezing, and eventually ice once it packs down into a dense drift after multiple melting and refreezing cycles. When powdery, snow drifts with the wind from the location where it originally fell,[25] forming deposits with a depth of several meters


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in isolated locations.[26] Snow fences are constructed in order to help control snow drifting in the vicinity of roads, to improve highway safety.[27] After attaching to hillsides, blown snow can evolve into a snow slab, which is an avalanche hazard on steep slopes. A frozen equivalent of dew known as hoar frost forms on a snow pack when winds are light and there is ample low-level moisture over the snow pack.[28]

Snowfall’s intensity is determined by visibility. When the visibility is over 1 kilometer (0.62 mi), snow is considered light. Moderate snow describes snowfall with visibility restrictions between 0.5 and 1 km. Heavy snowfall describes conditions when visibility is less than 0.5 km.[29] Steady snows of significant intensity are often referred to as “snowstorms”.[30] When snow is of variable intensity and short duration, it is described as a “snow shower”.[31] The term snow flurry is used to describe the lightest form of a snow shower.

A blizzard is a weather condition involving snow which has varying definitions in different parts of the world. In the United States, a blizzard is occurring when two conditions are met for a period of three hours or more: A sustained wind or frequent gusts to 35 miles per hour (km/h), and sufficient snow in the air to reduce visibility to less than 0.4 kilometers (0.25 mi).[33] In Canada and the United Kingdom, the criteria are similar.[34][35] While heavy snowfall often occurs during blizzard conditions, falling snow is not a requirement, as blowing snow can create a ground blizzard.DensityAn animation (satellite images) showing seasonal snow changesFirn

Snow remains on the ground until it melts or sublimates. Sublimation of snow directly into water vapor is most likely to occur on a dry and windy day such as when a strong downslope wind, such as a Chinook wind, exists.[37] The water equivalent of a given amount of snow is the depth of a layer of water having the same mass and upper area. For example, if the snow covering a given area has a water equivalent of 50 centimeters (20 in), then it will melt into a pool of water 50 centimeters (20 in) deep covering the same area. This is a much more useful measurement to hydrologists than snow depth, as the density of cool freshly fallen snow widely varies. New snow commonly has a density of around 8% of

water. This means that 33 centimeters (13 in) of snow melts down to 2.5 centimeters (1 in) of water.[39] Cloud temperatures and physical processes in the cloud affect the shape of individual snow crystals. Highly branched or dendritic crystals tend to have more space between the arms of ice that form the snowflake and this snow will therefore have a lower density, often referred to as “dry” snow. Conditions that create columnar or plate-like crystals will have much less air space within the crystal and will therefore be denser and feel “wetter”.

Once the snow is on the ground, it will settle under its own weight (largely due to differential evaporation) until its density is approximately 30% of water. Increases in density above this initial compression occur primarily by melting and refreezing, caused by temperatures above freezing or by direct solar radiation. In colder climates, snow lies on the ground all winter. By late spring, snow densities typically reach a maximum of 50% of water. When the snow does not all melt in the summer it evolves into firn, where individual granules become more spheri-cal in nature, evolving into a glacier as the iceUnder water, snowfall has a unique sound when compared to other forms of precipitation. Despite the different sizes and shapes on individual snowflakes, the sound made when individual flakes fall upon the surface of a freshwater lake are quite similar.[44] On the ground, newly fallen snow acts as a sound-absorbing material, which minimizes sound over its surface.[45] This is due to the trapped air between the individual crystalline flakes which act to trap sound waves and dampen vibra-tions. Once it is blown around by the wind and exposed to sunshine, snow hardens and its sound-softening qual-ity diminishes.[46] Snow cover as thin as 2 centimeters (0.79 in) thick changes the acoustic properties of a landscape. Studies concerning the acoustic properties of snow have revealed that loud sounds, such as from a pistol, can be used to measure snow cover permeability and depth.[47] Within motion pictures, the sound of walking through snow is simulated using cornstarch, salt, or cat litter.[48][49][50] When the temperature falls below −10 °C (14.0 °F), snow will squeak when walked upon due to the crushing of the ice crystals within the snow. The lquid equivalent of snowfall may be evaluated using a snow gauge or with a standard rain gauge having a diameter of 100 mm (4 in; plastic) or 200 mm

(8 in; metal).[53] Rain gauges are adjusted to winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing the snow/freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. An-tifreeze liquid may be added to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge.[54] In both types of gauges once the snowfall/ice is finished accumulating, or as its height in the gauge approaches 300 mm (12 in), the snow is melted and the water amount recorded.

Another type of gauge used to measure the liquid equiva-lent of snowfall is the weighing precipitation gauge. The wedge and tipping bucket gauges will have problems with snow measurement. Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept much above the freezing temperature. Weighing gauges with antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins.At some automatic weather stations an ultrasonic snow depth sensor may be used to augment the precipitation gauge. Spring snow melt is a major source of water supply to areas in temperate zones near mountains that catch and hold winter snow, especially those with a prolonged dry summer. In such places, water equivalent is of great interest to water managers wishing to predict spring runoff and the water supply of cities downstream. Measurements are made manually at marked locations known as snow courses, and remotely using special scales called snow pillows.[59] Snow stakes and simple rulers can be used to determine the depth of the snow pack,[60] though they will not evaluate either its density or liquid equivalent.

