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Policy Matters 12 , September 2003 141 Can you imagine a village elder who is the Chairperson and Managing Director of a wildlife sanctuary? This is no flight of fancy, but a recent development in the north-eastern state of Nagaland, in India. The Khonoma Nature Conservation and Tragopan Sanctuary, spread over 7,000 hectares and containing threatened species like the Blyth’s Tragopan, has been put on notice not by government but by the vil- lagers of Khonoma. Why? Because they felt increasingly concerned about the rampant shooting of this bird and other wildlife in the forests surrounding their village. So the Khonoma Village Council set up the sanctuary, enacted a set of rules and regulations about hunting and tree felling, and appointed Tsilie Sakhrie as the ‘CMD’! This is not an isolated case from a ‘remote’ part of India. There are literally thousands of such areas and species under community pro- tection across the country. So far completely neglected by urban naturalists, this growing phenomenon needs support from the govern- ment and NGO sectors. Community Conserved Areas (CCAs) are of diverse kinds, with varying levels of protection afforded to different areas. In Assam’s Bongaigaon district, for example, the villagers of Shankar Ghola are protecting a few square kilometres of forest that contain, amongst other things, a troop of the highly threatened Golden Langur. Another initiative with the same species as a key indicator was triggered by the work of the NGO Nature’s Beckon, which facilitated villagers in protect- ing a large area of moist for- est and then lobbied to get it declared as the Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary. In Tehri Garhwal, Uttaranchal, the vil- lagers of Jardhargaon have regenerated and protected several hundred hectares of oak and rhododendron forests. The results have been impressive, with leopard, bear and other wildlife, even the occasional tiger, being sighted more frequently. Not far away, in Dehradun district, the village of Nahin Kalan has not only successfully fought against a destructive mine, but also conserved a large area of sub-Himalayan forest. Perhaps the most famous conservation-orient- ed community in India are the Bishnois of Rajasthan. They have strong conservation tradi- tions and are famous for their self-sacrificing defence of wildlife and trees. A Bishnoi villager was recently killed while trying to save black- buck from hunters. The tribe’s history records a similar incident, three centuries ago, when dozens of villagers who were protecting trees by hugging them were hacked to death by a king who wanted the timber. In Punjab, Bishnoi lands have been declared the Abohar Sanctuary in recognition of their wildlife value. Sariska in Rajasthan’s Alwar district is one of India’s bet- ter-known tiger reserves. However, most visitors are unaware of the role played by the NGO Communities and conservation in India Ashish Kothari and Neema Pathak Broome Figure 1: The sacred forest of Ajeevali village in Maharashtra, India. (Courtesy Grazia Borrini- Feyerabend) There are even “new” sacred sites: in parts of Uttaranchal, villagers are dedicating forest areas to local deities, thereby creating a strong motivation for local people to protect the area.
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PolicyMatters12, September 2003 141

Can you imagine a village elder who is theChairperson and Managing Director of a wildlifesanctuary? This is no flight of fancy, but arecent development in the north-eastern stateof Nagaland, in India. The Khonoma NatureConservation and Tragopan Sanctuary, spreadover 7,000 hectares and containing threatenedspecies like the Blyth’s Tragopan, has been puton notice not by government but by the vil-lagers of Khonoma. Why? Because they feltincreasingly concerned about the rampantshooting of this bird and other wildlife in theforests surrounding their village. So theKhonoma Village Council set up the sanctuary,enacted a set of rules and regulations abouthunting and tree felling, and appointed TsilieSakhrie as the ‘CMD’!

This is not an isolated case from a ‘remote’part of India. There are literally thousands ofsuch areas and species under community pro-tection across the country. So far completelyneglected by urban naturalists, this growingphenomenon needs support from the govern-ment and NGO sectors. Community ConservedAreas (CCAs) are of diverse kinds, with varyinglevels of protection afforded to different areas.In Assam’s Bongaigaon district, for example, thevillagers of Shankar Ghola are protecting a fewsquare kilometres of forest that contain,amongst other things, a troop of the highlythreatened Golden Langur. Another initiativewith the same species as a key indicator was

triggered by the work of theNGO Nature’s Beckon, whichfacilitated villagers in protect-ing a large area of moist for-est and then lobbied to get itdeclared as the ChakrashilaWildlife Sanctuary. In TehriGarhwal, Uttaranchal, the vil-lagers of Jardhargaon haveregenerated and protectedseveral hundred hectares ofoak and rhododendronforests. The results have beenimpressive, with leopard, bearand other wildlife, even the

occasional tiger, being sighted more frequently.Not far away, in Dehradun district, the village of

Nahin Kalan has not only successfully foughtagainst a destructive mine, but also conserveda large area of sub-Himalayan forest.

Perhaps the most famous conservation-orient-ed community in India are the Bishnois ofRajasthan. They have strong conservation tradi-tions and are famous for their self-sacrificingdefence of wildlife and trees. A Bishnoi villagerwas recently killed while trying to save black-buck from hunters. The tribe’s history records asimilar incident, three centuries ago, whendozens of villagers who were protecting treesby hugging them were hacked to death by aking who wanted the timber. In Punjab, Bishnoilands have been declared the Abohar Sanctuaryin recognition of their wildlife value. Sariska inRajasthan’s Alwar district is one of India’s bet-ter-known tiger reserves. However, most visitorsare unaware of the role played by the NGO

Communities and conservation in IndiaAshish Kothari and Neema Pathak Broome

FFiigguurree 11:: TThhee ssaaccrreedd ffoorreesstt ooff AAjjeeeevvaallii vviillllaaggee iinnMMaahhaarraasshhttrraa,, IInnddiiaa.. (Courtesy Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend)

There are even “new”sacred sites: in parts ofUttaranchal, villagersare dedicating forestareas to local deities,thereby creating a

strong motivation forlocal people to protect

the area.

PolicyMatters12, September 2003142

Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS) and villagers inimproving the water regime of this dry forest,resulting in improved wildlife density while pro-viding more secure livelihoods. The villagersand the forest department are now discussingcollaborative methods of protecting wildlife.Outside the reserve, in several dozen villages inthe district, villagers have resurrected the waterregime, regenerated forests, and in one case(Bhaonta-Kolyala village), even declared a ‘pub-lic wildlife sanctuary’. Similarly, in Manipur,youth clubs from villages around the LoktakLake have formed a Sangai Protection Forum toprotect the highly endangered Brow-antlereddeer, only found in this wetland. They partici-pate in the management of the Keibul LamjaoNational Park, which forms the core of the lake.

One of the better-documented instances ofcommunity conservation has been the 1,800hectares of deciduous forest saved by the vil-lagers of Mendha (Lekha) in Maharashtra’sGadchiroli district. The people fought off apaper mill that would have destroyed bamboostocks, stopped the practice of lighting forestfires and moved towards sustainable extractionof non-timber produce. Though there still issome hunting pressure, the area harbours con-siderable wildlife including the endangered cen-tral race of the giant squirrel.

Though weakened by the forces of modernisa-tion and commercialisation, in many areas, tra-ditional protection to sacred groves, villagetanks, Himalayan grasslands, and individualspecies is still widespread. Several sacredgroves have preserved remnant populations ofrare and endemic species that have been wipedout elsewhere. There are even “new” sacredsites: in parts of Uttaranchal, villagers are dedi-

cating forest areas to local deities, thereby cre-ating a strong motivation for local people toprotect the area. Aside from specific protectionafforded to habitats, many traditional practicesof sustainable use actually benefited wildlifeconservation. For instance, pastoral communi-ties in Ladakh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and otherstates had strict rules regarding the amount

and frequency ofgrazing on specifiedgrasslands.Ornithologists haverecorded that thesehelped to maintainviable habitats forspecies like the GreatIndian Bustard. TheSpotbilled pelicans ofKokkare Bellur inKarnataka are well-known. Here, as atnumerous other siteswhere large water-birds survive on vil-lage tanks and private trees, villagers offer pro-tection against hunting and untoward distur-bance. Some ornithologists are beginning tothink that for species like the Greater AdjutantStork and the Spotbilled Pelican, communityprotection may be the most effective. In Goaand Kerala, important nesting sites for sea tur-tles such as Galjibag Beach have been protect-ed through the action of local fisherfolk, withhelp from NGOs and the Forest Department.

There are probably thousands of other suchinitiatives, some within officially declarednational parks and sanctuaries, but most out-side. And they are complemented by strugglesby communities across India to save theirecosystems and resources from the destructiveimpact of ‘development’ projects. For instance,across hundreds of kilometres of India’s coast-line and adjoining waters, the NationalFishworkers’ Forum has staved off destructivetrawling, fought for the implementation of theCoastal Regulation Zone, and assisted in move-

ments against industrial aquacul-ture. Several big projects, such asBhopalpatnam-Inchhampalli(Maharashtra-Chattisgarh),Bodhghat (Chattisgarh), andRathong Chu (Sikkim), which wouldhave submerged valuable wildlifehabitats, have been stalled by mass

tribal movements. Over several years, villagersin Sariska have successfully fought against min-ing, which the forest department was unable tostop as the government itself had sanctioned it!Many such movements have saved areas equalin size, and sometimes bigger than, official pro-tected areas.

…livelihoods will need tobe integrated without com-promising the existence of

ecosystems and species.[…]. One important pathtowards wildlife conserva-

tion is to first meet people’smost critical survival needs,like water and biomass, andtie up biodiversity impera-

tives with these…

Another lesson is the need for local communities to have a secure stake in theconservation of an area. […] In all our examples, the community has estab-lished some form of actual or legal control over the resources, providing the

security to carry out conservation and sustainable use practices.

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 143

The flip side Not all communities in India are conservation-

oriented. Even if in their thousands, initiativeslike the ones above would still be small com-pared to India’s enormous landmass. In many,many more communities, traditions of conserva-tion have been eroded, and natural ecosystemshave been converted to other land uses. Nor

are we imply-ing that all vil-lage level ini-tiatives areunqualifiedsuccesses. Likeofficial protect-ed areas, com-munity con-served areastoo have a

host of serious problems to contend with. Theseinclude dissension and inequities within thecommunity, weaknesses in countering powerfulcommercial forces from outside, lack of knowl-edge regarding the full range of biodiversity andits value, the pressures of abject poverty, andso on. Nevertheless, the network of CCAs inIndia provides a wonderful system of biodiversi-ty conservation that is complementary to thegovernment-run network of protected areas.And indeed, in the way many of them are man-aged, they provide important lessons on how totackle the conflicts between local people andwildlife officials, which plague official protectedareas over India.

Emerging Lessons One of the most critical lessons we learn from

CCAs is that areas important for biodiversityconservation are often also important for thesurvival and livelihood security of traditionalcommunities. The issue of people within andaround official protected areas has plagued con-servationists for decades. Increasingly there isrecognition that livelihoods will need to be inte-grated without compromising the existence ofecosystems and species. Many CCAs providevaluable insights into how this can be done.One important path towards wildlife conserva-tion is to first meet people’s most critical sur-vival needs, like water and biomass, and tie upbiodiversity imperatives with these. No singleagency is capable of saving India’s wildlife. The

forest department, even if highly motivated, hassimply too few resources, manpower andknowledge. Local communities often find them-selves helpless in the face of powerful outsideforces, while most NGOs are too small to han-dle the complex and enormous problems thatnatural habitats face. So the solution is to com-bine the strengths of each of these, and helpeach other to tackle weaknesses.

