Compendium Review Cells Part 2

8/14/2019 Compendium Review Cells Part 2

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Part 2Part 2

Atoms and MoleculesAtoms and Molecules Living Things and WaterLiving Things and Water

Molecules and Their FunctionsMolecules and Their Functions Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins andCarbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids


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Atoms to MoleculesAtoms to Molecules

An ELEMENT is a substances that cannot be broken down into smaller matterby chemical means. There are 92 naturally occurring elements which have

been assigned an atomic symbol in the periodic table of elements. Elementswhich have similar chemical reactions are arranged into the same columns.

Picture from

http://www.corrosionsource.com/handbook/periodic/

Detailedpicture ofPeriodic

Table ofElements


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AnAn ATOMATOM is the smallest part of an element which keepsis the smallest part of an element which keeps

chemical/physical characteristics of that element. Anchemical/physical characteristics of that element. Anatom contains smalleratom contains smaller SUBATOMICSUBATOMIC units calledunits called PROTONSPROTONS,,

NEUTRONSNEUTRONS andand ELECTRONSELECTRONS..

Picture fromhttp://www.eskom.co.za/nuclear_energy/fuel/atom.jpg

PROTONS and NEUTRONSPROTONS and NEUTRONS

Located in nucleusLocated in nucleus

Has weight of approx. oneHas weight of approx. one

AMUAMU A PROTON has a positive +A PROTON has a positive +chargecharge

ELECTRONSELECTRONS

Orbits around the nucleusOrbits around the nucleus

Has no atomic massHas no atomic mass

Has a negative - chargeHas a negative - charge

TheThe ATOMIC NUMBERATOMIC NUMBER tells you how many how manytells you how many how manyprotons there are. From that information, you canprotons there are. From that information, you candetermine how many electrons an atom has when it isdetermine how many electrons an atom has when it is

neutral. The atomsneutral. The atoms MASSMASS represents the total of protonsrepresents the total of protonsand neutrons.and neutrons.

Picture ofAtom


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EXAMPLE: CARBON has anCARBON has an

atomic number of 6 and anatomic number of 6 and anatomic mass of 12. Therefore, itatomic mass of 12. Therefore, it

has 6 electrons when it ishas 6 electrons when it isneutral.neutral.Each atom has a differentnumber of electrons in its

shells; however the first shell

always has a max of 2electrons, with a max of 8

electrons in each continuingshell.

ELECTRONSELECTRONS

Pictures from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 20

Atomic Model:Atomic Model:shows different # ofshows different # ofprotons, neutrons,protons, neutrons,

and electrons perand electrons per

element


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When an atom with the same atomic number has aWhen an atom with the same atomic number has adifferent atomic mass, it is known as andifferent atomic mass, it is known as an ISOTOPEISOTOPE..

As an atom with more neutrons decays, it emitsAs an atom with more neutrons decays, it emits

radiation in the form of particles or energy. This isradiation in the form of particles or energy. This isknown as aknown as a RADIOISOTOPE.RADIOISOTOPE.

RADIOISOTOPES are importantbecause they can be injected

into a persons system througha substance typically used by

the body such as glucose,which allows researchers to

trace it.

Pictures from

It is known as aTRACER because it canthen be viewed on computers throughscans.

Also,Also, RADIOISOTOPESRADIOISOTOPES can be used to sterilizecan be used to sterilizeproducts and can be used to kill cancer cells inproducts and can be used to kill cancer cells in

the body.the body.

Picture ofwhole body

PET scan withtracer Fluorine-

18

Picture ofPicture ofbrain PETbrain PET

scanscan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PET-image.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PET-image.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PET-image.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PET-MIPS-anim.gif


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Molecules and CompoundsMolecules and

Compounds

A chemical unit called aA chemical unit called a MOLECULEMOLECULE can be formed when atoms bondcan be formed when atoms bondtogether. Atoms can bond with like atoms or different atoms. Whentogether. Atoms can bond with like atoms or different atoms. When

differing atoms bond, it is called adiffering atoms bond, it is called a COMPOUNDCOMPOUND..There are Two Types ofThere are Two T

ypes ofBondsBonds Ionic Bonding:Ionic Bonding: Ions attr

acted by opposite charges. AnIons attracted by opposite charges. An IONION is ais aparticle which contains a positive + or negative charge.particle which contains a positive + or negative charge.