When a snow measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[62][63] If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement.

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pter

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Chapter 4 Bamboo Patterns

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BambooPATTERNS


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BAMBOOZLED

Bamboo forms an important component in thehomegardens of Assam, as also in other parts ofnortheast India. Bambusa cacharensis R.Majumder (betua), B. vulgaris Schrad. (jai borua)and B. balcooa Roxb. (sil borua) are the dominantvillage bamboos in the homegardens of BarakValley prioritized by the rural people (Nath et al.2006). The available studies on bamboo phenologyreport only certain aspects like periodicity of culmemergence (Banik 1999; Rao et al. 1990; Ueda1960), bud break and new branching on the culm(Banik 1999; Lodhiyal et al.1998), leafing pattern(Rao et al. 1990). Plant phenologies are the resultof interactions of biotic and climatic factors thatthrough natural selection determine the mostefficient timing for growth and reproduction (vanSchaik et al. 1993). Thus there is a need ofdocumentation of bamboo phenological behaviourthat are fundamental to understanding thespecies-specific leaf and sheath dynamics and theirecological significance in plant adaptability beingsubject to the same climatic regimes. The presentstudy aims to describe the phenological behaviourof three village bamboos.

The study was conducted in Dorgakona village,in Cachar district of Assam, and is situatedbetween longitude 92°45´ east and latitude 24°41´north. The climate of the study site is subtropical,warm and humid. The mean maximum temperature ranges from 24.9°C (January) to 33.7°C (August) and the mean minimum from 11.8°C (January) to 24.8°C (July). The monsoon rain normally starts from early June and continues till October. The dry season usually oc-curs from December to February. Phenological studies were made on two and three year old culms for the three species. Twenty five culms from each age class were selected randomly and identified with numbered aluminium foil. From July 2003 to June 2005 pheno-logical observations were made at monthlyinterval for sheath appearance, changes in sheathcolour, sheath fall, leaf appearance, leaf fall and culm colour. During the intense phenological activity period observations on above aspects were made at two week interval. When a phenophase was observed in 20% of the tagged culms the phenophase was considered as initiated and as pea

phenology are described in Fig.1. Structures ofsheaths are asymmetrical along the length of theculm. In all the three species in the lower half ofthe total length of culm, sheaths are broader thanlong whereas in the upper half, sheaths are longerthan broad.Colours differentiate different age classes ofculms within the same species. With the main veinmaturation of culm, colour undergoes certainchanges (Table 1).Leaf phenology differs in differentage classesof culms within the species and among thedifferent species (Fig. 2). In the one year culms ofB. balcooa and B. vulgaris, leaves startedappearing in August whereas in B. cacharensisleafing starts in September. The leafing activitywas completed within 3 months (August toOctober) in B. balcooa, 4 months (August toNovember) in B. vulgaris and 10 for the months(September to June) in B. cacharensis. In B.cacharensis, leaves started appearing and in theSeptember and were confined to upper one-thirdportion of the culm. Leafing activity was renewedafter the dormant period and continued till Junewhen leaves cover the lower two third portion ofthe culm as well. Leaf appearance in one year oldculms of all the three species took place twice in ayear compared to two, three and four year culmages where leaf appearance is seasonal andconcentrated during the wetter months (April,May and June) of the year. In two, three and fouryear culms of B. balcooa and B. vulgaris, leavesthat appeared during the month of April to Junestart falling after 6-8 months with a peak fallduring February and March and the culms becomeleafless around the third week of March in B.balcooa and fourth week of March in B. vulgaris.In B. cacharensis, leaves which appeared duringFig. 1. Sheath phenology of first year culm of (A) Bambusa cacharensis, (B) B. the balls and vulgaris and (C) B.balcooa.

the month of April and May start falling after 8-9months with a peak fall during February to April.Retention of green colour of sheaths during theculm elongation period in B. cacharensis addedadvantage towards resource utilization over theother two species in the form of photosynthesis.

Depending on the periodicity of sheath retentionon the culm, sheath fall pattern in B. balcooa andB. vulgaris can be categorized deciduous and B.cacharensis as persistent. Persistent nature ofsheath was reported for M. baccifera (Nandy et al.2004). Deciduous nature of sheath fall has theadvantage of early appearance of leafy branches onthe culm and thus maximizing the photosyntheticactivity of the plant. Peak sheath fall during therainy season as in the cases of B. vulgaris and B.balcooa implies greater sheath decay rates andthus, potential of the sheath litter as organicFig. 2. Leaf phenology and climate data of the studysite. Sheath fall during the rainy season canalso play an important role in soil moistureconservation. In B. balcooa and B. vulgaris, branchappearance begins during the culm elongationperiod and proceeds acropetally leading to a baseto-top ward pattern of sheath fall compared toB.cacharensis where branch appearance beginsafter the culm attains its full height and proceedsbasipetally leading to a top-to-base ward pattern ofsheath fall. Differences in the leaf appearance activitybetween younger (one year old) and older (two andthree and four year old) culms among the speciescan be attributed to their physiological adaptability. Peak leaf fall during the winter season (December-February) in the present study is consistent with peak leaf fall period in Dendrocalamus strictus, a common bamboo in drytropical region in India (Tripathi & Singh 1995).The tendency of leaf fall in bamboo to beconcentrated during the winter is possibly relatedto a combination of decreased temperature andlowered soil moisture during that period (Nath etal. 2004; Tripathi & Singh 1995). In different ageclasses of culms of both B. balcooa and B. vulgarisleaf less period in March is followed by theappearance of new leaves from April and thus theleafing pattern is periodic growth deciduous type.Similar leafing pattern was also reported in D.hamiltonii (Rao et al. 1990). Leafless period isadaptive in the sense that it reduces transpirationunder conditions in which water lost is hard toreplace (Richards 1996). Two, three and four yearculms of B. cacharensis exhibited the periodicgrowth leaf exchange type, as peak leaf fall isassociated with peak leaf appearance. This pattern


