comparison of animated and human character : dangue campaign

8/11/2019 comparison of animated and human character : dangue campaign

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A COMPARISON OF ANIMATED AND HUMAN

CHARACTER PUBLIC SERVICE

ANNOUNCEMENTS: THE CASE OF DENGUE

CAMPAIGN

BY

MBAZZAKI MAYIMUNA

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement

for the degree of Master of Human Sciences(Communication)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge andHuman Sciences

International Islamic University

Malaysia

OCTOBER 2011


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ABSTRACT

This experimental study investigates the effectiveness of using animated characters ina public service announcement (PSA) on preventing dengue. The study seeks to find

the difference in recall of animated and human character PSAs. This research also

intends to unveil the difference in recall of PSAs between the recency and control

groups. Using a post-test - only control group design, the researcher randomly

assigned a total of 80 young adults to three experimental groups which are, animated

group (who watched animated PSA only), human character group (who watched

human character PSA only), recency group (who watched animated PSA in the last

order) and one control group (no treatment given). The independent t-test analysis

demonstrates that there was a significant difference in recall of the animated and

human character PSAs with the results indicating that there was better recall for the

animated PSA than the human character PSA. Furthermore, the test generatedsignificant results for the recency effect towards recall of PSA. There was better recall

of the PSA for the recency group unlike the control group which performed poorly in

recall of PSA content. Generally, the results in this study suggest that animated

characters and recency effect may enhance recall of PSA content. The researcher

concludes that PSAs designed in persuasive formats with animation may play a

pivotal role in raising public awareness on important societal issues that affect them

and other people around them, for example awareness on the global burden of dengue

and how to prevent it.


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APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conformsto acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and

quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences

(Communication).

..

Norbaiduri Ruslan

Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable

standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a

dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Communication).

.

Syed Arabi Idid

Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of Communication and is accepted

as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences(Communication).

Che Mahzan Ahmad

Head, Department of

Communication

This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge andHuman Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Master of Human Sciences (Communication).

Badri Najib Zubir

Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic

Revealed Knowledge and

Human Sciences


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INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION

OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright 2011 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.

A COMPARISON OF ANIMATED AND HUMAN CHARACTER PUBLIC

SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENTS: THE CASE OF DENGUE CAMPAIGN

I hereby affirm that The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) holds all

rights in the copyright of this work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any

form or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of IIUM. No

part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Affirmed by Mbazzaki Mayimuna

.................................... .....................................

Signature Date


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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Mbazzaki Mayimuna

Signature.. Date..


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To;

My husband,

You are so loving and caring

My mother,

There is no way I can pay you except to pray to Allah to reward you abundantly for

your prayers, love and care

The memory of my father,

May Allah reward you with Jannah.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful, I must say Alhamdulillah for

this great achievement in life.

I first of all thank the Almighty Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the

worlds for enabling me to accomplish this research work.

In a special way, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Norbaiduri Ruslan

for her endless guidance, courage and inspiration in my writing of this dissertation. I

wish to thank Prof. Syed Arabi Idid for his suggestions in this research work and alllecturers in the Department of Communication for their continuous guidance and

knowledge extended to me throughout the completion of my research work.

My sincere appreciation goes to the Islamic University in Uganda for granting

me an opportunity to further my studies at the International Islamic University

Malaysia (IIUM) through the Staff Development Scheme. I also thank IIUM for

waiving my tuition fees, may Allah reward you abundantly.

Many thanks to colleagues in the Department like Adnan Ali Adikata, Syarifah

Hasanah, Wennie Wong and Hataw Saleh. A big thank you to my friends in Uganda

for the visits to my family and the love you showed my son, special mention of Ttatu,Zainabu, Aisha, Sumaiya and Jadida. All my dear friends in the academic struggle

such as Aidah, Jannah, Sauda, Batuli, Kakuba, Mahfuth, Rukia, Aisha, Khadijah,

Sauba, Faisal, Bisaso, Matovu, Mwebesa and Golooba, I thank you so much for your

academic advice and moral support.

I thank the Ugandan families in Malaysia, like Dr. Mustaphas, Dr. Kabuyes,

Dr. Sekamanyas and Dr. Byabazaire. You always encouraged me especially during

those times when I felt home-sick. May Allah reward you abundantly and bless your

families.