Another lesson is the need for local communi-ties to have a secure stake in the conservationof an area. All too often, conservation policiesand programmes have alienated local people, sothat they not only do not help in fighting forestfires and catching poachers, they often even aidand abet poaching. In all the examples above,the community has established some form ofactual or legal control over the resources, pro-viding the security to carry out conservationand sustainable use practices. It is also interest-ing to see the varied forms of rules and regula-tions by which communities manage conserva-tion areas. In most cases, these are not explic-itly written out, but are known and accepted bythe whole community. Violations invite social

FFiigguurree 22:: TTwwoo vviillllaaggeerrss ffrroomm AAjjeeeevvaallii vviillllaaggee iinnMMaahhaarraasshhttrraa,, IInnddiiaa.. They are part of a teamunder an annual agreement with village commu-nity to protect the sacred grove of the village andextract the sap from the fish tail palm, a com-monly found tree in the grove. Part of the forestat the higher altitude is entirely protected by thevillagers as sacred (only the extraction of fish tailpalm toddy is allowed) and the forest at lowerareas is utilised according to agreed rules.(Courtesy Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend)

Many communities need help in adapt-ing appropriate ecologically friendly

technologies to enhance their livelihoodsand, where relevant, linkages with con-sumers and sensitive markets in order to

generate resources.

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003144

boycott, fines or other punishments. In somecases, the community has actually written andcodified these customary rules. In the case ofthe Bhaonta-Kolyala Public Sanctuary, forinstance, these are written on the face of thesmall checkdam made by villagers at the foot ofthe forested hills.

Examples of community rulesThe village of Mendha (Lekha) has a set of

self-generated rules and regulations that governforest use. These were arrived at after discus-sions about forest produce requirements at thegram sabha and at their unique abhyas gat(study circle), and concluded that personal con-sumption would not damage the forests, butcommercial exploitation of timber would. Limitswere placed on the amount of firewood, bam-boo, and timber that could be extracted, andcommercial extraction of bamboo and timberwas prohibited. Setting fire to the forest wasdiscontinued, and though tendu (Dioscorea)leaves are extracted, this is under strict supervi-sion of the villagers. Realising that fruit produc-tion was decreasing, they decided that therewould be no felling of green and fruiting trees,and no felling for honey collection.Encroachment on forest land is also banned.Conventional silvi-cultural practices of the ForestDepartment, such as removal of climbers, wasalso stopped as the villagers argued that theseare essential components of the forest. AtBhaonta-Kolyala, Rajasthan, the rules are sim-ple: no hunting, no felling of green trees.Grazing is allowed inside the protected forest,but regulated in an informal manner. Here andat other CCAs, violations of the rules invite finesand social sanctions. In some places, the finedepends on the wealth of the offender, the rich-er violators will have to pay heavier penalties incase of infraction.

The need for supportSuch initiatives can do with considerable sup-

port from NGOs and government agencies.There is an immediate need for further studieson these initiatives, so that their full biodiversityand social value can be gauged and others canlearn about and from them. It may also oftenbe necessary to accord them legal backup,especially so that communities can enforce their

customary or unwritten rules. In a few places,there may be need for financial support, usuallysmall-scale. Finally, many communities needhelp in adapting appropriate ecologically friend-ly technologies to enhance their livelihoods, andwhere relevant, linkages with consumers andsensitive markets in order to generateresources. This of course comes with the strongprecaution that markets can also destroy, if notcarefully controlled!

One irony that has cropped up in several CCAsneeds urgent resolution. Due to the regenera-tion and protection of habitats, wildlife popula-tions have increased, and in some cases inWest Bengal and Orissa, elephants havereturned, sometimes causing considerable dam-age to crops, livestock, and even human life!Unless urgent supportive measures are consid-ered, the communities’ tolerance levels may becrossed. Both traditional and new methods ofresolving these conflicts need to be explored.

The recently-released National Wildlife ActionPlan 2002-2016 has taken a bold step in recom-mending support to CCAs. Legal teeth couldsoon be provided by the proposed amendedWildlife (Protection) Act, which contains a newprotected area category of CommunityReserves. Care must be taken, however, thatthe government does not take over these CCAsin the guise of legally empowering them. Andsince most CCAs are likely to remain outside thepurview of such official systems, the greatestneed is for conservationists to recognise themas a complementary system of biodiversity con-servation. A truly happy moment for Mr. Sakhrieof Khonoma and thousands of other innovativepeople like him, would be if the next meeting ofthe Indian Board for Wildlife were to have asmuch focus on CCAs as on official protectedareas!

Ashish Kothari ([email protected]) is the Coordinator of theTechnology and Policy Core Group of the Indian National BiodiversityStrategy and Action Plan, a member of the CEESP/CMWG SteeringCommittee and the Co-chair of TILCEPA. Both he and NeemaPathak Broome ([email protected] ) work for Kalpavriksh (KV), avoluntary group based in Pune, India, dedicated to environmentalcommunication, research, campaigns, and direct action. Neema iscurrently preparing a Directory of Community Conserved Areas inIndia.

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 145

This article describes an inter-ethnic effort to

establish a “community conserved area” in theMatavén Forest, province of Vichada, Colombia1(see Figure 1). Numerous lessons are beinglearned through this on-going experience andthese will be of particular interest to protectedarea managers who interact withlocal communities, to indigenous peo-ples interested in establishing theirown protected areas, and to develop-ment agencies and governmentalofficials promoting biodiversity con-servation through participatorymeans.

The Matavén Forest is one of thelast ecologically intact large patchesof tropical rainforest in the transition-al area between the Amazonian andOrinoquian ecosystems, with all of itsrivers draining towards the Orinoco.An ongoing process aimed at estab-lishing a protected area in this regionhas been on going for some time,involving multiple and diverse stake-

holders, such as members and authorities of sixdifferent ethnic groups, local governments,NGOs, regional and national indigenous federa-tions and the national government (via theNational Parks System and the National Plan forAlternative Development2.) An important char-acteristic of this process is that local indigenous

The people of the Matavén Forest and the National Park System— allies in the cre-ation of a Community Conserved Area in Colombia

Andres Luque

FFiigguurree 11:: LLooccaattiioonn ooff MMaattaavvéénn ffoorreesstt iinn CCoolloommbbiiaa

RESUMEN

El presente artículo presenta una serie de lecciones aprendidas en el proceso de creación de un área protegida comunita-ria en la Selva de Matavén (Departamento del Vichada), en las selvas del Amazonas y el Orinoco colombianos. Este proceso,aún en marcha, está siendo desarrollado por líderes indígenas pertenecientes a seis etnias (Piaroa, Puinave, Piapoco,Guahibo, Cubeo y Curripaco), con la colaboracion de diversas instituciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales, entreellas el Sistema Nacional de Parques Nacionales de Colombia. El artículo se centra en el análisis de las oportunidades y losretos presentados por el trabajo conjunto entre el Sistema de Parques Nacionales y las comunidades locales.

La cooperación entre el Sistema de Parques Nacionales y las comunidaes de Matavén fue posible debido al reconocimientoque hizo el gobierno nacional de la importancia de establecer alianzas ambientales con los actores locales, y de sus multiplesintereses. Despues de un sólido proceso de discusión interna, los líderes de Matavén acordaron una estrategia para asegurarla protección biológica y cultural de sus territorios: solicitar al Estado el reconocimiento legal de la totalidad de Matavéncomo territorio indígena (asegurando sus derechos de propiedad), destinar el área para la conservación ambiental, y desa-rrollar un plan de manejo basado en sus tradiciones y cultura. El Sistema de Parques Nacionales apoyó la solicitud hecha porlos pueblos indígenas respecto de la declaracion legal de Matavén como territorio indígena, y ha otorgado apoyo técnico alesfuerzo de conservación de las comunidades. Algunas de las lecciones aprendidas demuestran la importancia de abordar losprocesos de conservación desde una perspectiva intergral, teniendo en cuenta los aspectos sociales y las necesidades dedesarrollo de las comunidades. Asi mismo, se resalta como los procesos de conservación requieren amplios esfuerzos de par-ticipación social para definir objetivos de largo plazo, y asegurar una efectiva socialización en el nivel local.

PolicyMatters12, September 2003146

leaders have been the only decision makers.The participation of NGOs, indigenous federa-tions and governmental offices has been limitedto providing technical and financial support andstrengthening the organizational, planning, andmanagement capabilities of the concerned com-munities.

This process is one of the first in LatinAmerica to create strategic alliances amongNGOs, indigenous communities, and a nationalconservation authority for the purpose ofestablishing a community conservedarea. The case well illustrates thatenvironmental protection is only one ofmany dimensions of the political dis-courses of organized rural communitiesand indigenous peoples. It also showsthat conservation practices based on aparticipatory approach may become apowerful point of aggregation to articu-late elements such as education, health

and livelihood.

In Matavén, the health of the communitiesis linked to the health of the ecosystems

The Matavén Forest encompasses more than2 million hectares and is inhabited by nearly11,500 people belonging to six indigenoustribes: Piaroa, Sikuani, Piapoco, Puinave,Curripaco, and Cubeo. The Forest is boundedby four major rivers: the Vichada in the north,the Orinoco in the east, the Guaviare/BrazoAmanaven in the south, and the Chupave in thewest. Within the Forest are 152 villages, almostall of them located on the banks of these fourrivers. These villages are part of sixteen legallyrecognized indigenous territories, designatedresguardos indigenas (indigenous reservations)by the Colombian constitution (see Figure 2).The indigenous territories cover a total of984,824 hectares. The remaining 1,150,000hectares located in the central area of theMatavén Forest are uninhabited federal landswith no particular management strategy orlegal claim to property rights. These lands areconsidered by the national legislation as tierrasbaldias (vacant lots).

Colombian legislation is weak regarding theprotection of tierras baldias. For instance, aftersome years of settlement and forest clearing,an individual can demand property rights overthe land. Although no people are currently liv-ing in the center of the Matavén Forest, theestablishment of illicit crops threatens the area.Coca plantations are spreading from the west-ern border of the Matavén Forest, the only bor-

der where no indigenousterritory is located. In prac-tice, the center of Matavénis a no-man’s land waitingfor settlers.

To date, no specific biodi-versity assessment hasbeen conducted in theMatavén forest, but someresearch results suggestthat it contains high levels

FFiigguurree 22:: DDeettaaiillss ooff tthhee MMaattaavvéénn ffoorreessttss aanndd tthhee iinnddiiggee-nnoouuss tteerrrriittoorriieess

The goal of the policy is also topromote the creation of privateand community based protectedareas that will increase the totalamount of protected land in thecountry and serve as the founda-

tion of several RegionalProtected Area Systems

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 147

of biodiversity and endemicspecies due to the transi-tional characteristicsbetween the Amazon andthe Orinoco ecosystemsiii.Tropical lowland forestsdominate the landscape,with extensive permanent

and seasonal flooded areas (varzeas andigapos) found along both black and white waterrivers. Also present are isolated savannas(llanos) and rocky formations characteristic ofthe geological formation known as Guyana’sMassif (tepuyes). Within the context of this richphysical and biological diversity, the Matavén isa site of complex and multi-faceted interactionsbetween Amazonian and Orinoquian culturaltraditions. In this sense it represents an impor-tant interface between biodiversity and culturaldiversity.

The origins of the process for the establish-ment of a protected area in the Matavén Forestdate back to the late 1980s, when theFundacion Etnollano/COAMA, a national NGO,conducted an extensive participatory researchproject on health issues in the communities,involving indigenous leaders and hospital work-ers in the area. This project raised awarenessof the importance of the center of the forest(the tierras baldias) to the overall health andwell-being of communities located on its periph-ery. Discussions among community membersrecognized that while indigenous peoples nei-ther legally owned nor inhabited the center ofthe forest, they relied upon it for key resourcessuch as clean water, game and seeds.Moreover, illegal coca plantations for the pro-duction of cocaine were threatening the ecolog-ical integrity of this area. The leaders recog-nized the need to ensure the environmentalconservation of this currently “unprotected”land, both by changing its legal status and byestablishing rules and mechanisms for its man-agement and protection.

By the late 1990s, a process that had begunas participatory research developed into partici-

patory decision-making. Beginning in 1998,indigenous leaders, government officials andNGO members met regularly to develop a set ofsteps that would lead to the achievement oftheir common objective: the establishment of aprotected area in the center of the MatavénForest. To achieve this objective, the indigenousleaders sought the help of sympathetic govern-mental institutions such as the Minister of theEnvironment through the National ParksSystem, and the National Plan for AlternativeDevelopment. To ensure that their rights andpolitical positions would be respected, theindigenous leaders also requested the supportof the Colombian National IndigenousOrganization (ONIC) and the ColombianAmazon Indigenous Peoples Organization(OPIAC). Regional and local governments werealso involved in the process. It was the begin-ning of a cooperative process for the establish-ment of a community conserved area!