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of differential leafing activity in culms of differentages between the species is likely an adaptivestrategy towards the success of these species underthe prevailing environmental condition. In thepresent investigation, early onset of rain during2005 (Fig. 2) produced early flushing and reducedthe leaf less period in B.balcooa to 10-15 days from20-30 days and in B.vulgaris 7-10 days from 10-20days of the preceding year. Variation in the date ofonset of monsoon may affect factors regulating thesoil-plant-atmosphere water continuum (Singh &Kushwaha 2005) that in turn can alter the lengthof deciduous period by early leaf flushing inbamboos.

Phenological behaviour of bamboo in thepresent study offers insights into how the speciessubject to same environmental regime sharephenological patterns to varying degreesindependently of their strategies in which waterand nutrients are sequestered and utilized. Almostsimilar phenological pattern in B. balcooa and B.vulgaris and their difference with B. cacharensisreflects differential ecological adaptability amongthe species growing under the same environmentalcondition possibly to reduce competition forresource acquisition.Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth; it has been measured surging skyward as fast as 100 cm (39 in) in a 24-hour period.[2] Primarily growing in re-gions of warmer climates during the Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia.Unlike trees, all bamboo have the potential to grow to full height and girth in a single growing season of 3–4 months. During this first season, the clump of young shoots grow vertically, with no branching. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm or stem slowly dries and hardens. The culm begins to sprout branches and leaves from each node. During the third year, the culm further hardens. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus and mould begin to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrate and overcome the culm. Around 5 – 8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal and mold growth cause the culm to collapse anwd decay. This brief life means culms are

ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about 3 – 7 years.

Although some bamboos flower every year, most spe-cies flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 60 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in the population flowering simultane-ously. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and is found for all the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic condi-tions, then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of “alarm clock” in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower pro-duction and the cessation of vegetative growth.[9] This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

One theory to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis. This theory argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit so that even if predators eat their fill, there will still be seeds left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus, according to this hypothesis, the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for theirA second theory, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This hypothesis argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire.[11] Because bamboos are very aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents. However, both have been disputed for

http://upload.wikimedia.org/t67-t.JPG


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different reasons. The predator satiation theory does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted by the theory. The bamboo fire cycle theory is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[12] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this theory is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolu-tionary progress.[13]

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and eco-logical consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, there are devastating consequences when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years [1] around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increase, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth; it has been measured surging skyward as fast as 100 cm (39 in) in a 24-hour period.[2] Primarily growing in regions of warmer

climates during the Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia.

Unlike trees, all bamboo have the potential to grow to full height and girth in a single growing season of 3–4 months. During this first season, the clump of young shoots grow vertically, with no branching. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm or stem slowly dries and hardens. The culm begins to sprout branches and leaves from each node. During the third year, the culm further hardens. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus and mould begin to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrate and overcome the culm. Around 5 – 8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal and mold growth cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about 3 – 7 years.[edit] Mass flowering

Although some bamboos flower every year, most species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 60 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in the population flowering simultaneously. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and is found for all the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geo-graphic locations or climatic conditions, then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of “alarm clock” in each cell of the plant which signals the diver-

sion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth.[9] This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

One theory to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis. This theory argues that by fruiting at the same time, a popula-tion increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit so that even if predators eat their fill, there will still be seeds left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus, according to this hypothesis, the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

A second theory, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This hypothesis argues that the dead culms cre-ate a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire.[11] Because bamboos are very aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation theory does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted by the


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COCONUTS

The population structure

of the coconut crab

(Birgus latro) was

studied by examining

genetic variation at seven

polymorphic enzyme loci. Individuals

were collected from 10 locations (grouped in

seven major populations) throughout the Indo Pacific

distribution of the species. Significant population

differences were found among all seven major

populations and among the six Pacific Ocean

populations. There were no significant differences in allele

frequencies among adjacent Vanuatu islands separated

by up to 200 km. At any one location there were no significant

changes in allele frequencies over time (up to 3 years).

Estimates of gene flow varied considerably, depending

on the method of calculation, but all supported the same

interpretations of population subdivision. The pattern

of population structure varied with the spatial

scale under consideration. The Indian Ocean

population (from Christmas Island) was clearly

divergent from all Pacific populations, in

the fashion of an island model.