A heartfelt gratitude to my beloved family especially my loving husbandBunjo Swalih, my mother Zam Nakintu, sisters Mastula, Kuluthum, Rashidah, Aida,

Sarah, brothers Muhammad, Wamala, Wasswa and my son Raihan Nyika whom I had

to leave in Uganda at the age of only six months to come and complete my studies. I

thank you all for the continuous prayers, patience, love and care you exhibited as I

was away for studies.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .................................................................................................................... ii

Abstract in Arabic ................................................................................................... iii

Approval Page ......................................................................................................... iv

Declaration Page ..................................................................................................... v

Copyright Page ........................................................................................................ vi

Dedication ............................................................................................................... vii

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. viii

List of Tables ........................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1

Background of the study .............................................................................. 1

Statement of the problem ............................................................................. 2

Objectives of the study ................................................................................. 4

Significance of the study .............................................................................. 5

Scope of the study ........................................................................................ 6

Overview of the methodology ...................................................................... 6

Summary ...................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................. 8

Introduction .................................................................................................. 8

Studies on PSAs ........................................................................................... 8

Recency Effect ............................................................................................. 13

Global burden of dengue .............................................................................. 14

Definition of Animation ............................................................................... 15

Heuristic Information Processing Model ..................................................... 16

Research model ............................................................................................ 19

Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 19

Summary ...................................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................ 21

Introduction .................................................................................................. 21

Research Design ........................................................................................... 21

Experimental summary ......................................................................... 23

Materials ....................................................................................................... 23

Operational definitions and measures .......................................................... 24

Study population .......................................................................................... 24

Sampling procedure ..................................................................................... 24

Instrument of data collection ........................................................................ 26


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Pilot testing ................................................................................................... 26

Reliability Analysis ............................................................................... 27

Data Analysis procedures ............................................................................. 29

Summary ...................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS .......................................... 31

Introduction .................................................................................................. 31

Reliability Analysis ...................................................................................... 32

Animated group questionnaire .............................................................. 32

Human character group questionnaire .................................................. 32

Primacy group questionnaire ................................................................ 32

Recency group questionnaire ................................................................ 32

Control group questionnaire .................................................................. 33

Demographic profile of participants ............................................................ 34

Free recall .............................................................................................. 36

Analysis of demographics on recall of PSAs ........................................ 36Summary ...................................................................................................... 39

T-Test Analysis for testing Hypotheses ....................................................... 40

PSA type ................................................................................................ 40

Recency of a PSA .................................................................................. 41

Summary ...................................................................................................... 42

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .......................................... 43

Introduction .................................................................................................. 43

Findings of the study .................................................................................... 45

Animated PSA versus Human character PSA ....................................... 45

Recency Effect ...................................................................................... 47

Limitations and suggestions for future studies ............................................. 50

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 53

APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRES ...................................................................... 59


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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

3.1 Reliability Test for the items measuring recall in 28

each groups questionnaire before deleting any item

3.2 Reliability Test for the items measuring recall in 29

each groups questionnaire after deleting some items

4.1 Reliability test for the items measuring recall 33

4.2 Demographic profile of participants 35

4.3 Independent t-test for recall of PSA by demographics 37

4.4 Means and standard deviation for recall of PSA by age groups 38

4.5 One Way Anova for recall by age groups 38

4.6 Means and standard deviation for recall by hours of television viewing 39

4.7 One Way Anova for recall by hours of television viewing 39

4.8 Independent t-test for recall by PSA type 41

4.9 Independent t-test for recall by recency of a PSA 42


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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The development of animation in Malaysia has gone through a number of evolutions.

In a newspaper feature article entitled, Bringing Pictures to Life, Koay (2010)

recently reported on the Malaysian pioneer animator Hassan Muthalib (father of

Malaysian animation) and the roots of local animation. Koay (2010) reported that

Hassan Muthalib had said that Malaysia had a long history of animation that dated

back to the 1940s when the Malayan Film Unit was established by the British. It later

became Filem Negara Malaysia which designed various animated public service

announcements (PSAs) on television in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the anti-aedes

and anti-dadah (no drugs) campaigns. Other animated stories included the Sang

Kanciland age-old parables promoting various social values. It is important to note

that by the mid-1970s, Filem Negara became known for its entertaining and often

humorous public service announcements.