Recognizing local voices: the ColombianNational Parks System adopts a conserva-tion approach based on social dynamics

Since 1998, the Colombian National ParksSystem has been implementing a new policy forprotected areas based on recognition of localcampesino communities, indigenous peoplesand other local stakeholders who inhabit orhave territorial interests withinand/or next to a national parkor an area with high biodiversi-ty. The goal of the policy is notonly to engage communities inco-managing protected areasalready comprised in theNational Parks System, but alsoto promote the creation of pri-vate and community basedprotected areas that will increase the totalamount of protected land in the country andserve as the foundation of several RegionalProtected Area Systems. A key challenge result-ing from this policy change is the exploration ofnew models for the creation of protected areasfrom a local perspective. In such models, the

These new protectedareas have conservationvalue in themselves butalso often additionally

serve to connect nationalparks to other high bio-

diversity areas

New capacities in nego-tiation, multicultural

understanding and theuse of participatorymethodologies wereneeded for the task.

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003148

National Parks System would not be the man-ager or owner of the new types of protectedarea but rather hand over this fundamentalresponsibility to local stakeholders. Three majorchanges occurred with this new policy:

- The National Parks System focused on forg-ing alliances with local stakeholders toachieve effective conservation of biodiversity.This was grounded on the principles of socialecology, which highlight the interactionsbetween humans and their environment.The previous perspective was based primari-ly on biological and ecological principles,without much reference to social and bio-anthropogenic dynamics.

- By working with local communities, indige-

nous peoples, local governments and otherlocal and regional stakeholders concernedwith the preservation of ecosystems, theNational Parks System was able to expandits geographical range of action. The estab-lishment of effective alliances, such as thosewith indigenous peoples, afforded an oppor-tunity to create new protected areas that fora variety of reasons were not suitable for theNational Parks System. These new protectedareas have conservation value in themselvesbut also often additionally serve to connectnational parks to other high biodiversityareas. The overall effect is improved biodi-versity conservation and impulsion toward‘regional protected area systems’.

- Local, regional and national stakeholders

came to agree on theimportance and valueof protected areas inachieving adequatelevels of economic,social and culturaldevelopment in anygiven region. This newperspective is consistent with a developmentmodel that does not degrade naturalresources and is not opposed to conserva-tion.

The change of policy in the National ParksSystem effectively modified the way citizensparticipate in the country’s biodiversity conser-vation strategy and thereby required majorinstitutional changes and modifications within

the System.Supporting thecreation ofcommunityconservedareas, assess-ing communityconcerns andgoals, anddesigningmanagementplans in a par-ticipatory man-

ner were not easy tasks for park managers andrangers who—with a few and notable excep-tions— had scarcely by then considered thesocial component of their work. With the newpolicy, park managers with expertise in disci-plines such as biology, ecology, forestry andother natural sciences were asked, often for thefirst time in their professional lives, to take intoaccount not only the biological dynamics of anarea, but its social and cultural dynamics aswell. New capacities in negotiation, multiculturalunderstanding and the use of participatorymethodologies were needed for the task.

The recognition of stakeholder and the shifttoward regional protected area systems alsorequired a change of scale: a bioregional plan-

FFiigguurree 33:: AA mmoommeenntt iinn aa vviillllaaggee iinn tthhee MMaattaavvéénn aarreeaa .. (Courtesy: Andres Luque)

Several on-site discussionswere promoted and sup-

ported, requiring complexlogistical arrangements to

achieve the participation ofrepresentatives of all six-teen indigenous territories

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 149

ning approach was given priority over one thatwas limited by park boundaries. This changewas not easy for park managers who, fordecades, had focused their work within thestrict boundaries of their assigned nationalpark. Many of them felt uncomfortable with thebioregional approach, arguing that significantefforts were still required within establishedparks in order to ensure their conservation. Andyet, the developments in Matavén provided theNational Park System with a unique opportunityto support a conservation project outside of its47 established national parks that comprise itssystem, and to implement a bioregional andmulti-stakeholder approach to guarantee eco-logical connectivity between Amazonian andOrinoquian ecosystems.

Creating a community conserved area inthe Matavén Forest

From the beginning of the process, the parkrangers from the National Parks System joinedan inter-institutional task force to support theindigenous peoples of Matavén in their effort toprotect their forests. Several on-site discussionswere promoted and supported, requiring com-plex logistical arrangements to achieve the par-ticipation of representatives of all sixteenindigenous territories. This included bothyoung leaders as well as elders from a largediversity of villages. Attendance at meetingshas been between 150 and 200 leaders.

One of the first discussions that indigenousleaders with the help of the inter-institutional

task force carriedout was the defini-tion of the type ofprotected area to beestablished. Themaintenance of theautonomy and rightsof the sixteen previ-ously existing indige-nous territories wasthe main criteria. All

of the concerned stakeholders agreed upon the

need to initiate a process that would lead tothe recognition of the tierras baldias as anadditional indigenous territory: the 17th res-guardo. It would be jointly owned and man-aged for conservation purposes by a councilconsisting of the leaders of the sixteen territo-ries. This idea has been pursued and authori-ties of the sixteen territories, with the supportof the government offices and NGOs involved,filed a claim to the government for the designa-tion of the 17th resguardo. The required stud-

FFiigguurree 44:: FFiisshhiinngg aalloonngg tthhee GGuuaavviiaarree RRiivveerr..(Courtesy: Andres Luque)

The indigenous federations wereconcerned about the limitationsto management and autonomy

that an overlapping conservationcategory such as a national parkdesignation might imply for theindigenous peoples of Matavén

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ies are currently underway and the governmentis processing the claim.

Other discussions have addressed the qualityand strength of environmental protection that alegal indigenous territory would provide, andthe possibility of increasing legal protectionthrough overlapping an additional conservationcategory such as a national park. The nationalindigenous federations (ONIC and OPIAC) haverecommended to the indigenous leaders fromMatavén that they do not endorse the idea ofan overlapping national park or other type ofconservation category managed by the NationalParks System. The indigenous federations wereconcerned about the limitations to managementand autonomy that an overlapping conservationcategory such as a national park designationmight imply for the indigenous peoples ofMatavén. Responding to this recommendation,the National Parks System committed itself tothe following principles in relation to its partici-pation in the Matavén Forest ConservationProcess:

- Endorse and support the claim of the indige-nous leaders of Matavén regarding the legalrecognition of the central area as an addi-tional indigenous territory.

- Recognize that only the indigenous commu-nities, based on the exercise of their autono-my and the recognition of the tierras baldias

of Matavén as their ancestral lands, shoulddecide whether and what type of additionalconservation category should be conferredupon the central area of Matavén.

- Provide technical support to the conservationeffort of the communities, regardless of thetype of protected area category they decideto establish.

- Recommend that the type of conservationcategory to be adopted should not be thestarting point of the discussion, but ratherthe final outcome of a participatory conser-vation process that may take years to bedeveloped.

- The current strategic approach agreed by alltowards the protection of the Matavén Forestis based on the following elements:

- A legal effort to obtain the designation of thecentral area of Matavén as an indigenousterritory (the 17th resguardo).

- The establishment of a participatory man-agement plan for the 17th resguardo basedon the traditions of the indigenous peoples,known as the“AncestralManagement Law forthe Matavén Forest.”

- The achievement ofeffective sustainabledevelopment initia-tives for the currentindigenous territo-ries, which will actas buffer zones forthe 17th resguardo.

- The designation by the indigenous communi-ties themselves of the 17th resguardo as astrict conservation area, based on theauthority powers granted to them by theColombian constitution.

FFiigguurree 55:: IInnddiiggeennoouuss lleeaaddeerrss pprreeppaarriinngg tthheeiirr oowwnn mmaappss(Courtesy: Andres Luque)

A “life plan” provides theframework for any state

intervention in an indigenousterritory, acting as a local

agenda dealing with health,education, strengthening of

local identity, and sound envi-ronmental management.

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Lessons learned from the Matavén ForestConservation Process

This ongoing process, initiated in 1998, hasproduced several lessons. Some of these aresummarized below.

In the long term, the Matavén process is ori-ented toward the implementation of the indige-nous “life plan” (plan de vida indigena), anadvanced, anthropogenic-oriented, culturallyand environmentally focused management planfor indigenous territories. Since the late 1990sseveral indigenous groups in Colombia havebeen undergoing internal participatory process-es to create their “life plans”, and have beenusing them as a mechanism to guide and fostertheir interaction with local, regional and nation-al governments. Once completed, a “life plan”provides the framework for any state interven-tion in an indigenous territory, acting as a localagenda dealing with health, education,strengthening of local identity, resource conser-vation and sound environmental management.In the Matavén case, the “life plan” will bebased on the combination of sustainable use ofcertain areas along with the designation oflarge community conserved areas. Managementplans can be based not only on the biologicalneeds of the species to preserve, but also inthe development aspirations, hopes and envi-ronmental values of those who live in areas ofhigh cultural and biological diversity.

The case of the Matavén Forest illustrates thechallenges that the Colombian National ParksSystem is facing while supporting a decentral-ized, participatory, community-based manage-ment approach for environmental conservation.Since the Matavén Forest is not part of theNational Parks System, the issue is not only themanagement of an area with high biodiversity,but also the creation of an institutional settingfavorable to conservation in an area owned andmanaged by indigenous peoples. Indeed, theprotection of the environment is all but one ofmany aspects of the environmental discoursesof organized rural communities and indigenouspeoples.

Andres Luque ([email protected]) is a Fulbright Fellowand graduate student at Yale University. He has experience in thefield of environmental management and development in Colombia,including former work with the Colombian Ministry of theEnvironment – National Parks System. Andres is a member ofCEESP/CMWG.

Notes1 Departamento del Vichada.2 Government office in charge of the policy for the substitution ofillicit coca and poppy plantations.3 Herrera et al., 2000.

ReferencesHerrera, Xochitl, Miguel Lobo-Guerrero, Jaime de Greiff and

Andres Luque. Matavén: Selva Corazon de la Salud. Bogota,Fundacion Etnollano / Programa COAMA, 2000.

Sistema de Parques Nacionales Naturales. Parques con la Gente:Politica de Participacion Social en la Conservacion. Ministerio delMedio Ambiente, Bogota, 2002.

Mora, Emilce, Hernan Dario Correa, Harold Ospino y AndresLuque. “Proceso de Conservacion en la Selva de Mataven”. In:Sistema de Parques Nacionales Naturales, Parques con la Gente:Politica de Participacion Social en la Conservacion.Ministerio delMedio Ambiente, Bogotà, 2002.

LAST MINUTE!On July 22, 2003, the Colombian government(through the Colombian Institute for AgrarianReform INCORA) approved the creation of theMatavén Forest Indigenous Territory. This deci-sion expanded the original 16 resguardos, crea-ting one of Colombia’s largest indigenous territo-ries. The Matavén Forest is now a legally reco-gnized indigenous territory of 1,849,613 hecta-res. The traditional authorities of Matavén haveestablished ACATISEMA, the Asociación deCabildos y Autoridades Tradicionales Indígenasde la Selva de Matavén, for managing and lea-dership purposes. These important stepstowards the protection of the cultural and biolo-gical diversity of Matavén are the result of seve-ral alliances among committed individuals, tradi-tional leaders, NGOs and governmental conser-vation agencies. (Source: Fundacion Etnollano,www.etnollano.org)

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Where are we?