5554

The population structure

of the coconut crab

(Birgus latro) was

studied by examining

genetic variation at seven

polymorphic enzyme loci. Individuals

were collected from 10 locations (grouped in

seven major populations) throughout the Indo Pacific

distribution of the species. Significant population

differences were found among all seven major

populations and among the six Pacific Ocean

populations. There were no significant differences in allele

frequencies among adjacent Vanuatu islands separated

by up to 200 km. At any one location there were no significant

changes in allele frequencies over time (up to 3 years).

Estimates of gene flow varied considerably, depending

on the method of calculation, but all supported the same

interpretations of population subdivision. The pattern

of population structure varied with the spatial

scale under consideration. The Indian Ocean

population (from Christmas Island) was clearly

theory. The bamboo fire cycle theory is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[12] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this theory is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolu-tionary progress.[13]

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and eco-logical consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, there are devas-tating consequences when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years [1] around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations.

they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic propor-tions as the rodents increase in number.

Bamboo in animal dietsBamboo is the main food of the Giant Panda; it makes up 99% of the Panda’s diet.

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the Giant Panda of China, the Red Panda of Nepal and the Bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain Gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo and have been docu-mented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic;[14] chimps and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.[edit] Cultivation Please help improve this article by adding citations to reli-able sources. Unsourced material may be challengedBamboo foliage with yellow stems (probably Phyllo

Timber is harvested from cultivated and wild stands and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as “timber bamboos”.[edit] Harvesting

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles.

1) Life cycle of the clump: As each individual culm goes through a 5-7 year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvest-ing. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well maintained clumps may have a productivity 3-4 times that of an unharvested wild clump.

2) Life cycle of the culm: As per the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from 2–3 years through to 5–7 years, depending on the species.

3) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rain fall period, sap levels are at their highest and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence harvesting is best at the end of the dry season, a few months prior to the start of the wet.

4) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, Photosyn-thesis is at its peak producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe that the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a full moon. This practice makes sense in terms of both moon cycles, visibility and

Leaching is the removal of sap post-harvest. In many areas of the world the sap levels in harvested bamboo

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Jrballe_bamboo_forest_Susukinobabacho_001.JPG


5554

are reduced either through leaching or post-harvest photosynthesis. Examples of this practice include:

1. Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leant against the rest of the clump for 1–2 weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant 2. A similar method is undertaken but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap 3. Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for 3–4 weeks 4. Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms forc-ing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment)

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.[edit] Ornamental bamboos

There are two general patterns for the growth of bamboo: “clumping” (sympodial) and “running” (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. “Run-ning” bamboos, on the other hand, need to be taken care of in cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Run-ning bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

Bamboo foliage with black stems (probably Phyllo-stachysz Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from spe-cies to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, col-lectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

Regular maintenance will indicate major growth direc-tions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the missed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo if they stay in the ground.

Bamboo growth can also be controlled by surround-ing the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially-rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60–90 cm (2.0–3.0 ft) deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) This method is very detrimental to orna-mental bamboo as the bamboo within quickly becomes rootbound—showing all the signs of any unhealthy con-tainerized plant. Symptoms include rhizomes escaping over the top, down underneath, and bursting the barrier. The bamboo within generally deteriorates in quality as fewer and fewer culms grow each year, culms live shorter periods, new culm diameter decreases, fewer leaves grow on the culms, and leaves turn yellow as the unnaturally contained rootmass quickly depletes the soil of nutrients, and curling leaves as the condensed roots cannot collect the water they need to sustain the foliage. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers with relative ease, so great care must be taken. Barriers usually fail sooner or later, or the bamboo within suffers greatly. Casual observation of many failed bar-riers has shown bursting of 60-mil (1.5 mm) HDPE in 5–6 years, and rhizomes diving underneath in as few as

3 years post install. In small areas regular maintenance is the only perfect method of controlling the spreading bamboos. Bamboo contained by barriers is much more difficult to remove than free-spreading bamboo. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos. Clump-forming bamboos may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as “lucky bamboo” is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky Bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of Feng Shui. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mis-taken for a bamboo but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species.


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Cha

pter

5U

rchi

n Pa

tter

ns

Chapter 5 Urchin Patterns

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UrchinPATTERNS


5958

Sea urchins are round animals. Pointed spines cover an urchin’s entire body except the oral surface. The skeleton of a sea urchin is composed of closely joined calcareous plates forming a rigid case around the vital organs. This is called the “test.” Tube feet emerge from pores in the test. There are several highly-developed types of pedicellariae among the spines and around the mouth. The pedicellar-iae keep algae and debris from collecting on the urchin. Sea urchins move in a similar way to sea stars, using a water vascular/tube foot system. Sea urchins move in a similar way to sea stars, using a water vascular/tube foot system.

Sea urchins have a system of hard jaws and teeth for grinding food. Because the Greek philosopher and naturalist, Aristotle,described the structure, it is known as Aristotle’s lantern. Aristotle’s lantern is made of five long, chisel-like teeth that meet at the mouth opening.

It used to be believed that red sea urchins lived to be only seven to 15 years of age, experts say. But the newest findings are based on the use of two completely different techniques of determining sea urchin ages – one bio-chemical and the other nuclear - that produced the same results. The studies show red sea urchins can have a vast lifespan surpassing that of virtually all terrestrial and most marine animal species, and seem to show almost no signs of senescence, or age-related dysfunction, right up until the day that something kills them.