Atoms will give or take electron(s) to obtain stability.Atoms will give or take electron(s) to obtain stability. Covalent Bonding:Covalent Bonding: Atoms share electron(s) in the outermostAtoms share electron(s) in the outermost

shells. Double and triple bonding apply.shells. Double and triple bonding apply.

* If an atom has more than one shell, they are most stable with eightelectrons in their outer shell.

Covalent Bond: oxygen and twohydrogen

Covalent Bond: two oxygenCovalent Bond: two oxygen

PicturesfromHumanBiology bySylvia S.MaderPage 23


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Atoms and MoleculesAtoms and Molecules

Living Things and WaterLiving Things and Water




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Properties of WaterProperties of Water

Water is the most abundant molecule in living organisms

Electrons circle larger (O) atom more than smaller (H) atom due to

stronger ability to attract Water is a POLAR molecule: electrical charge is dispensed unevenwhereas (O) has slight charge and (H) has slight + charge.

At room temperature, water is a liquid because of hydrogen bonding

Waters temperature rises and falls gradually; it holds heat well.

Water has a high heat of vaporization

Water becomes less dense at frozen temperatures

Water molecules are cohesive, and, therefore, liquids fill vessels

Water is a solvent which aids chemical reactions

Neutral pH

HYDROGEN BOND:HYDROGEN BOND: Weak bond that arisesWeak bond that arisesbetween slightly positive hydrogen atom ofbetween slightly positive hydrogen atom ofone molecule and slightly negative atom ofone molecule and slightly negative atom of

another, or between parts of the sameanother, or between parts of the samemolecule.molecule.Some verbiage taken from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader page 24-25

Picture fromHuman Biologyby Sylvia S.

Picture ofHydrogenBonding

among H2O

P

i f W C i d


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Properties of Water ContinuedProperties of Water ContinuedAny ion or molecule which interacts with water are called

HYDROPHILIC, whereas ones that do not interact are calledHYDROPHOBIC.

Acids andAcids andBasesBases

Acid Solution:Acid Solution: Acids break up in water, releasing (H+). Have high (H+)Acids break up in water, releasing (H+). Have high (H+)

Basic Solution:Basic Solution: Bases either take up (H+) or release (OH-). Have lowBases either take up (H+) or release (OH-). Have low(H+)(H+)

pH ScalepH Scale

Used to show the acidity orbasicity in any given solution.

The lower the number, themore acidic the solution is and

the more H+. The higher thenumber, the more basic thesolution is and the less H+.

Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader page 26

In living things, BUFFERS help to regulate and restrict pH change of asolution. Buffers help by taking up extra H+ or OH-.


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Molecules and their FunctionsMolecules and their Functions

Four Categories of Organic MoleculesFour Categories of Organic Molecules

1. Carbohydrates

2. Lipids

3. Proteins

4. Nucleic Acids

An ORGANIC MOLECULE is one which contains carbon andhydrogen

MACROMOLECULE: contains many subunits

DEHYDRATION REACTION: Molecule formsby removal of OH and H

HYDROLYSIS REACTION: Breakdownsubunits by adding H2O

Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 27

Picture shows Dehydration &

Hydrolysis reactions


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Molecules and Their FunctionsMolecules and Their FunctionsCarbohydrates, Lipids, ProteinsCarbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins

and Nucleic Acidsand Nucleic Acids


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CarbohydratesCarbohydrates::Used for immediate and storedUsed for immediate and storedenergyenergy