Setulang Village is located in northeastern

Kalimantan, Indonesia, at the juncture of theMalinau and Setulang Rivers. Our village bound-aries correspond with the watershed of theSetulang River. We are located in the MalinauDistrict (Kabupaten), one of the last remainingareas of contiguous lowland tropical forest in theworld. Because of this forest and the richness ofits resources, our district has attracted interna-tional attention from conservation agencies1 aswell as from agencies those interested inresource exploitation2.

Who are we?

The Village of Setulang consists of 855 people(208 households) of the Oma Long sub group ofKenyah Dayak. We have the largest populationof a single ethnic group living along the MalinauRiver (where there are 27 villages). Our liveli-hoods are based on swidden rice farming, fishingand hunting. We earn cash by selling our extrarice. Our customs and customary laws are stillstrong.

Why is the river important to us?

We rely on the Setulang and Malinau Rivers for

our basic food needs (fish, shrimp, crayfish,snails, frogs), as well as for drinking water,bathing and washing. The rivers are our mainavenues of transportation, as we move around byboat. When we have spare time, we picnic alongthe Setulang River because of its beauty.

The challenges we face

Since the year 200, with the implementation ofIndonesia’s decentralization policy reforms, small-scale logging became rampant throughoutIndonesia, and especially in our district as we areclose to the markets in Malaysia. In April 2000,the District Leader (Bupati) began allocating

Setulang village protects its river!Ramses Iwan on behalf of the Setulang community

FFiigguurree 11:: …… wwee rreellyy oonn tthhee SSeettuullaanngg aanndd MMaalliinnaauuRRiivveerrss ffoorr oouurr bbaassiicc ffoooodd nneeeeddss,, ssuucchh aass ffiisshh,, sshhrriimmpp,,ccrraayyffiisshh,, ssnnaaiillss,, ffrrooggss …… (Courtesy Adi Seno)

FFiigguurree 22 …… oouurr lliivveelliihhooooddss aarree bbaasseedd oonn sswwiiddddeennrriiccee ffaarrmmiinngg,, ffiisshhiinngg aanndd hhuunnttiinngg …… (CourtesyEdmond Dounias)

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 153

small scale logging permits (IPPKs, or IzinPemungutan dan Pemanfaatan Kayu) of 100 to5000 ha each to hastily formed small local com-panies. The result has been extraordinarily highlevels of intense, unsustainable timber extractionand conflict. Thirty-eight IPPKs have been issuedgranting access to more than 53 000 ha inMalinau District since April 2000.

Loggers now want to enter our forests. Butonly Setulang village (among all the villages inthe district) has refused to give permission forlogging on its lands. We have refused the offersof nine companies that continued to come to ourvillage until November 2002. We have beenoffered 300,000 dollars for an area of 5,300hectares. This is an enormous sum of money forus. But we have still refused.

Why? With logging along the Malinau River wehave watched the destruction of a river. Ouryouths have seen the impacts of logging inSarawak on local people’s lives. We know we willhave no future if our lands are logged and ourriver is destroyed.

Our actions

In mid 2000 the community of Setulang metand agreed to conserve the forest in the upperSetulang River for watershed protection. Wehave had to work hard to protect our river. InSeptember 2002 the Setulang community seizedthe equipment of a logging company that illegallyentered our village land. Based on our customarylaw, we fined the company 4,000 dollars. Weinvolved the district officials to reach this agree-ment.

Two months later our community negotiatedwith another logging company that had enteredour land illegally on the west side. The companyagreed not to log until the government settledthe boundary. But in January 2003, the companystarted logging again. We talked with district gov-ernment about this problem and encouragedthem to give priority to mapping this boundary sowe could settle the problem quickly and fairly.They agreed.

These two examples show the challenges wehave faced to conserve our river. We are sure, wewill face more challenges in the future. Butbecause of our village’s unity and willingness towork together, we will strive to overcome them.

Ramses Iwan is a community member of Setulang Village inMalinau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia and a CIFOR Field Researcher.His mailing address is c/o CIFOR http://www.cifor.org .

Notes1E.g. , WWF, WCS (Wildlife Conservation Society), the WorldConservation Union (IUCN), The Center for International ForestryResearch (CIFOR)2 E.g., many international investors, ITTO,CIFOR…

FFiigguurree 33:: ……wwhheenn wwee hhaavvee ssppaarree ttiimmee,, wwee ppiiccnniiccaalloonngg tthhee SSeettuullaanngg RRiivveerr bbeeccaauussee ooff iittss bbeeaauuttyy......(Courtesy Edmond Dounias)

FFiigguurree 44:: …… wwee ffaacceedd mmaannyy cchhaalllleennggeess ttooccoonnsseerrvvee oouurr rriivveerr…… (Courtesy Adi Seno)

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Son millares de héroes anónimos los que

luchan, mueren y desaparecen en el patéticoescenario de los crudos campos de guerra porla defensa del ambiente y de la calidad de vidade los seres humanos … es una lucha desigual,por cuanto los adversarios son poderosos ydominan los ámbitos económicos, políticos ysociales…es una lucha irónica, por cuanto lavictoria, si se logra, es también compartida porlos adversarios que obligadamente tienen quecompartir y gozar de un ambiente sano y pací-fico.

Uno de estos héroes anónimos es ModestoOchoa Rueda, padre de cinco hijas y un varón,cuyas edades oscilan entre 8 y 15 años.Modesto vive con su esposa, Paula OliviaGonzález. Mientras sus hijos estudian en laescuela de la comunidad rural y su esposa sededica a su cuidado, Modesto se dedica a lapesca en las pocas lagunas que aún existen,gracias en gran parte a la lucha de las comuni-dades locales por evitar que los inversionistaslas conviertan en fincas de cultivo de camarón.Esta actividad la complementa con labores de

agricultura y acti-vismo social yambiental.

Esta historiapuede localizarseen cualquier lugarde la zona tropicalo subtropical delplaneta, donde latenebrosa e incon-trolable industriade los cultivos decamarón ha llega-do a establecersecon la falacia deofrecer fuentes de

empleo, divisas, electricidad, agua potable,salud, alimentación, educación y en resumen,

el muy desgastado objetivo del “DesarrolloSostenible”.

Es la madrugada de un 6 de Febrero del2000. El frío es intenso y Modesto no ha dor-mido preocupado por los eventos planificadospara ese día. Grupos de friolentos hombres,mujeres y niños se encaminan hacia la vía deacceso a la finca camaronera más grande deHonduras - con sus más de cinco mil hectáreasen una sola península... quizá la más grandedel mundo… El motivo: hacer ver a empresa-rios del cultivo del camarón y a la prensa localy nacional las implicaciones que para la vida yla seguridad alimentaria de las comunidadestiene el hecho de que el Gobierno, confabuladocon inversionistas extranjeros y el BancoMundial, haya otorgado Licencia Ambientalpara la expansión sobre casi 1000 hectáreas ala empresa Granjas Marinas San Bernardo(GMSB).

El camino está vigilando por numerosos poli-cías antimotines, preparados para disolvermanifestaciones populares a como dé lugar yreforzados por contingentes de la Capital,Choluteca, Namasigue y otras ciudades. Frentea ellos, un grupo de pescadores y campesinospobres que poco a poco va engrosándose conotros provenientes de diferentes comunidades.

“Aún antes de fundarse el CODDEFFAGOLF,organización de pescadores, campesinos,ambientalistas y pobladores de los estratosmás pobres de Honduras,” relata Modesto, “yahabíamos observado cómo el descontroladoestablecimiento de los cultivos de camarónestaba destruyendo los bosques de mangle ylas lagunas, contaminaba esteros, nos negabael paso hacia nuestros tradicionales sitios depesca y nos acosaba mientras trabajábamos…veíamos desaparecer bosques y animales sil-vestres y escasear los recursos marinos… noso-tros protestábamos y nos enfrentábamos conlos camaroneros para discutir los problemas;algunas veces ganamos momentáneamente,

Contra la expansion de la acuacultura del Camaron en Honduras— la historia de Modesto Ochoa

Jorge Varela

Esta historia puede localizarse encualquier lugar de la zona tropical o

subtropical del planeta, donde latenebrosa e incontrolable industria

de los cultivos de camarón ha llegadoa establecerse con la falacia de ofre-cer fuentes de empleo, divisas, elec-tricidad, agua potable, salud, ali-

mentación, educación y en resumen,el muy desgastado objetivo del

“Desarrollo Sostenible”.

pero al final ellossiempre se aprovecha-ron y con promesas deprogreso para todosnos han dejado másretrasados y maspobres … el ‘desarrollosostenible’ solo ha sidopara los inversionistaspero no para el pue-blo… las municipalida-des les mendiganayuda y les perdonanlos impuestos a cam-

bio de que sigan dando empleo a algunas per-sonas, con sueldos de hambre y generalmentesin derechos laborales…”

“Junto con mis compañeros del CODDEFFA-GOLF, hemos logrado que los empresarios yfuncionarios de Gobierno nos tengan algo deconsideración y respeto; que se haya designa-do al Golfo de Fonseca en Honduras como SitioRAMSAR 1000; que los humedales costerosque se han salvado de la destrucción hayansido declarados Areas Protegidas por elCongreso Nacional; la destrucción de mangla-res ha disminuido; hemos logrado ejecutarpequeños proyectos de desarrollo comunal enla zona y aún podemos pescar en algunossitios. Sin embargo, aún en las áreas protegi-das la destrucción ha continuado, pues sobreuna sinuosa línea costera de más de 180km,17 mil hectáreas de humedales han sido con-vertidos en fincas camaroneras”.

El Comandante de la policía llama a Modestoy le ordena el desalojo de la gente… Los comu-neros se oponen pues se ha demostrado que laempresa camaronera ha violado las leyes y exi-gen justicia. Los soldados atacan a los manifes-tantes, quienes repelen la primera agresiónarmados con pequeños palos de mangle y semantienen… pero la represión se agudiza. Lospolicías caen sobre Modesto y lo golpean bru-talmente. Otros líderes identificados con antici-pación son conducidos violentamente a trans-portes militares y de allí a la cárcel. Decenas

de heridos y golpeados quedan tras media horade lucha desigual.

Esta acción logró exponer ante el mundo lasinjusticias e impactos negativos traídos por laindustria del camarón a Honduras. Logró que elBanco Mundial (principal impulsor de la expan-sión de GMSB) envíe a funcionarios de laCorporación Financiera Internacional (WB/IFC,institución prestataria) a investigar la situación;con ello se alcanzó una serie de compromisossociales y ambientales que después la empresasolo cumplió parcialmente. Esta acción proba-blemente sirvió también para evitar que elIFC/WB continúe otorgando más préstamos aGMSB para su expansión en Honduras, México,Venezuela y otros países. La acción expuso alGobierno de Honduras como un gobierno impo-sibilitado de aplicar la Ley a empresas podero-sas cuyos inversionistas generalmente formanparte del mismo Gobierno – incluyendo al pro-pio Presidente de Honduras.

La historia de Modesto y de sus luchas serepite en todos los países donde los inversio-nistas internacionales parecen interesarse máspor asegurar que los consumidores de USA,Europa y Japón sigan degustando a bajo preciolos manjares tropicales, que por resolver losproblemas de pobreza e injusticia en los paísesproductores. Pero estas luchas van creando unmovimiento social que algún día podrá hacercambiar las reglas del juego.

Jorge Varela ([email protected] ) es uno de los iniciadoresdel Comité para la Defensa y Desarrollo de la Flora y Fauna delGolfo de Fonseca (CODDEFFAGOLF), de la Asociación Civil Tri-nacional para la Conservación del Golfo de Fonseca y del IndustrialShrimp Action Network (ISA Net), un esfuerzo internacional parabrindar apoyo a las comunidades que resisten la introducción oexpansión de la industria camaronera. Jorge recibió el GoldmanEnvironmental Prize y es un miembro del CEESP/CMWG.

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 155

Modesto se dedica a la pescaen las pocas lagunas que aúnexisten, gracias en gran partea la lucha de las comunidades

locales por evitar que losinversionistas las conviertan enfincas de cultivo de camarón.