“No animal lives forever, but these red sea urchins appear to be practically immortal,” said Thomas Ebert, a marine zoologist at OSU. “They can die from attacks by preda-tors, specific diseases or being harvested by fishermen. But even then they show very few signs of age. The evi-dence suggests that a 100-year-old red sea urchin is just as apt to live another year, or reproduce, as a 10-year-old sea urchin.”

The more mature red sea urchins, in fact, appear to be the most prolific producers of sperm and eggs, and are perfectly capable of breeding even when incredibly old. There is no sea urchin version of menopause.

Some of the new studies on this species were done

UR — CHIN

with funding support from the Pacific States Fishery Commission to gain more information about the species, its life cycle, biology, survival rate, growth patterns, and perhaps shed light on why the red sea urchin resource was declining in some areas.

This small marine animal, which is found in shallow Pacific Ocean coastal waters from Alaska to Baja Cali-fornia and also elsewhere in the world’s oceans, lives by grazing quietly on marine plants and deterring most predators with its pointy spines. Historically, it had been considered a nuisance.

“In the U.S. in the 1960s, sea urchins were considered the scourge of the sea, a real menace,” Ebert said. “They ate plants in kelp forests and people believed they were at least partly responsible for the decline of that marine ecosystem, so they tried to poison them, get rid of them however possible.”

But in the 1970s a commercial fishery developed in the U.S. based on sea urchins, which were sold primarily to Japan where their sex organs were considered a deli-cacy. They brought high prices, and at one point in the 1990s were one of the most valuable marine resources in California.

Ebert did some early work on the red sea urchin, along with colleagues Steve Schroeter at the University of Cali-fornia, Santa Barbara, and John Dixon, of the California Coastal Commission. It quickly became apparent that sea urchins, among other things, grew a lot more slowly and lived a lot longer than had been believed.

“Sea urchins live as male and females, and fertilization of eggs takes place while they float in the ocean,” Ebert said. “The larvae then feed for a month or more before turning into tiny sea urchins.”

The red sea urchin, in fact, does grow fairly quickly when it’s young – at the age of two years, it can grow from two centimeters to four centimeters in one year, doubling its size. But even at that, it still takes at least 6-7 years before the sea urchin is of harvestable size, the scientists say, compared to the two years that had previously been believed.

By the time the sea urchin is a teenager, its growth slows dramatically. And at the age of 22, researchers found it grew each year from about 12 centimeters to only 12.1 centimeters. But somewhat remarkably, it appears to never really stop growing. It’s just very, very slow.

“Some of the largest and we believe oldest red sea urchins up to 19 centimeters in size have been found in waters off British Columbia, between Vancouver Island and the mainland,” Ebert said. “By our calculations they are probably 200 or more years old.”

The first studies indicating these ages was done with tagging of individual sea urchins and injection with tetra-cycline, which becomes incorporated into the sea urchin skeleton and can be used to track the growth rates. The latest work, which was just published, used measures of carbon-14, which has increased in all living organisms following the atmospheric testing of atomic weapons in the 1950s.

“Radiocarbon testing in this type of situation provided a very strong and independent test of growth rates and ages,” Ebert said. “Among other things, it confirmed that in older sea urchins there is a very steady, very consistent growth that’s quite independent of ocean conditions or other variables, and once they near adult size our research indicates they do not have growth spurts. With this species, it’s pretty simple. The bigger they are, the older they are.”

The research was done with red sea urchins, Ebert said, but may be at least partly relevant to other sea urchin species.

The study suggests, among other things, that this inver-tebrate species has a fairly poor ability to survive various threats during the first year of life and reach reproductive age. Otherwise there would be a great many more sea urchins.

Older sea urchins can help provide more young and therefore may play a key role in creating a sustainable fishery, so a return to harvest policies that limits harvest above a certain size might be prudent, the researchers said.


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To survive in a tumultuous environment, sea urchins literally eat through stone, using their teeth to carve out nooks where the spiny creatures hide from predators and protect themselves from the crashing surf on the rocky shores and tide pools where they live.

The rock-boring behavior is astonishing, scientists agree, but what is truly remarkable is that, despite con-stant grinding and scraping on stone, urchin teeth never, ever get dull. The secret of their ever-sharp qualities has puzzled scientists for decades, but now a new report by scientists from the University of Wisconsin-Madison and their colleagues has peeled back the toothy mystery.

Writing in the journal Advanced Functional Materials, a team led by UW-Madison professor of physics Pupa Gilbert describes the self-sharpening mechanism used by the California purple sea urchin to keep a razor-sharp edge on its choppers.The urchin’s self-sharpening trick, notes Gilbert, is something that could be mimicked by humans to make tools that never need honing.

“The sea urchin tooth is complicated in its design. It is one of the very few structures in nature that self-sharp-en,” says Gilbert, explaining that the sea urchin tooth, which is always growing, is a biomineral mosaic com-posed of calcite crystals with two forms -- plates and fibers -- arranged crosswise and cemented together with super-hard calcite nanocement. Between the crystals are layers of organic materials that are not as sturdy as the calcite crystals.

