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Community Ecology
A Community Includes All Life in an Area
Niche: “JOB”
The sum total of all the ways as organism utilizes the resources of its environment
Such as: space utilization, food consumption, temperature range, moisture requirements, etc.
Fundamental niche – entire niche a species is CAPABLE of using
Realized niche – actual niche a species occupies
NOTE:
Niche is NOT the same as habitat HABITAT – a physical place NICHE – pattern of living The niche of a lion – predator Turkey vulture – scavenger Cacti – drought tolerant species
Biotic Interaction
Competition Predation Symbiosis
Competition
Interspecific competition – two different species attempt to utilize the same resource
Intraspecific competition – two members of the same species fighting for same resource
Organisms may occupy more than one niche Gauses’ Rule: No two organisms may
occupy the same niche for very long when resources are LIMITING
“Survival of the fittest” – the stronger will force the weaker out of the habitat or contribute to its demise
This is known as the Competitive Exclusion Principle
Resource Partitioning
The reduction of competition of resources between species by “subdividing the niche”
Warblers: (5) species that fed on insects of spruce trees One species fed on insects near branch tips One fed on dense foliage One fed on bases of tree branches One on the tree top One on the tree bottom
Each bird fed on different insects by feeding at different levels of the spruce tree – different niches
Sympatric species – differentiation of populations into different species within the same geographical areas (brown/green anole) Partition resources by feeding in
different portions of the habitat, utilizing different foods, feeding at different times
Believed to be driven by natural selection
Allopatric Populations
The differentiation of geographically isolated populations into distinct species
Predators
Consuming of one organism by another Predators (or lack of) can often have large effects
on prey populations
Eastern Coast
- population explosions of white-tailed deer – strip the habitat of all edible plant life
Western Coast
- sea otters hunted to near extinction – sea urchin populations exploded (otters eat urchins)
Predation
Prey ↑ = Predator ↑ Prey ↓ = Predator ↓ Predator ↑ = Predator ↑ = Prey ↓
How Would Evolution Apply?
Evolution – change in a species over time Adaptation – species becomes better suited
for survival Natural selection - “survival of the fittest”
PREDATOR – strong selective pressure on prey Only the strongest, quickest prey survive – prey evolve
defensive adaptations Also only the strongest, fastest predators will survive
Plant Defenses against Herbivores Morphological defenses – thorns, spines,
prickles, and plant hairs
Chemical defenses – toxic to most herbivores or disturb their metabolism (mustard, cabbage, watercress, radish, and horseradish, the same taste we enjoy!)
Animal Defenses against Predators Defensive Coloration –
Cryptic coloration – color that blends with the surroundings and thus hides the individual from predators *usually do not live together in groups*
Warning coloration – showy coloration that shows they are poisonous
Chemical Defenses – Poisons and Stings
Mimicry – looking like a harmful organism Batesian Mimicry – palatable insects having
coloration of a distasteful insect Monarch and viceroy butterflys
Mullerian Mimicry – the resemblance of dangerous, unpalatable, or poisonous species (even unrelated species) to one another so that they become more easily recognized by potential predators Brightly colored species of poison dart frogs
Coevolution
long-term mutual evolution of members of biological communities
Ex. Predator-Prey interactions
Flowers and pollinators
A Type of Co-evolution
Symbiotic relationships – two or more kinds of organisms live together in elaborate and permanent relationships
Example:
Fungi and roots of plants – fungi and expedite the plants’ absorption of nutrients and the plants in turn provide the fungi with carbohydrates
Kinds of Symbiosis
Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism Saprophitism
Commensalism
One species benefits while the other neither benefits nor is harmed
Example: Epiphytes on trees (epiphytes – plants that
live on other plants) Vermiliads and orchids in rain forest
Mutualism
Both participating species benefit
Example:Cattle egret on back of cow
Parasitism
One species benefits but the other is harmed Ex. Tapeworm in dog Tick on human
3 Types of Parasites
External – parasites that feed on the exterior surface ex. Lice
Internal – parasites that feed on the interior
*not bacteria of fungi*
Brood – ex. Birds lay eggs in nests of other species
Keystone Species
Species that have a particularly strong effects on the composition of communities
Examples:
Dung beetle
Beavers
Succession
Change in which one ecosystem is replaced by another
ex. Pond becoming a forest, field becoming a marsh
Primary Succession
where there has been no life previously
Occurs on bare, lifeless substrate when organisms gradually move into an area and change its nature
Ex. sand dune, lava, bare rock
Secondary Succession
where life has existed previously a wooded area is cleared and left
alone, plants will slowly reclaim the area
ex. After a forest fire, a fallow field
Why Succession Happens
Species alter the habitat and the resources available in it in ways that favor other species.