[…] Estas luchas van creandoun movimiento social que algún

día podrá hacer cambiar lasreglas del juego.

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L’administration et les communau-

tés locales n’ont pas et n’auront sansdoute jamais la même vision desaires protégées. En effet, les servicesgouvernementaux de conservationappréhendent la sauvegarde desmilieux naturels à l’échelle nationaleet selon des critères internationaux.Les populations, au contraire, nes’intéressent qu’à leur environnementimmédiat et sur la seule base deréférents économiques et culturels.Les premiers se focalisent sur unéchantillonnage représentatif desécosystèmes alors que les secondesdéfendent leurs moyens d’existence. Ces deuxapproches différentes, pour ne pas dire oppo-sées, sont à l’origine de la plupart des conflits.

Si les ruraux connaissent mieux que quiconquele ou les écosystèmes dont ils tirent leur subsis-tance depuis de nombreuses générations, ilsignorent tout de l’évolution globale des biomeset de la biosphère mondiale, envers lesquels ilsont des difficultés conceptuelles à se sentirconcernés. En revanche, ils sont les mieux pla-cés pour mesurer l’érosion locale de la diversitébiologique et la très grande valeur des rares sec-teurs où elle est encore préservée.

Ainsi, les mises en défens administratives sontpresque toujours perçues par les communautéscomme la confiscation par l’Etat de ressourcesqui leur sont essentielles. Le ressentimentqu’elles en éprouvent perdure plus ou moinslongtemps, sans pour autant exclure la fiertélégitime d’une reconnaissance officielle de larichesse patrimoniale de leurs terroirs. En cas dedégradations antérieures, il arrive même que semanifeste un certain remord au sein de la popu-lation. C’est ce qui se produisit lors du classe-ment de la Réserve naturelle de Popenguine, auSénégal.

Le site était autrefois occupé par une forêtclassée qui fut entièrement détruite lors des

grandes sécheresses du début des années 1970et 80. Mais l’altération du milieu n’avait pas d’in-cidence sur l’objectif de conservation, car ils’agissait essentiellement de préserver un lieud’hivernage de passereaux paléarctiques(Monticola sp.) inféodés aux milieux rocheux.C’est d’ailleurs la déforestation qui avait permisde découvrir leur présence.

Les mères-nature de Kër CupaamToutefois, un groupe de mères de familles du

village de Popenguine fondèrent spontanémentune association1 dont l’objectif était de créer despépinières afin de restaurer le couvert végétal dela réserve. Durant sept ans, sans aide extérieure,elles plantèrent des milliers d’acacias et de bao-babs, assurèrent l’entretien annuel des pistes etd’un pare-feu sur les 12 km du périmètre de laréserve. Parallèlement leurs enfants, organisésen corps de Volontaires, réalisèrent des travauxde lutte contre l’érosion sur les pentes dénu-dées.

La construction d’un campement touristique2

leur apporta les ressources pour amplifier leuraction. Dès lors, les femmes des autres villagesles imitèrent et, avec ce renfort, les 120 pion-nières constituèrent un collectif féminin de 1555membres3. Devant une telle mobilisation et les

Les Aires du Patrimoine Communautaire—les paradoxes de la conservation au Sénégal

Woulimata Thiaw, Seydina Issa Sylla et Jean Larivière

FFiigguurree 11 :: LLee vviillllaaggee ddee YYooffff vvuu ddee ll’’îîllee ddee PPaattrriimmooiinneeCCoommmmuunnaauuttaaiirree ddee TTeeuunngguueennee ((ddaannss ll’’iillee)) cchhaaqquuee aannnnééee uunn bboouuff eessttssaaccrriiffiiéé àà MMaammee DDiiaarree,, ggéénniiee ttuuttééllaaiirree ddee llaa ccoommmmuunnaauuttéé lleebbuu..(Courtoisie Jean Larivière)

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 157

travaux déjà accomplis, le Ministère del’Environnement attribua, par protocole, la ges-tion de la réserve au collectif.

Conscientes qu’une nouvelle période de séche-resse anéantirait leurs efforts, les femmes élabo-rèrent un programme plus ambitieux qui allaits’avérer un modèle de développement durable.Couvrant l’aire protégée et les terroirs villageoispériphérique, il prit le nom d’Espace NaturelCommunautaire Kër Cupaam et un financementde la Commission européenne4 le concrétisa.

Pour renforcer les pépinières et créer des boisvillageois dans chacun des huit villages, la col-lecte des déchets ménagers et leur compostagefurent organisés. Avec l’excédent de compost, lemaraîchage se développa. Un réseau de distribu-tion de combustibles favorisa l’utilisation du gaz

qui, très vite, fut préféré au bois de feu. Unebanque céréalière évita la flambée des prix enpériode de soudure et une caisse d’épargne etde crédit encouragea le petit commerce. Enfin,soucieuses de partager leur expérience avecd’autres groupements féminins du Sénégal ou dela sous-région, un centre de formation futconstruit aux abords de la réserve.

L’ensemble du dispositif représente aujourd’huinon seulement un modèle de gestion de l’envi-ronnement mais également un apprentissage àl’indépendance économique. Par ailleurs, avecl’apport des différents services et avantages,l’entretien de l’aire protégée a cessé d’être consi-déré comme une astreinte, mais comme la justecontrepartie des bénéfices obtenus.

EEnnccaaddrréé 11.. SSttaattuuttss pprroovviissooiirreess

Article 1 - Définition

Une Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire est un espace de conservation durable de la diversité biologique locale,végétale, animale, et/ou culturelle, ayant valeur de référence pour les générations futures de la communauté quil’a créée.

Article 2 - Principe fondateur

Toute Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire se fonde sur une initiative endogène et consensuelle de conservationd’un site naturel et/ou culturel.

Article 3 - Vocation

Une Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire a pour vocation la sauvegarde d’un site du patrimoine naturel et/ou cul-turel, jugé d’intérêt majeur par les populations locales.

Article 4 - Éligibilité

Le choix du lieu et la superficie mise en sauvegarde sont déterminés par consensus entre les autorités coutu-mières, religieuses et administratives, la population et les acteurs socio-économiques locaux.

Les services ou organismes, nationaux et internationaux, de la conservation des ressources naturelles apporte-ront leurs appuis techniques, définis aux termes de conventions particulières.

Article 5 - Caractéristiques

Tout site, continental ou marin, peut être érigé en Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire, quels que soient sa super-ficie et son état de conservation au moment de sa mise sous protection.

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Article 6 - Foncier

La création d’une Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire concerne principalement les biens communauxet/ou coutumiers.

Toutefois, dans le cas où des terrains privés seraient inclus dans le périmètre de conservation, ces ter-rains pourront être cédés à la communauté aux termes d’un contrat conclu de gré à gré.

Toute Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire est inaliénable après constitution.

Article 7 - Enregistrement

Toute Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire doit être déclarée, reconnue et enregistrée, comme tellepar les services compétents de l’État.

Article 8 - Gestion

La gestion et l’intégrité d’une Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire sont assurées et garanties par l’en-semble des populations périphériques, ou par les responsables qu’elles auront désignés au sein de lacommunauté concernée.

Article 9 - Interventions

Dans le cas d’un milieu naturel dégradé, une restauration de la flore et de la faune sera entrepriseafin de reconstituer, autant que faire se peut, la biocénose originelle. Il ne sera donc procédé à aucunprélèvement de faune ou de flore, sous quelle forme que ce soit, à l’exception de la collecte de grainesou boutures végétales destinées à la multiplication d’espèces rares ou menacées. Les récoltes seronttoujours effectuées après accord des représentants de la collectivité gestionnaire et sous le contrôle del’autorité scientifique qu’elle aura désignée.

Article 10 - Financement

La gestion d’une Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire est à la charge de la collectivité qui en a décidéla création, notamment et après enquête préalable, pour tous les travaux de restauration de la diversitébiologique végétale et animale. Toutefois, dans le cas d’interventions dépassant le potentiel local tellesque les évaluations, les inventaires floristique et faunistique, la cartographie, etc., la communauté peutintroduire des demandes de financements nationaux ou internationaux.

Article 11 - Ressources

La collectivité gestionnaire d’une Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire a la possibilité d’exploiter sesressources par extractivisme (collectes sélectives) et pour son éventuel intérêt touristique (visites gui-dées), à la condition que ces activités n’aient pas d’impact notoire sur l’équilibre du milieu naturel.

Article 12 - Transmutations

Lorsque les populations locales se sont largement investies dans la gestion d’une Réserve nationale,celle-ci peut acquérir la vocation et l’appellation d’Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire sans perdre pourautant son statut initial.

Réciproquement, une aire du Patrimoine Communautaire peut être érigée en Réserve nationale à lademande ou avec l’accord de l’ensemble des acteurs et partenaires de la communauté gestionnaire.

Ces transmutations sont enregistrées par conventions passées avec les services compétents de l’État.

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Les Aires du Patrimoine communautaire

L’exemple des femmes de Kër Cupaam a trou-vé des applications avant même que leur pro-gramme soit achevé. Les résultats obtenus,notamment au niveau de la surveillance et parvoie de conséquence dans la reconquête de lafaune, donnèrent à penser que des aires proté-gées pouvaient être, non seulement confiées àdes communautés locales, mais qu’il était égale-ment possible de leur donner la possibilité d’encréer selon leurs propres critères. C’est ainsi quefurent établis les statuts provisoires des Aires duPatrimoine Communautaire (APC). Ceux-ci sontactuellement examinés par les Agences régio-nales de développement du Sénégal qui y onttrouvé l’instrument juridique nécessaire pour uneapplication pratique de la réglementation sur laprotection et la conservation des ressourcesnaturelles telle que prévu par la loi de décentra-lisation.

Pour la sauvegarde de « la demeure deMame Ndiare »

Cette procédure, fut tout d’abord proposée à lacommunauté lébou de Yoff, un village côtier dela proche banlieue de Dakar. Devant le port depêche, l’ île Teunguène est la demeure de MameDiare, génie tutélaire des lieux et longtemps res-pectée comme telle. Encore vierge de touteconstruction, elle était autrefois réservée auxcérémonies rituelles. Mais, avec l’extension de lacité et l’arrivée de nouveaux habitants, l’ île futde plus en plus visitée par les promeneurs et lespêcheurs sous-marins. Cette fréquentation, bienque récente et relativement limitée, avait toute-fois provoqué une forte érosion des sentiers, àlaquelle s’ajouta l’appauvrissement de la végéta-tion en raison de la dépose de moutons pendantl’hivernage.

Afin de sauvegarder ce sanctuaire naturel etculturel, les autorités religieuses, coutumières etciviles, les acteurs économiques et les habitantsde Yoff ont accepté, par consensus établi enmoins de trois mois, d’ériger l’ île en Aire duPatrimoine communautaire.

Commune d’arrondissement de Yoff - 5 juin 1998 - Journée mondiale de l’Environnement

“Nous, populations yoffoises, dépositaires d’une grande partie de l’histoire du Peuple lébou, sommes conscientesqu’en cette fin du XXe siècle, la gestion de notre patrimoine culturel et naturel est plus que capitale. Sans cetteNature dont nous ne sommes pas maîtres et possesseurs mais de simples éléments, même si ceux-ci s’avèrentdéterminant de par leur impact sur les milieux naturels et l’ensemble des êtres vivants, nous ne saurions obtenirde vie meilleure pour nous-mêmes, ni un avenir prometteur aux générations futures. Nous déclarons Teungnéne,l’ île de Yoff, symbole de l’attachement du Peuple lébou à la nature terrestre et marine, ainsi qu’à son génie tuté-laire Mame NDiaré.

Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire de Teunguène

Teungnéne, lieu de culte, étape pour les oiseaux migrateurs et refuge d’une diversité végétale et marine de plusen plus menacée, doit éveiller notre conscience à la nécessité de sauvegarder notre patrimoine naturel et culturel.Ce conservatoire de nos valeurs traditionnelles, ouvert sur la modernité, nous permettra de rester un peupledigne et responsable. Nous invitons la Communauté lébou, le Peuple sénégalais et, au-delà, la Communautéinternationale, à nous rejoindre et nous soutenir dans cette nouvelle approche des principes de gestion de l’envi-ronnement continental et marin à Yoff.”