“The organic layers are the weak links in the chain,” Gilbert explains. “There are breaking points at predeter-mined locations built into the teeth. It is a concept similar to perforated paper in the sense that the material breaks at these predetermined weak spots.”

The crystalline nature of sea urchin dentition is, on the surface, different from other crystals found in nature. It lacks the obvious facets characteristic of familiar crystals, but at the very deepest levels the properties of crystals are evident in the orderly arrangement of the atoms that make up the biomineral mosaic teeth of the sea urchin.

To delve into the fundamental nature of the crystals that form sea urchin teeth, Gilbert and her colleagues used a variety of techniques from the materials scientist’s toolbox. These include microscopy methods that depend on X-rays to illuminate how nanocrystals are arranged in teeth to make the sea urchins capable of grinding rock. Gilbert and her colleagues used these techniques to deduce how the crystals are organized and melded into a tough and durable biomineral.

Knowing the secret of the ever-sharp sea urchin tooth, says Gilbert, could one day have practical applications for human toolmakers. “Now that we know how it works, the knowledge could be used to develop methods to fabricate tools that could actually sharpen themselves with use,” notes Gilbert. “The mechanism used by the urchin is the key. By shaping the object appropriately and using the same strategy the urchin employs, a tool with a self-sharpening edge could, in theory, be created.”

The new research was supported by grants from the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation. In addition to Gilbert, researchers from the University of California, Berkeley; Argonne National Laboratory; the Weizmann Institute of Science; and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory contributed to the report.Like other echinoderms, sea urchins are bilaterans. Their early larvae have bilateral symmetry[2] but they develop fivefold symmetry as they mature. This is most apparent in the “regular” sea urchins, which have roughly spheri-cal bodies, with five equally-sized parts radiating out from the central axis. Several sea urchins, however, including the sand dollars, are oval in shape, with distinct front and rear ends, giving them a degree of bilateral symmetry. In these urchins, the upper surface of the body is slightly domed, but the underside is flat, while the sides are de-void of tube feet. This “irregular” body form has evolved to allow the animals to burrow through sand or other soft material.[1][edit] Organs and test

The lower half of a sea urchin’s body is referred to as the oral surface, because it contains the mouth, while the upper half is the aboral surface. The internal organs are enclosed in a hard test composed of fused plates of cal-

http://upload.wikimedia.org/.JPG


6362

cium carbonate covered by a thin dermis and epidermis. The test is rigid, and divides into five ambulacral areas separated by five inter-ambulacral areas. Each of these areas consists of two rows of plates, so that the test includes twenty rows in total. The plates are covered in rounded tubercles, to which the spines are attached. The inner surface of the test is lined by peritoneum.[1][edit] Feet

Urchins have tube feet, which arise from the five am-bulacral areas. ( The tube feet are moved by the water vascular system.)The mouth lies in the center of the oral surface in regular urchins, or towards one end of irregular urchins. It is surrounded by lips of softer tissue, with numerous small bony pieces embedded in it. This area, called the peri-stome, also includes five pairs of modified tube feet and, in many species, five pairs of gills. On the upper surface, opposite the mouth, is a region termed the periproct, which surrounds the anus. The periproct contains a vari-able number of hard plates, depending on species, one of which contains the madreporite.[1][edit] Endoskeleton

The sea urchin builds its spicules, the sharp crystalline “bones” that constitute the animal’s endoskeleton, in the larval stage. The fully formed spicule is composed of a single crystal with an unusual morphology. It has no fac-ets and within 48 hours of fertilization assumes a shape that looks very much like the Mercedes-Benz logo.[3]

In other echinoderms, the endoskeleton is associated

with a layer of muscle that allows the animal to move its arms or other body parts. This is entirely absent in sea urchins, which are unable to move in this way.[edit] Spines

The spines, long and sharp in some species, protect the urchin from predators. The spines inflict a painful wound when they penetrate human skin, but are not dangerous. It is not clear if the spines are venomous (unlike the pedicellariae between the spines, which are venomous).[4]

Typical sea urchins have spines that are 1 to 3 centime-tres (0.39 to 1.2 in) in length, 1 to 2 millimetres (0.039 to 0.079 in) thick, and not terribly sharp. Diadema antillarum, familiar in the Caribbean, has thin, potentially dangerous spines that can reach 10 to 30 centimetres (3.9 to 12 in) long.[edit] Reproductive organs

Sea urchins are dioecious, having separate male and female sexes, although there is generally no easy way to distinguish the two. Regular sea urchins have five gonads, lying underneath the interambulacral regions of the test, while the irregular forms have only four, with the hindmost gonad being absent. Each gonad has a single duct, rising from the upper pole to open at a gonopore lying in one of the genital plates surrounding the anus. The gonads are lined with muscles underneath the peritoneum, and these allow the animal to squeeze its gametes through the duct and into the surrounding sea water, where fertilization takes place. During early

development, the sea urchin embryo undergoes ten cycles of cell division resulting in a single epithelial layer enveloping a blastocoel.[7] The embryo must then begin gastrulation, a multipart process which involves the dra-matic rearrangement and invagination of cells to produce the three germ layers.The first step of gastrulation is the epithelial to mesen-chymal transition and ingression of primary mesenchyme cells into the blastocoel.[7] Primary mesenchyme cells, or PMCs, are cells located in the vegetal plate that are specified to become mesoderm.[8] Prior to ingression, PMCs exhibit all the features of other epithelial cells that comprise the embryo. Cells of the epithelium are bound basally to a laminal matrix and apically to an extra-embry-onic matrix.[8] The apical microvilli of these cells reach into the hyaline layer, a component of the extra-embryonic matrix.[9] Neighboring epithelial cells are also connected to each other through apical junctions,[10] protein com-plexes containing adhesion molecules such as cadherins linked to catenins.Prospective PMCs at Vegetal Plate