Hassan Muthalib (2010 as cited in Koay, 2010) said that when Tun Dr

Mahathir Mohamad became the Prime Minister, the government pushed for the use of

digital technology and this resulted in the private sector producing the first ever local

animated series, Usop Sontorian, which began airing in 1995. By 2000, Malaysia had

moved into 3D animation, with the first local 3D-animation feature, the Chinese-

languageNien Resurrectionproduced by Young Jump Animation, which was released

straight to VCD(Koay, 2010). Since those early phases, Malaysia is currently in the

fourth phase of animation (Hassan Muthalib, 2010 cited in Koay, 2010).


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It should be noted that cartoon characters are as endearing to adults as to

children. We can often relate to them. Most of the time we just love to laugh at their

antics and misfortune. A new series of PSAs currently airing on Malaysias most

popular television stations feature 2D and 3D computer-animated characters like Upin

and Ipin that represent a diverse cross-section of the population. Animation makes

every message attractive as it is creative, simple and effective. The animated

characters can present core issues to the general public such as the prevention of

dengue.

Despite the airing of many animated characters in PSAs on Malaysian

television stations, currently, there are no studies carried out to investigate the

effectiveness of such PSAs in the promotion of pro-social behaviours. PSAs with

animated characters are aired alongside those with human characters. The purpose of

this study therefore is to examine the effectiveness of using animated characters in the

PSA on preventing dengue.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Apart from health professionals and health professional organizations, the mass media

are also influential in providing individuals with health information and health images

through PSAs (with animated characters), news, documentaries, entertainment and

other means. The mass media highlight the importance of regularly engaging in pro-

health behaviours like physical activity and avoiding deleterious health behaviours

such as cigarette smoking (Raynor & Levine, 2009). This is intended to reduce the

risk of acute injury or illness, chronic diseases, and premature mortality.

News media have made substantial contribution to the publics views on

health, including views on the possible causes and cures of diseases, for example


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AIDS (Black et al., 1998). This can be seen in the impact that subsequent coverage on

AIDS has had on public awareness of the disease and thus the news media can play a

tremendous role in improving societys health. However, it is important to note that

little research has been undertaken in Malaysia to find out whether the populace pays

attention to the positive health messages displayed on television and help them to

behave responsibly to remain healthy.

In Malaysia, television has been one of the major sources of news and

information for the populace (Ahmad, Bolong & Wok, 2009). Malaysia has television

stations that broadcast news 24 hours a day (Ahmad et al., 2009). One station is

owned by the government called RTM 1 and RTM 2 and the other is privately owned

by Asian Television and Radio Organization (ASTRO).

Many researchers have conducted studies, especially in the West, that accuse

the media for disseminating misleading information on health risks that audiences pay

attention to such as in movies showing smokers and beer drinking, in advertisements

promoting snacks, fast foods, and cigarettes (Barr-Anderson et al., 2009; Raynor &

Levine, 2009; Utter et al., 2005). This is because people learn through observation of

others behaviours on television, as they try to imitate the behaviours of such models

and celebrities showcased on television. A recent study on Hong Kong university

students (Kim et al., 2010) revealed that many health risk behaviours are associated

with heavy exposure to Internet use. It is important to see the pro-social effects of

exposure to advertisements and PSAs. There are many social campaigns carried out

by the media to propagate educational messages on dengue, cancer, HIV/AIDS, anti-

smoking campaigns, balanced diet, physical activity (exercise), seat belts fastening

and helmet wearing. Therefore, when watching television, there is a variety of


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information on health-related issues, which the populace, especially young adults may

pay attention to and could increase healthy and pro-social behaviours.