L’infinie variété des milieux naturels, des cultures humaines, des espèces animales et végétales, procède de lamême biodiversité. Protéger les uns sans également protéger les autres serait vain.

EEnnccaaddrree 22.. DDééccllaarraattiioonn ddee TTeeuunngguuèènnee

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PolicyMatters12, September 2003160

La caractéristique des APC est que le choix dusite, sa superficie, ses délimitations, son modede gestion et sa surveillance relèvent de la seuleresponsabilité des communautés qui les ont éta-blies. Le principe fondamental est en effet de nerien interdire, ni de conditionner, a priori, maisau contraire d’inciter sans la moindre restrictiontoute initiative en faveur de la conservation d’unsite naturel, même si celui-ci est dégradé aumoment du classement. Sa restauration s’inscrit

alors dans le plan d’action.

Les APC ont pour objectif d’impliquer les popu-lations locales dans la gestion de leurs res-sources naturelles et de les sensibiliser à leurconservation par une appropriation effective,reconnue à la fois par l’ensemble des acteurssocio-économiques et les autorités administra-tives. Elles sont régies par un règlement inté-rieur ratifié par les signataires de leur assembléeconstitutive.

El Hadj ISSA MBENGUE

Grand Diaraf de Yoff,chef de village et conservateur del’île

SEYDINA MAME ALASSANE LAYE

Khalif général des Layènes

SEYDINA ISSA NDIAYE

Maire de Yoff

El Hadj ELIMANE LÉYE

Imam Ratib de Yoff

El Hadj OUMAR NGALLA DIÈNE

Grand Diaraf de Yoff, chef de village

El Hadj NDIAGA NDOYE

Grand Diaraf de Yoff, chef de village

El Hadj ASSAN MBENGUE

Ndiey-ji-rew

El Hadj IBRAHIMA TANOR DIOUF

Ndiey-ji-rew

El Hadj YOUSSOUPHA NDIR

Saltigué

El Hadj IBRAHIMA NDOYE

Saltigué

El Hadj AMADOU LAMINE DIAGNE

Saltigué

El Hadj SOULEYMAN DIAGNE

Président des Maggi-Yoff

El Hadj BABACAR MBENGUE

Président de l’Assemblée desDiambours

El Hadj OUSMANE NDOYE

Président de l’Assemblée des Freys

Adji THIOUME LÉYE

Ndeupkat

BINETA NDIR

Ndeupkat

PAPE FALL DIÈYE

Union locale des Pêcheurs de Yoff

MASS THIAW

Collectif des PêcheursIBRAHIMA DIÉNE

Comité de Surveillance côtière

DIARRA SECK

Présidente des Mareyeuses

FATIM DIOP

Regroupement des Transformatrices

El Hadj ÉLIMANE MBENGUE

Président de l’Association desRameurs

MAMADOU SAMBA

Club FNH - Foyer des Jeunes

SERIGNE MBAYE DIÈNE

Président de l’Association pour laPromotion économique, culturelle etsociale de Yoff

SEYDINA ISSA SYLLA

Wetlands international

SIDY DIOUF

Sous-Préfet des Almadies

EEnnccaaddrree 33. MMaanniiffeessttee ppoouurr llaa ccoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn ddee ll’’AAPPCC ddee TTeeuunngguuèènnee

Assemblée Constitutive de l’Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire de Teunguène

Par le présent manifeste, six points sont pris en considération :1 – La salubrité de la plage, face à l’ A.P.C. de Teunguène2 – La conservation des espèces animales et végétales de l’A.P.C. de Teunguène3 – La protection des oiseaux migrateurs et sédentaires de l’A.P.C. de Teunguène et à son voisinage4 – Les visites de l’A.P.C. de Teunguène5 – La restauration et le suivi des populations végétales et animales de l’A.P.C. de Teunguène6 - La vulgarisation du concept des Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire

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PolicyMatters12, September 2003 161

1 – La salubrité de la plage

Avant d’être choisie pour devenir la première des Aires du Patrimoine Communautaire au monde, Teunguèneétait une île sacrée depuis des temps immémoriaux et le demeure. Par respect pour le site, la plage doit êtremaintenue dans un état de propreté qui en soit digne. Sans supprimer, ni restreindre les activités qui s’y tiennenttraditionnellement, les déchets peuvent en être rassemblés à certains points afin d’en faciliter la collecte. Leurramassage quotidien pourrait servir à alimenter une unité de compostage, également destinataire des orduresménagères et eaux usées des riverains.

2 – La conservation des espèces animales et végétales

Une Aire du Patrimoine Communautaire doit être considérée comme une banque d’espèces vivantes, animales etvégétales, dont il convient de respecter le capital afin de n’en utiliser que les intérêts. Ainsi, en évitant de préle-ver des poissons, des coquillages et des crustacés sur les rivages de l’ île Teunguène, leur nombre augmentera etdes individus viendront peupler des sites qu’ils avaient désertés et où ils pourront être pêchés à nouveau. Pourcertaines espèces abondantes, des prélèvements pourront être autorisés sur l’ île par l’Assemblée qui en fixera lesquantités et les périodes de collecte. Il en est de même pour les végétaux, dont seules les semences ou des bou-tures pourront être emportées hors de l’A.P.C. pour d’éventuelle mises en culture à des fins utilitaires. Ces prélè-vements seront soumis à l’autorisation de l’autorité gestionnaire désignée par l’Assemblée.

3 – La protection des oiseaux migrateurs et sédentaires

Les oiseaux marins ou terrestres qui fréquentent l’A.P.C. de Teunguène doivent être respectés quelle que soit leurespèce. Les plus vulnérables sont les migrateurs, comme certaines sternes auxquelles la réglementation interna-tionale accorde une protection intégrale. Une attention particulière sera apportée à ces oiseaux par l’ensemble dela communauté lébou qui se déclare garante de leur sauvegarde sur son littoral.

4 – Les visites sur l’île

Tous les déplacements sur l’ île passent obligatoirement par les sentiers qui y ont été tracés afin de préserver uncouvert végétal particulièrement fragile. Les prélèvements, comme l’introduction, de plantes ou de tout autre élé-ment vivant y sont soumis à une autorisation de l’Assemblée.

5 – Restauration et suivi des espèces animales et végétales

Les populations animales se reconstitueront sans apports nécessaires si les prélèvements sont suspendus suffi-samment longtemps pour que les différentes espèces reconquièrent leur habitat à partir des colonies ou effectifsqui subsistent.

Pour les végétaux, des réintroductions seront tentées à partir d’individus prélevés parmi les espèces indigènesencore présentes dans le Parc national des îles de la Madeleine. Cette reconstitution du couvert végétal permet-tra, peut-être, la nidification d’oiseaux marins qui restituerait pleinement à Teunguène son caractère de patrimoi-ne vivant.

6 – Vulgarisation du concept des Aires du Patrimoine communautaire

Les signataires de la Déclaration, qui ont ratifié le présent Manifeste pour la conservation de l’Aire duPatrimoine Communautaire de Teunguène, s’engagent à employer tous les moyens dont ils disposent pour infor-mer et sensibiliser l’ensemble de la population à ce nouveau concept par la mise en œuvre d’un programmed’éducation relative à l’environnement et au développement durable.

Le présent Manifeste a été ratifié par l’Assemblée des signataires de la Déclaration de Teunguène àl’occasion de l’assemblée plénière du 6 février 1999.

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

A la suite du classement de l’APC deTeunguène, diverses mesures ont été aussitôtappliquées. L’arrêt de toute dépose du bétailsur l’ île a été facilement consentie, dans lamesure où son exiguïté et la pauvreté du pâtu-rage ne pouvaient supporter qu’un nombrelimité de bêtes. La décision la plus importantefut la suppression effective de la pêche à ladynamite, une pratique clandestine mais large-ment répandue qui ne peut être efficacementcontrôlée que par autodiscipline entrepêcheurs. Désormais, toute capture par ce pro-cédé est immédiatement reconnue et confis-quée par les professionnels qui en sonttémoins.

Par la suite, les usagers de la plage se sontmobilisés et les anciens qui, traditionnellement,passent la journée sous des abris aux endroitsles plus fréquentés, ont exercé une surveillanceet exprimé leur avis sur les activités dont ilsétaient jusqu’alors les témoins passifs et silen-cieux. Leur rôle a été déterminant dans l’arrêtdes prélèvements de sable de mer qui, tout lelong du littoral, constitue un matériau deconstruction d’autant plus demandé que l’urba-nisation sur la côte est en constante expan-sion.

Enfin, les maîtres-nageurs, chargés par la

municipalité de lasécurité despêcheurs et bai-gneurs, ont pris unepart active par leursconseils auxmareyeuses qui,produisant une gran-de quantité dedéchets rapidementputrescibles, contri-buent à la pollutionde la plage. Parailleurs, leur contactpermanent avec lesenfants a permisque cesse la pêchedes sternes contrelaquelle les associa-

tions de protection des oiseaux luttaient depuisdes années.

Une expérience dupliquée

Le classement de l’ île de Teunguène fut suivi,quelques mois plus tard de celui de la lagunede la Somone. Limitrophe de l’Espace naturelcommunautaire Kër Cupaam, la mangrove yavait été entièrement rasée en même tempsque l’ancienne forêt classée de Poenguine etpour les mêmes raisons. En 1996, lors du lan-cement du programme de développement del’Espace naturel communautaire de KërCupaam, les jeunes volontaires affiliés au col-lectif commencèrent à repiquer des palétuvierle long des rives, en progressant d’aval enamont. Actuellement, près d’une centained’hectares ont été restaurés. Deux ans plustard, les huîtres, les moules et les crustacésréapparaissaient, tandis que les oiseaux aqua-tiques, migrateurs et sédentaires s’y réinstal-laient en grand nombre. Afin de sauvegarderces reconquêtes, les responsables de dix vil-lages riverains ont décidé d’ériger la partiecentrale de la lagune en APC. Ce statut leurpermit d’en tirer un bénéfice direct, à la foispar l’exploitation raisonnée des ressourceshalieutiques et le contrôle des flux touristiques

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FFiigguurree 22 :: AA KKeerr CCuuppaaaamm lleess ttrraavvaauuxx ddaannss llaa rréésseerrvvee ss’’aajjoouutteenntt àà ddeess ttââcchheess qquuoottii-ddiieennnneess ddééjjàà lloouurrddeess.. (Courtoisie Jean Larivière)

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

venant du complexe hôtelier de Saly Portudal,tout proche.

Des objectifs différents mais convergents

Une autre lagune, située au nord de KërCupaam, à Pinthior, fut également classée enAPC à la même époque. Très dégradée, elleétait utilisée pour la pratique des sports méca-

niques. Cependant, auvu de la restaurationde la Somone, saréhabilitation est encours selon les mêmesméthodes afin que lanature y regagne sesdroits.

Tous les classementsn’ont pas pour objectifimmédiat la conserva-tion, ou la restaura-tion, du milieu naturelmême s’ils y concou-rent. Ce fut ainsi le

cas de la forêt de Sessene, dans la région deFatick. Menacée par l’avancée des cultures, lestatut d’APC permit de remettre en pratiquel’ancienne tradition de vaine pâture. Le boise-ment fut sauvé d’une déforestation inéluctable,sans que les agriculteurs ne soient lésés.

L’APC du lac Ouye a également vocation agri-cole. Située à Malika, il s’agit de l’une des raresniayes (étang littoral) encore intactes des envi-rons de Dakar. Bien que l’une de ses rives soitcultivée en maraîchage, c’est un importantreposoir pour les flamants et de nombreuxmigrateurs paléarctiques. Le site est désormaisprotégé d’une urbanisation sauvage à laquellel’exposait la proximité de la capitale.