As PMCs begin to undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition, the lamina which binds them dissolves to begin the mechanical release of the cells.[9] Expression of the membrane protein that binds laminin, integrin, also becomes irregular at the beginning of ingression.[11] The microvilli which secure PMCs to the hyaline layer shorten,[12] as the cells reduce their affinity for the extra-embryonic matrix.[13] These cells concurrently increase their affinity for other components of the basal matrix, such as fibronectin, in part driving the movement of cells


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URCHIN

Like other echinoderms, sea urchins

are bilaterans. Their early larvae have

bilateral symmetry but they develop

fivefold symmetry as they mature.

This is most apparent in the “regular

sea urchins, which have roughly spherical

bodies, with five equally-sized parts

radiating out from the central

axis. Several sea urchins,

however,including

the sand dollars, are oval in

shape, with distinct front and rear ends,

giving them a degree of bilateral symmetry.

In these urchins, the upper surface of the

body is slightly domed, but the underside

is flat, while the sides are devoid of tube

feet. This “irregular” body form has

evolved to allow the animals to burrow

through sand or other soft material.


6766

Like other echinoderms, sea urchins

are bilaterans. Their early larvae have

bilateral symmetry but they develop

fivefold symmetry as they mature.

This is most apparent in the “regular

sea urchins, which have roughly spherical

bodies, with five equally-sized parts

radiating out from the central

axis. Several sea urchins,

however,including

the sand dollars, are oval in

shape, with distinct front and rear ends,

giving them a degree of bilateral symmetry.

In these urchins, the upper surface of the

body is slightly domed, but the underside

is flat, while the sides are devoid of tube

feet. This “irregular” body form has

evolved to allow the animals to burrow

through sand or other soft material.

inward.[13] The apical junctions which bind PMCs to their neighboring epithelial cells become disrupted dur-ing this transition, and are absent in cells that have fully ingressed into the blastocoel.[14] Because staining for cadherins and catenins in ingressing cells decreases and develops as intracellular accumulations, apical junctions are thought to be cleared by endocytosis during ingres-sion. Feet

The mouth lies in the center of the oral surface in regular urchins, or towards one end of irregular urchins. It is surrounded by lips of softer tissue, with numerous small bony pieces embedded in it. This area, called the peri-stome, also includes five pairs of modified tube feet and, in many species, five pairs of gills. On the upper surface, opposite the mouth, is a region termed the periproct, which surrounds the anus. The periproct contains a vari-able number of hard plates, depending on species, one of which contains the madreporite.[1][edit] Endoskeleton

The sea urchin builds its spicules, the sharp crystalline “bones” that constitute the animal’s endoskeleton, in the larval stage. The fully formed spicule is composed of a single crystal with an unusual morphology. It has no fac-ets and within 48 hours of fertilization assumes a shape that looks very much like the Mercedes-Benz logo.[3]

In other echinoderms, the endoskeleton is associated with a layer of muscle that allows the animal to move its arms or other body parts. This is entirely absent in sea ur-chins, which are unable to move in this way. The spines, long and sharp in some species, protect the urchin from predators. The spines inflict a painful wound when they penetrate human skin, but are not dangerous. It is not clear if the spines are venomous (unlike the pedicellariae between the spines, which are venomous).[4]

Typical sea urchins have spines that are 1 to 3 centime-tres (0.39 to 1.2 in) in length, 1 to 2 millimetres (0.039 to 0.079 in) thick, and not terribly sharp. Diadema antillarum, familiar in the Caribbean, has thin, potentially dangerous spines that can reach 10 to 30 centimetres (3.9 to 12 in) long.[edit] Reproductive organs

Sea urchins are dioecious, having separate male and female sexes, although there is generally no easy way to distinguish the two. Regular sea urchins have five gonads, lying underneath the interambulacral regions of the test, while the irregular forms have only four, with the hindmost gonad being absent. Each gonad has a single duct, rising from the upper pole to open at a gonopore lying in one of the genital plates surrounding the anus. The gonads are lined with muscles underneath the peritoneum, and these allow the animal to squeeze its gametes through the duct and into the surrounding sea water, where fertilization takes place.