Previous studies in the West and elsewhere reveal that mostly the effects of

mass media on public health are negative (Kim et al., 2010; Stout et al., 2004; Utter et

al., 2005). These studies demonstrate that the media present the public with symbols

and images of unhealthy behaviours and attitudes which include cigarette smoking,

alcohol consumption, non-nutritious diet and television programmes that present

unsafe practices regarding drugs, alcohol and sex. However, through educational

messages in PSAs, there are some positive media effects on peoples health and pro-

social behaviours after a few studies carried out and yielded mixed results. In the

present changing circumstances, where governments do not allow cigarette

advertisements or increasingly regulate content that undermine health, the media may

play a positive role and promote well-being of audiences health.

Animated characters have become significant components of entertainment

and advertising. In spite of the wide spread use of animated characters in PSAs, few

researches on their effectiveness on the intended audience have been published. The

present study therefore seeks to examine the effectiveness of using animated

characters in the PSA on preventing dengue among young adults.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of using

animated characters in a PSA on preventing dengue. The specific objectives of this

study are:

1. To analyze the difference in what is remembered from the animated PSA

and human character PSA.


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2.

To analyze the difference in what is remembered from the PSA content

between the group that watches the animated PSA in the last order

(recency) and the control group.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The present study is significant in several ways. First of all, this study will add to the

existing body of research on animated characters in advertising. Since there are a

number of researchers interested in this area of investigation, it is hoped that the

current study would inform future research that will look into various variables under

study. This study will contribute much to the literatures on Malaysia since previous

studies have concentrated on the West.

Secondly, the study enlightens the media industry to increase the frequency of

broadcasting social campaigns (through PSAs) in their programmes. This is intended

to raise mass awareness of social issues like prevention of dengue among people.

The present study informs the Ministry of Health in Malaysia and policy

makers elsewhere in the world to continue with campaigns that educate masses of

different socio-economic status on a number of social issues affecting them. The

effectiveness of the PSAs can be measured in terms of their communication effects on

the target consumers or audience. The main purpose of PSAs is communicated to the

general public and it is desirable to seek post measurements of PSAs in order to

determine whether PSAs have been seen or have communicated the theme, message

or appeal of advertising.

Brown and Walsh-Childers have also noted (as cited in Black et al., 1998):

The mass media can influence health at both a personal and public

level. At the personal level, the mass media may provide information

and models that stimulate changes-either positive or negative in health-


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related attitudes and behaviors. At the public level, the mass media also

may raise awareness of health issues among policy makers and thus,

may contribute to changing the context in which people make choices

about their health (p. 58).

Mass media play a pivotal role in raising awareness among the public about

important societal issues. Media are inherent with persuasive elements that draw

audience attention to certain issues. Better informed public would be able to make

rational choices about important decisions that would affect them and others around

them.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The present study investigates the effectiveness of using animated characters in PSA

on preventing dengue. The researcher randomly assigned a total of 80 young adults to

either the three experimental conditions or one control condition. The experiment

consisted of Three Treatment Conditions (3 experimental groups) and one Control

condition (control group), with 20 participants in each, where they viewed the

animated and human character PSAs. After the experiment, the participants responded

to questions on recall of PSA content. The purpose was to find out whether there was

a significant difference in recall of content of the animated and human character

PSAs.

OVERVIEW OF THE METHODOLOGY

This study conducted a classical or true experiment with a post-test - only control

group design. According to Campbell and Stanley (1963) as cited in Baxter and

Babbie (2004), the classical or true experiments involve a random assignment of


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participants to experimental groups and control groups. Using a randomly assigned

control group allows the researcher to detect any effects of the treatment itself.

Data was analyzed using SPSS Windows 17.0. Descriptive statistics and T-test

were used in data analysis.

Thus, in the methodology chapter, the researcher explains how experimental

research design (true experiment) assists in the investigation of the phenomena under

study. The chapter discusses the research design, materials, operational definitions and

measures, study population, sampling procedure, instrument of data collection, pilot

testing and data analysis procedures.

SUMMARY

This chapter provides a detailed look at the introduction, background of the study,

statement of the problem, objectives of the study, significance of the study, scope of

the study, and an overview of the methodology. The study aims at investigating the

effectiveness of using animated characters in PSA on preventing dengue.

The next chapter presents the review of literature related to this study.


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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses studies on PSAs which would examine the effectiveness of

using animated characters in a PSA on preventing dengue. This chapter has been

divided into several parts: (1) studies on PSAs, (2) recency effect, (3) global burden of

dengue, (4) definition of animation, (5) heuristic information processing model, (6)

research model and (7) hypotheses.