Mais l’exemple le plus significatif est celui deDindefelo. Cette petite localité du Sénégaloriental, proche de la frontière de Guinée, estcélèbre pour être l’unique cascade du pays. Cesite, voisin du Parc national du Niokolo Koba,avait fait l’objet pendant vingt ans, de plu-sieurs tentatives de classement en réserve

nationale. Les populations s’y étaient toujoursfermement opposées, redoutant les mêmesexpropriations que celles qui avaient accompa-gné l’extension du Parc national en 1968. Cescraintes furent encore ravivées à partir de1988, lors de l’instauration du parc transfronta-lier sénégalo-guinéen de Niokolo-Badiar. Enrevanche, le classement en APC fut immédiate-ment accepté par le Comité rural et adopté parune association de jeunes avait déjà entreprisdes mesures de sensibilisation pour la sauve-garde de la chute, mais aussi de la forêt-gale-rie attenante. Le secteur, d’un grand intérêtbotanique et ornithologique qui en font l’undes hauts lieux de la biodiversité au Sénégal,est également fréquenté par des chimpanzés.

Les communautés locales, auxiliaires dela conservation

Contrairement aux aires protéges nationales,dont l’augmentation est toujours problématiqueau-delà d’un certain seuil pour des raisonsbudgétaires, le nombre des Aires du Patrimoinecommunautaire est pratiquement illimité dansune même région, dans la mesure où leurcréation et leur gestion sont assurées par lescommunautés locales selon les principes dutransfert de compétences tels qu’ils figurentdans la loi de décentralisation5 du Sénégal.

Bien que cette notion figure dans de nom-breuses recommandations, déclarations etconventions internationales de la dernièredécennie6, ses applications ne sont pas encoregénéralisées. Pourtant, les APC peuvent aisé-ment s’intégrer aux lois de décentralisation,lorsque ce n’est pas déjà le cas5. Elles partici-pent ainsi au développement durable dans lesdomaines agricoles (pêche, chasse, cultures) etdes petites et moyennes entreprises indus-trielles (artisanat et transformation).

Un autre de leurs avantages est leur valeurd’exemple et la souplesse de leur reproductibi-lité. L’expérience a montré qu’il suffisait qu’unecommunauté crée son APC pour que ses voi-sines soient tentées de l’imiter. La multiplica-

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 163

Le principe fondamental est dene rien interdire, ni de condi-

tionner, a priori, mais aucontraire d’inciter sans la

moindre restriction toute ini-tiative en faveur de la conser-vation d’un site naturel, même

si celui-ci est dégradé aumoment du classement. Sa res-tauration s’inscrit alors dans le

plan d’action.

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

tion de proche en proche finit par former unréseau particulièrement fiable et sécurisantpour la mise en œuvre de programmes d’aideséconomiques sur des financements nationauxou internationaux.

Il est en effet nécessaire d’accompagner toutclassement en APC d’aides au développementéconomique, selon les attentes des popula-tions, afin de leur procurer les moyens finan-ciers nécessaires à une bonne gestion de leurAPC. Cette démarche a été adoptée dans leprogramme de conservation des zones marineset côtières, initié par la Banque mondiale, etdans le projet que conduit l’AssociationEducation et Santé, présidée par MadameViviane Wade, au Sénégal oriental(Département de Kedougou). L’un et l’autrecouvrent les quatre dimensions du développe-ment durable, économique, social, conservationdu patrimoine naturel et culturel.

Les APC dans le contexte international

Selon les critères actuels de l’UICN, les APCcorrespondent partiellement à la catégorie V,dans la mesure où la valeur culturelle du site

intervient, avant ou après le classement, lors-qu’il s’agit de nommer le site. Ainsi, la plupartdes APC portent le nom d’un génie local, cequi contribue à la reviviscence des traditionslocales que les jeunesgénérations ignorentgénéralement. La dimen-sion culturelle est particu-lièrement importantedans ce contexte en rap-pelant également lessavoirs et savoir-faireancestraux dans la ges-tion des ressources natu-relles.

L’avènement des APCs’inscrit dans l’émergenceactuelle de la société civi-le, qui, contrairement àce qui est généralementconsidéré, ne se composepas seulement d’ONG etdu secteur privé.Plusieurs décennies de sensibilisation, l’impactdes changements climatiques et un sous-déve-

loppement endémique ont suscitéune prise de conscience au sein despopulations, même les plus isolées.Si, à Dindéfelo la volonté d’appro-priation du territoire provient d’uneréaction face à un éventuel classe-ment administratif, le plus souvent,il s’agit de sauvegarder un biencommunautaire menacé par l’arri-vée de nouveaux habitants qui dési-rent y installer des cultures oul’aménager pour d’autres usages.

Obstacles et avantages

A son plus haut niveau, le gouver-nement s’est toujours montré favo-rable à ces initiatives conformes àla législation de décentralisation. Enrevanche, l’administration fonction-ne encore sur une base centraliséequi hésite toujours à céder une par-

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A son plus haut niveau, legouvernement s’est toujoursmontré favorable à ces ini-

tiatives conformes à lalégislation de décentralisa-tion. En revanche, l’admi-nistration fonctionne enco-re sur une base centraliséequi hésite toujours à céderune partie de son pouvoir

aux régions, aux communeset aux communautés, dansun domaine qui lui était

jusqu’alors réservé.

FFiigguurree 33:: AAyyaanntt llaa cchhaarrggee ddee llaa ggeessttiioonn ddee llaa ll’’EEssppaaccee NNaattuurraallCCoommmmuunnaauuttaaiirree ddee KKeerr CCuuppaaaamm,, ccee ssoonntt lleess ffeemmmmeess qquuii ttrraacceenntt eetteennttrreettiieennnneenntt lleess ppiisstteess.. Le plus gros travail des femmes est le défri-chage du pare-feu sur les 12 km du périmètre terrestre de la réserve.(Courtoisie Jean Larivière)

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

tie de son pouvoir aux régions, aux communeset aux communautés, dans un domaine qui luiétait jusqu’alors réservé. Cependant, l’insuffi-sance des crédits et de personnels ne lui per-met pas d’accroître, au même rythme, sa ges-tion sur des aires protégées en constante aug-mentation.

Les Agences régionales de développement àqui revient, entre autres, la protection de l’en-vironnement et des ressources naturelles ontimmédiatement perçu l’intérêt des APC qui leurouvre un champ d’applications très large. Apartir de réseaux d’APC,il est même envisagéde créer des espaces de développementdurable fondés sur le modèle des parcs natu-rels régionaux.

Ce système permettrait de coordonner laconservation au niveau des régions, commeelle l’est au niveau national, en incluant dansun même périmètre les réserves ou parc natio-naux locaux, les sites Ramsar ou réserve de laBiosphère, s’il en existe dans le secteur, entou-rés d’un réseau d’APC qui en renforcerait laprotection avec la collaboration effective despopulations. Une telle organisation contribueau développement du tourisme par la multipli-cation des pôles d’intérêt dans une zone biencirconscrite et identifiée. Par ailleurs, en répon-dant à des normes précises, les productionsagricoles et artisanales peuvent bénéficier d’unlabel qui en atteste la qualité, tant sur le mar-ché local qu’à l’exportation.

Appréhendée sous cet angle, la conservationdevient le principal moteur d’un développe-ment durable, parce que les charges en sontlargement réparties et les bénéfices équitable-ment partagés. Tous les éléments sont enplace et les APC ont apporté une preuve queles communautés étaient prêtes à s’y engager.

Woulimata Thiaw, mère de famille, fondatrice et présidente duRegroupement des Femmes de Popenguine et du Collectif desFemmes pour la Nature, a été la principale animatrice des initia-tives qui ont été à l’origine du concept des Aires du PatrimoineCommunautaire. Seydina Issa Sylla ([email protected]) estactuellement Directeur Régional du Programme Afrique deWetlands International, après avoir été Directeur des Parcs

Nationaux du Sénégal de 1987 à 1998, Vice-président de laCommission du Patrimoine Mondial de l’UNESCO de 1987 à 1992 etCoordonnateur pour l’Afrique de la Convention de Ramsar. Il estaussi membre du CEESP/CMWG. Jean Larivière([email protected] ) est Conseiller scientifique chargé des relationsinternationales de la Fondation Nicolas Hulot pour la Nature etl’Homme. Il est aussi Vice-président du Comité Français pourl’UICN et membre du groupe Action Internationale du ConseilNational du Développement Durable.

Notes1 Regroupement des Femmes de Popenguine pour la Protection

de la Nature – RFPPN.2 Bourse de la Fondation Nicolas Hulot pour la Nature et

l’Homme (France).3 Collectif des Femmes pour la Protection de la Nature –

Co.Pro.Nat.4 DGVIII/9 ENV (376 000 €).5 Loi 96-07, du 22 mars 1996, portant transfert de compétence

aux Régions, aux Communes et aux Communautés rurales :Chapitre II, articles 28, 29 et 30.Décret 96-1134, du 27 décembre 1996, portant application de la loiportant transfert de compétence aux Régions, aux Communes etaux Communautés rurales en matière d’environnement et de ges-tion des ressources naturelles : Titre II, chapitre II, article 21.Titre IV, chapitre III, articles 44 et 50.

6 Déclaration de Rio : Principes 4, 9, 10, 11, 20, 21 et 2.Action 21 : Articles 3.5, 3.7, 8.5 § (d) & (g), 8.16 § (a), 10.09 &10, 11.12 § (a) & 13 § (i), 12.18 § (e & f), 12.27 § (a) & 55, 13.6§ (d) & 16 § (c), 14.16, 14.17 § (a), (b & c), 14. 18 § (b & d),14.46 § (b), 15.4 § (b & g), 15.5 § (d, e, g, j & m), 17.74 § (b),17.79 § (b), 17.81 § (a, b & c), 17.82, 25.12 & 14 § (c), 26.1, 26.3§ [a (i, ii, iii, iv, vi, vii) (c) 2.4 § (b), 26.5 § (a, b) & (c), 26.6 (a),26.8, 26.9, 28.3, 32.4, 32.5 § (a, b), (c, d, e), 36.5 (n), 36.8, 36.9.Convention sur la Diversité biologique : Articles 6, 7, 8, 10, 12 et13.Convention sur la Désertification : Article 2.2, 5. § (d & e), 17 §(c), 18.2 § (a, b, c), & (d), 19.1 § (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j & k).Déclaration du Millénaire : Articles 6 § (1, 2,5), 14, 20 § (1), 21,22 & 23 § (2, 3, 4) Nouveau Partenariat pour le Développement de l’Afrique (NEPAD): Chapitres 4 § (6 & 5).Déclaration de Johannesburg : Article 25 et 26.Plan d’Action de Johannesburg : Points 6 § (e & h), 7 § (c, h, i, j),9 § (b & c), 10 § (f), 31 § (c), 38 § (h), 40 § (e), 42 § (h, j, k,l, &m, 41 § (b, d, & e), 42 § (b, c, d, e, f, l, m, g, h, j & k), 43 § (h),44 § (g, j, k & l), 64 § (c).

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 165

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003166

The Philippines is regard-

ed as one of the most activeand progressive countries inAsia in terms of developingpolicies and laws recognisingthe rights of indigenous peo-ples and ensuring their par-ticipation in protected area(PA) management and deci-sion-making. The NationalIntegrated Protected AreasSystem (NIPAS) Act wassigned into law in 1992 withthe objective of developing acomprehensive protectedareas system and integratingthe participation of indige-nous and local communitiesin protected areas manage-ment and decision-making.This Act embodies the “par-ticipatory” approach,which— for each specific PA— finds a concreteinstitutional expression in a Protected AreaManagement Board (PAMB), composed of therelevant government officers, NGOs, and localcommunity representatives.