The mouth of most sea urchins is made up of five calcium carbonate teeth or jaws, with a fleshy tongue-like structure within. The entire chewing organ is known as Aristotle’s lantern (image), from Aristotle’s description in his History of Animals:

…the urchin has what we mainly call its head and mouth down below,and a place for the issue of the residuum up above. The urchin has, also, five hollow teeth inside, and in the middle of these teeth a fleshy substance serving the office of a tongue. Next to this comes the esophagus, and then the stomach, divided into five parts, and filled with excretion, all the five parts uniting at the anal vent, where the shell is perforated for an outlet... In reality the mouth-apparatus of the urchin is continuous from one end to the other, but to outward appearance it is not so, but looks like a horn lantern with the panes of horn left out. (Tr. D’Arcy Thompson)

Heart urchins are unusual in not having a lantern. Instead, the mouth is surrounded by cilia that pull strings of mucus containing food particles towards a series of grooves around the mouth.[1]

The lantern, where present, surrounds both the mouth cavity and the pharynx. At the top of the lantern, the pharynx opens into the esophagus, which runs back down the outside of the lantern, to join the small intestine and a single caecum. The small intestine runs in a full circle around the inside of the test, before joining the large intestine, which completes another circuit in the opposite direction. From the large intestine, a rectum ascends towards the anus. Despite the names, the small


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and large intestine of sea urchins are in no way homolo-gous to the similarly named structures in vertebrates.[1]

Digestion occurs in the intestine, with the caecum producing further digestive enzymes. An additional tube, called the siphon, runs beside much of the intestine, opening into it at both ends. It may be involved in resorp-tion of water from food.[1]

Sea urchins possess both a water vascular system and a hemal system, the latter containing blood. However, the main circulatory fluid fills the general body cavity, or coelom. This fluid contains phagocytic coelomocytes which move through the vascular and hemal systems. The coelomocytes are an essential part of blood clotting, but also collect waste products and actively remove them from the body through the gills and tube feet.[1][edit] Respiration

Most sea urchins possess five pairs of external gills, located around the mouth. These are thin-walled projec-tions of the body cavity, and are the main organs of res-piration in those urchins that possess them. Fluid can be pumped through the gills’ interior by muscles associated with the lantern, but this is not continuous, and occurs only when the animal is low on oxygen. Tube feet can also act as respiratory organs, and are the primary sites of gas exchange in heart urchins and sand dollars, both of which

The nervous system of sea urchins has a relatively simple layout. There is no true brain. The center is a large nerve ring encircling the mouth just inside the lantern. From the nerve ring, five nerves radiate underneath the radial canals of the water vascular system, and branch into numerous finer nerves to innervate the tube feet, spines,

Sea urchins are sensitive to touch, light, and chemicals. Although they do not have eyes or eye spots, recent research suggests that their entire body might function as one compound eye.[6] They also have statocysts, called spheridia, that are located within the ambulacral plates and help the animal remain upright.[1] Sea urchins are members of the phylum Echinodermata, which also includes sea stars, sea cucumbers, brittle stars, and crinoids. Like other echinoderms they have fivefold symmetry (called pentamerism) and move by means of

hundreds of tiny, transparent, adhesive “tube feet”. The symmetry is not obvious in the living animal, but is easily visible in the dried test. “Echinodermate” means “spiny skin” in Greek.

Specifically, the term “sea urchin” refers to the “regular echinoids,” which are symmetrical and globu-lar. The term includes several different taxonomic groups: the order Echinoida, the order Cidaroida or “slate-pencil urchins”, which have very thick, blunt spines, and others. Besides sea urchins, the class Echinoidea also includes three groups of “irregular” echinoids: flattened sand dollars, sea biscuits, and heart urchins.

Together with sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea), they make up the subphylum Echinozoa, which is charac-terized by a globoid shape without arms or projecting rays. Sea cucumbers and the irregular echinoids have secondarily evolved diverse shapes. Although many sea cucumbers have branched tentacles surrounding the oral opening, these have originated from modified tube feet and are not homologous to the arms of the crinoids, sea stars, and brittle stars.[edit] Anatomy

Urchins typically range in size from 6 to 12 centime-tres (2.4 to 4.7 in), although the largest species can reach up to 36 centimetres (14 in).[1]

Like other echinoderms, sea urchins are bilaterans. Their early larvae have bilateral symmetry[2] but they develop fivefold symmetry as they mature. This is most apparent in the “regular” sea urchins, which have roughly spherical bodies, with five equally-sized parts radiating out from the central axis. Several sea urchins, however, including the sand dollars, are oval in shape, with distinct front and rear ends, giving them a degree of bilateral symmetry. In these urchins, the upper surface of the body is slightly domed, but the underside is flat, while the sides are devoid of tube feet. This “irregular” body form has evolved to al-low the animals to burrow through sand or other soft

The lower half of a sea urchin’s body is referred to as the oral surface, because it contains the mouth, while

the upper half is the aboral surface. The internal organs are enclosed in a hard test composed of fused plates of calcium carbonate covered by a thin dermis and epidermis. The test is rigid, and divides into five ambulacral areas separated by five inter-ambulacral areas. Each of these areas consists of two rows of plates, so that the test includes twenty rows in total. The plates are covered in rounded tubercles, to which the spines are attached. The inner surface of the test is lined by

MOM — Thank you so much for being you. You are such a beautiful person with so much patience and love. Think-ing about all you do for others always brings a smile to my face. You are always there for me and I can’t thank you

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Acknowledgements

GINNIE — Thank you so much for your strength and wisdom. You are such an amazing person and you have been an inspiration to me always. If not for you there's no telling where I'd be. I love you to death and I am so proud to be

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