STUDIES ON PSAs

PSAs are defined as, messages designed to inform or induce certain behaviours in

specific audience, generally for non-commercial profit using mass media approaches

(Bator & Cialdini, 2000: 527). Nowak et al. (1993) define PSAs as non-commercial,

un-paid messages placed at the medias discretion, and aimed at motivating people to

take action (p. 32). The distinct difference between PSA and advertisements is that

PSA is not driven by profit and serves in a way of educating and creating awareness

on the relevant issues affecting the general public. Also termed as public service

advertising, it can be aired on television, radio or placed in print media for the

consumption of masses. Its main role is to raise awareness of an issue affecting public

attitudes, and this can consequently stimulate action.

There are many researches conducted on the effectiveness of PSAs on a

number of social issues including anti-drug (Fishbein et al., 2002; Fishbein et al.,

2000), pro-environmental (Bator & Cialdini, 2000), anti-smoking (Nixon et al., 2008;


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Strasser et al., 2009), AIDS awareness (Nowak et al., 1993; Siska et al., 1992) and

suicide prevention (Klimes-Dougan et al., 2009).

In Malaysia, the idea of using PSAs for social campaign is not new. Television

stations in Malaysia broadcast PSAs that inform and educate masses on a number of

issues which include campaigns on anti-smoking (tak nak), anti-drug (tidak dadah),

healthy eating practices, anti-aedes and road safety. Ministries such as Health,

Housing and Local Government and government agencies such as Filem Negara often

produce social campaigns through PSAs.

Studies on the subject of health-promoting behaviours have shown mixed

results. Some have shown media campaigns to be fairly effective at influencing

health-related knowledge and behaviour, whereas other studies have indicated that

media campaigns alone are not effective tools for health interventions or fail to

provide any long-term behaviour change (Kahle et al., 2009).

In a related area, the researchers demonstrated that television viewing in

middle and high school students predicted poor dietary intake five years later (Barr-

Anderson et al., 2009). However, given the higher level of intellect among young

university adults, this could be different as they may act as discriminative viewers

who only watch educative TV programmes that promote healthy and pro-social

behaviours.

Some advertising studies yield conflicting results. Gunter et al. (2002) found

that children recalled more of the content of cartoon ads, especially when placed in a

cartoon programme. But, they poorly recalled the content of non-cartoon ads when

placed in a non-cartoon programme. The researchers concluded that using an animated

format in advertising that targets children may help to enhance their memory for

brands and other product details, even the non-animated ads may be remembered if


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placed in a cartoon programme. However, it is imperative to note that the recall of

PSA messages of young adults could be different from that of young children.

In an evaluation study on the recall of AIDS PSAs by Siska et al. (1992), the

follow-up telephone interviews with 907 participants one to three nights after viewing

revealed that 21 per cent at Site A (Springfield) and 59 per cent at Site B (Memphis)

could recall the PSAs correctly. The PSAs were part of Phase V of the America

Responds to AIDS (ARTA) campaign. The researchers explained that the

participants in Memphis may have been sensitized by an AIDS special that ran on a

local news programme one week prior to the study. They also found that there was an

increase in mentioning AIDS as an important national issue.

Similarly, Fishbein et al. (2002) conducted experiments examining the relative

perceived effectiveness of 30 anti-drug PSAs and wanted to find out the extent to

which judgments of effectiveness are related to judgments of realism, amount learned,

and positive and negative emotional responses. The results of the study indicated that

16 PSAs were rated as significantly more effective, and six PSAs as significantly less

effective, than the control programme. Relative rated effectiveness was highly related

to realism (r = 0.87), amount learned (r = 0.88), negative emotion (r = 0.87), and

positive emotion (r = -0.35). Fishbein and colleagues (2002) concluded that it is

important to evaluate the impact of anti-drug PSAs before broadcasting them. This is

intended to unveil the negative effects that the PSAs may have on the target audience.

Additionally, some researchers found that anti-drug PSAs were more effective

in aiding people to do away with drugs than the political PSAs (Fishbein et al., 2000).