A contrasting “right-based” approach to com-munity-based management of naturalresources and conservation was introduced thefollowing year, in 1993, via the Department of

Environment and NaturalResources (DENR)Administrative Order No.2 (DAO 2). This orderallows for the delineationof ancestral domains andthe issuance to indige-nous communities of

Certificates of Ancestral Domain Claims(CADC) and Certificates of Ancestral LandClaims (CALC). These claims are not titles but

provide that indigenous holders have somedegree of control concerning what is going tohappen in their territories. The right-basedapproach was further strengthened in October1997 with the issuance of the long-awaitedIndigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA) byPresident Ramos. One of the IPRA’s features isthe granting of a collective right to landthrough the Certificate of Ancestral DomainTitle (CADT) and of individual rights throughthe Certificate of Ancestral Land Title (CALT).

Since the passing of these acts and orders,both the strengths and weaknesses of the twoapproaches have emerged. In many cases,the NIPAS Act improved the participation ofindigenous and local communities in protectedareas management and decision-making.Several NGOs and CBOs, however, point outthat in other cases the protected areas man-agement boards have not been functioning

A “participatory” or a “rights-based” approach? Which is best for protected areas and indigenous peoples in the Philippines?

Maurizio Farhan Ferrari and Dave de Vera

Most indigenous communitiesare not recognized as legallocal government units, a

fact that denies to them rep-resentation in the PAMB

FFiigguurree 11:: AA bbaayy ooff CCoorroonn IIssllaanndd (Courtesy Maurizio Farhan Ferrari)

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 167

effectively due to a number of limitations,varying from lack of documents in local lan-guages and resources for meetings and work-shops, to the fact that the PAMB’s chairpersonis a government officer and local people tendto be shy and refrain from voicing their con-cerns in the presence of government officials.In other words, the decision-making powerremains still firmly in government hands and,although most proposed PAs are within ances-tral domains, more often than not, non-Indigenous persons dominate the compositionof the PAMB.

Concerning IPRA, while many indigenousgroups still consider it a legal instrument thatcan be used to protect their rights, othershave called for repeal of the law. Thoseopposed to the law point out its theoreticaland practical ambiguities, especially related tothe confusing presence of ancestral domains inCADTs and ancestral lands in CALTs, the latterbeing individual claims which open to door to

the transfer and com-mercialisation of indige-nous lands. In addition,the National Commissionon Indigenous Peoples(NCIP) has been criti-cised as not truly repre-senting indigenous peo-ples (some of the com-missioners were appoint-ed by the Presidentwithout proper consulta-tion and, especiallyunder the Estrada administration, were eithercorrupt or inefficient, or both).

The NCIP underwent radical restructuringduring 2001 and a new set of Commissionersselected through a more participatory processat the provincial, regional and national levelswas instituted in mid-2001. With newly infusedenthusiasm, President Gloria Magapagal-Arroyoannounced in her Presidential Address to the

Nation that 100,000 ha ofCertificates of AncestralDomain Titles (CADT) wouldbe awarded yearly. Due tolack of appropriate budgetand other internal weakness-es, however, only two CADTswere awarded by the end of2002. The Chair of theCommission was replacedagain at the beginning of2003. While there is still hopethat the NCIP will truly workin the interest of indigenouspeoples, there is also a feel-ing that many unresolvedissues need to be ironed outand that the NCIP must bestrengthened in terms ofhuman, institutional andfinancial resources

One case in point is particu-larly illustrative of the posi-Figure 2: A map of Coron island showing the ancestral domain title of the

Tagbanwa. (Courtesy Saragpunta Foundation and PAFID)

The Coron indigenous commu-nity decided to stand by arights-based law (IPRA) tosupport a community-con-

served area (CCA). The alter-native would have been forthem to “participate” in a

government-led initiative forthe co-management of a

state-declared PA followingthe NIPAS law.

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003168

tive way in which the IPRA can be used, butalso of the possible conflict between theNIPAS Act and the IPRA Act. This is the caseof Coron, one of the Calamianes Islands ofNorth Palawan.

The Tagbanwapeople of CoronIsland have been liv-ing on a stunninglybeautiful limestoneisland surrounded bywater once rich inmarine resources,their main source oftheir livelihood. By the mid-1980s, lackingsecure legal tenure over these environments,they were fast losing control over their terres-trial and marine resources because of increas-

ing encroachment by migrantfishers, tourism entrepreneurs,politicians seeking land deals, andgovernment agencies interestedin controlling various resources ofthe island. The situation was soserious that the Tagbanwa cameto face food shortages. Theyreacted by organising themselvesinto the Tagbanwa Foundation ofCoron Island (TFCI)1 and apply-ing for a Community ForestStewardship Agreement (CFSA).In 1990, they were awarded aCFSA covering the whole of CoronIsland and a neighbouring smallisland named Delian. Altogether,the CFSA included 7,748 hectares.It soon became clear to theTagbanwa that their main sourceof livelihood, the marine waterssurrounding the island (overwhich they had no control), werebeing degraded at an alarmingrate by dynamite, cyanide andother illegal and destructive fish-ing methods.

With passage of the DENR’sDAO2 in 1992, the way was cleared for theTagbanwa to attempt to gain some degree ofcontrol over both terrestrial and marineresources through pursuing a right basedapproach to community resource manage-

ment. With the help of a national NGO, thePhilippine Association for Inter-culturalDevelopment (PAFID), they managed to obtainby 1998 their Certificate of Ancestral Domain

The Tagbanwa are determined to manage Coron Island’s resources in a sustainable manner….forest resources are only used for domestic needs (home building material, food and medicinal

plants) and cases of illegal logging (as happened in the past) are no longer tolerated. […]Themanagement plan for the lake includes a limited number of tourists per day and minimal impacton the environment. The main environmental and social issue they want to address is destructive

fishing in the waters surrounding the island and rehabilitation of the coral reef ecosystem.

FFiigguurree 33:: TThhee KKaayyaannggaann llaakkee iiss tthhee oonnllyy llaakkee iinn CCoorroonn IIssllaanndd tthhaatt iissooppeenn ttoo vviissiittoorrss. It has been awarded the award of cleanest lake of thePhilippines 2 or 3 times during the past few years but the Tagbanwa peo-ple state that their other lakes, which are all sacred, are cleaner than thisone. The other lakes can be visited extremely seldom and only for aspecial reason. (Courtesy Maurizio Farhan Ferrari)

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003 169

Claim (CADC). It was the first such certificatein the country that included both land andmarine waters, for a total of 22,284 ha. Theythen continued the process to regain full rightsover the island by requesting a CADT throughthe use of the IPRA. They produced high qual-ity mapping of their territories and anAncestral Domain Sustainable ManagementPlan. On these basis, they successfullyobtained a Certificate of Ancestral DomainTitle (CADT) in early 2001. As TFCI ChairmanAguilar puts it ‘we are a living example of howIPRA can be used successfully by indigenouspeoples’.2 And yet, given that all CADT wereput under review with the restructuring of theNCIP in mid-2001, this title is still underreview.

The Tagbanwas’ CADC and CADT were put toprompt use when Coron Island was selectedas one of eight sites to be incorporated intothe National Integrated Protected AreasSystem (NIPAS). The ultimate intention of theDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR) was (and still is) to gazette

the whole of CoronIsland as a protectedarea, but this has sofar not materialisedbecause theTagbanwa fear thatthey would lose con-trol over the islanddespite promises ofmajority participationin its PAMB. Havinggained a title ofancestral domain overthe island, they preferto maintain theirright-based approachto resource manage-ment rather thanaccepting an uncertain participatory approachthrough the PAMB. One of the main reasonsmentioned by the Tagbanwa for their refusalof the NIPAP project is the fact that CoronIsland was selected as one of the sites for theproject without any consultation with themand without seeking their prior informed con-

sent. Several other indige-nous communities in otherparts of the country arealso looking at titles ofancestral domain over landand water as a tool tosecure their rights to landand marine resources.

The Tagbanwa’s experi-ence illustrates the poten-tial conflicts between theNIPAS and the IPRA.Here an indigenous com-munity decided to standby a rights-based law(IPRA) to support a com-munity-conserved area(CCA). The alternativewould have been for themto “participate” in a gov-ernment-led initiative for

The Tagbanwa used an innovativelaw that recognises indigenous

peoples’ property rights and cus-tomary law (despite its limita-tions) in an initiative that could

be broadly defined as a CCA.They rejected a government planto gazette the island as a PA. Inthis sense, this is actually a caseof conflict between a CCA and aPA, which could be avoided orsettled if governments would

recognise and accept the value ofCCAs and see them as a valid

complement to conventional PAs.

FFiigguurree 44:: MMeemmbbeerrss ooff aa TTaaggbbaannwwaa ccoommmmuunniittyy wwiitthh aa ttrrii-ddiimmeennssiioonnaall mmaapptthheeyy ccrreeaatteedd ooff tthheeiirr oowwnn iissllaanndd.. (Courtesy Maurizio Farhan Ferrari

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles

PolicyMatters12, September 2003170

the co-management of a state-declared PA fol-lowing the NIPAS law. This brings to the foreimportant questions in conservation policy thatare likely to enrich the debate at the VthWorld Parks Congress in September 2003.How can the conservation efforts of local com-munities (such as CCAs) be recognised andprotected? Do they need legal recognition?How can they complement more conventionalstate-declared Pas and under what conditionsare they an effective substitute?

The experience of the Tagbanwa of CoronIsland illustrates that in the current legislativeand political context of the Philippines, whenan indigenous community is strongly deter-mined to protect its natural resources andrights, when a legal framework supports theirrights, and when needed assistance is avail-able from NGOs, action can be effectivelytaken to obtain recognition of existing rightsand protect local ecosystems.

The Tagbanwa are determined to manageCoron Island’s resources in a sustainable man-ner. As a result of the CFSA, for example, for-est resources are only used for domesticneeds (home building material, food andmedicinal plants) and cases of illegal logging(as happened in the past) are no longer toler-ated. The first step in the implementation ofthe Ancestral Domain Management Plan, whichstarted in 2002, concerns an eco-tourism proj-ect in Lake Kayangan, the only lake to be opento the public among the eleven found on theisland. The management plan for the lakeincludes a limited number of tourists per dayand minimal impact on the environment.Before the Tagbanwa took control of the proj-ect, tourist operators from nearby Coron town(located on another island) used to bring anynumber of tourists to the island with little con-cern for garbage disposal and carrying capaci-ty. The main environmental and social issuethe Tagbanwa want to address is to put anend to destructive fishing in the waters sur-rounding the island and rehabilitation of the

coral reef ecosystem, an effort which mayrequire assistance by government depart-ments, NGOs and other relevant agencies.

The Coron Island case also shows that forindigenous peoples it may be more effective tobank upon the rights-based approach to biodi-versity management and thus obtain a privatecommunity title through IPRA, rather than toaccept a participatory approach as offered byNIPAS. From their perspective, the latter maymerely result in a long series of problemsrelated to the issue of who really holds powerwithin a participatory arrangement. This expe-rience also illustrates the dichotomy betweenofficial, state-declared protected areas versuscommunity-conserved areas. The Tagbanwaused an innovative law that recognises indige-nous peoples’ property rights and customarylaw (despite its limitations) in an initiative thatcould be broadly defined as a CCA and reject-ed a government plan to gazette the island asa PA. In this sense, it is actually a case of con-flict between a CCA and a PA, which could beavoided or settled if governments started torecognise and accept the value of CCAs andsee them as a valid complement to conven-tional PAs.

Maurizio Farhan Ferrari ([email protected]) has beenworking with environment and human rights organisations in Asiaand Europe. He is a member of the CEESP/CMWG SteeringCommittee with responsibility for South-East Asia. Dave E. DeVera ([email protected] ) is the Executive Director of thePhilippine Association For Intercultural Development, Inc. (PAFID),a social development organization that works with IndigenousCommunities to help them regain and secure their ancestraldomains.

Notes1 Established in 19852 M. Ferrari’s interview with Mr Rodolfo Aguilar, Chairperson of

the Tagbanwa Foundation for Coron Island, 29 May 2001.

Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a full spectrum of learning & struggles


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