Five dependent variables were assessed for each PSA: effectiveness, realism, negative

emotional response, positive emotional response and amount learned.


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Other researchers were also interested in investigating the effectiveness of anti-

smoking PSAs on childrens intent to smoke (Nixon et al., 2008). The findings

indicated that there was a decrease in younger childrens intent to smoke after one

exposure to the anti-smoking PSA. On the other hand, the researchers found that older

children showed an increase in their intention to smoke across time. Nixon and

associates (2008) concluded that exposure to an anti-smoking PSA alone is not

enough to change childrens intent to smoke over a two-month period. It should also

be noted that their study lacked a true control group.

Lee (1996) as cited in Ju and Cifuentes (2002) conducted experiments

examining the effects of animation in the enhancement of the problem solving and

retention of scientific concepts in computer based modules across learners possessing

different cognitive styles. One hundred and twenty-one undergraduate and graduate

students of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University were exposed to two

experimental treatment programmes: animation and static visuals representing the

operation of a bicycle tire pump. Participants were randomly assigned to either an

animation and narration treatment group or a static visual and narration treatment

group. A problem-solving and recall test was conducted immediately after the

completion of each treatment. The study found that participants receiving the

animation treatment performed better than those receiving a static visual treatment on

problem solving, but not on recall. Field-dependent students in the animation group

generated approximately 40 per cent more correct solutions to the problem solving test

than those in the static visual group. Lee (1996) concluded that animations can

contribute to higher order thinking for college-age students.

In their longitudinal study, Durkin et al. (2009) revealed that emotionally

evocative ads and ads that contain personalized stories about the effects of smoking


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and quitting hold promise for efforts to promote smoking cessation and reduce

socioeconomic disparities in smoking. However, this study did not consider the

quitting rates in terms of gender, educational level and age when looking at the

demographic profile of its respondents.

Li et al. (2008) also found that there was a rise in the sales of iodized salts in

the weeks following the televised items. The study suggested that even brief episodes

of news coverage can influence the publics health-related purchasing behaviour.

However, the researchers realized that although newspaper coverage may have played

a part in the overall upward sales trend, its role in relation to the distinctive rise was

limited.

In the past and at present, health organizations, public services and other non-

governmental organizations have used the media to bring about planned social change.

Through public service announcements (PSAs), the media are used to campaign for

health and pro-social purposes which include campaigns to get people to stop

smoking, get regular medical checkups, have AIDS awareness, carry out dengue

prevention, eat healthier foods, campaign on anti-drug and use of seat belts. The use

of PSAs is therefore a global trend.

In summary, the above studies demonstrate that educational PSAs designed

with persuasive formats facilitate in raising awareness on important societal issues

among target audience and promote pro-social behaviours. It is therefore important to

measure the effectiveness of PSAs since different PSAs could impact audiences in a

different way.


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RECENCY EFFECT

This section discusses the recency effect as one of the independent variables measured

in this study. The recency effect helps in explaining how viewers are able to

remember items or episodes presented last in a list. In the present study, the recency

effect was used to unearth whether it enhances the recall of PSAs.

Belch and Belch (2001) note that studies on learning and memory generally

demonstrate that items presented first and last are remembered better than those

presented in the middle.In free recall, people tend to remember or recall more items

from the beginning (primacy) and the end (recency) of a list, than from the middle.

This is termed as primacy-recency effect. Though the recency effect cannot be

discussed in isolation of the primacy effect, the current study is however interested

only in the recency effect.

Terry (2005) found that in an immediate test of recalling commercials among

participants, the first commercials in the list were well recalled (a primacy effect), as

were the last items (a recency effect), in comparison with the recall of middle items.

Zhao (1997) assessed the recall of commercials aired during Super Bowl

football broadcasts in the United States. The researcher found that there was evidence

of primacy as viewers recalled better the first commercials in the block than those in

the middle and the end.

It is imperative to note that the recency effect is evident in some studies. For

example, Duncan and Murdock (2000) acknowledges that in media research, it is a

common scenario for television viewers to recall advertisements placed at the end of a

commercial better than those placed at the beginning. The reason in partial support of

the recency effect is because the last items may still be available in short-term

memory during the memory test (Murphy, Hofacker & Mizerski, 2006).

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