SimpleSimpleCarbohydratesCarbohydrates

ComplexComplexCarbohydratesCarbohydrates

MONOSACCHARIDE:MONOSACCHARIDE: CarbonCarbonatoms low (3 to 7)atoms low (3 to 7)

DISACCHARIDE:DISACCHARIDE:Joining of twoJoining of twomonosaccharides bymonosaccharides bydehydration reactiondehydration reaction

PENTOSE:PENTOSE: 5-carbon sugar5-carbon sugar

HEXOSE:HEXOSE: 6-carbon sugar6-carbon sugar

GLUCOSE:GLUCOSE: Hexose used asHexose used asenergy during cellularenergy during cellularrespirationrespiration

POLYSACCHARIDE:POLYSACCHARIDE: Consists ofConsists ofmany monosaccharides joinedmany monosaccharides joinedby glycosidic bondsby glycosidic bonds

CELLULOSE:CELLULOSE: Polysaccharide inPolysaccharide inplant cell wallsplant cell walls

GLYCOGEN:GLYCOGEN: Stored form ofStored form ofglucoseglucose

STARCH:STARCH: StoredStoredpolysaccharides inpolysaccharides inplants/animals. Organized ofplants/animals. Organized of

glucose molecules with lessglucose molecules with lesschains of glucosechains of glucose

Picturesfrom HumanBiology by

Sylvia S.Mader Page28

DifferentDifferentForms ofForms ofGlucoseGlucose

Disaccharide containing 2Disaccharide containing 2glucose moleculesglucose molecules

E i h l l hi h d tE i h l l hi h d t


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p sp s::Energy rich molecules which do notEnergy rich molecules which do notdissolve in Hdissolve in H22OO

FATSFATS:: Animal origin; solid atAnimal origin; solid atroom temperatureroom temperature

Energy storage (long term)Energy storage (long term)

Insulates major organs byInsulates major organs byadding a padded layeradding a padded layer

Protects against heat lossProtects against heat loss

TRIGLYCERIDE:TRIGLYCERIDE: Three partThree partstructure: three fatty acid andstructure: three fatty acid andone glycerol moleculesone glycerol molecules

OILSOILS:: Plant origin; liquid atPlant origin; liquid atroom temperatureroom temperature

Fats can mix with water by emulsification.Fats can mix with water by emulsification. EMULSIFICATIONEMULSIFICATION is the processis the processof breaking the lipids down into smaller droplets with an emulsifier suchof breaking the lipids down into smaller droplets with an emulsifier such

SATURATED: No double bondsbetween (C) atoms, inundated with(H)

UNSATURATED: Double bonds in(C) wherever (H) is less than twoper (C)

TRANS-FATTY ACIDS: Created bypartial hydrogenation of oils

Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. MaderPage 31


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Lipids ContinuedLipids ContinuedPHOSPHOLIPIDS: Molecule thatforms the bilayer of the cells

membrane

Head polar, hydrophilic

Tail - nonpolar, hydrophobic

STEROIDS: Complex of four(C) rings obtained fromcholesterol. Examples are sexhormones testosterone andestrogen.

Pictures fromHuman Biologyby Sylvia S.Mader Pages 31-32

PhospholipidStructure


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ProteinsProteinsPROTEIN:PROTEIN: A molecule comprised of polypeptide(s).A molecule comprised of polypeptide(s).

Functions of Proteins:Functions of Proteins: support, metabolic, transport, defense, regulationsupport, metabolic, transport, defense, regulation

and motion.and motion.

Some examples of protein or where it can be found:Some examples of protein or where it can be found: Hair and nailsHair and nails(keratin), skin (collagen), red blood cells (hemoglobin), muscles,(keratin), skin (collagen), red blood cells (hemoglobin), muscles,antibodies, hormones, actin and myosin (contractile proteins).antibodies, hormones, actin and myosin (contractile proteins).

Amino Acids are made up from an amino group, an acid group, andAmino Acids are made up from an amino group, an acid group, andan R group (rest of particular molecule). An amino acid will varyan R group (rest of particular molecule). An amino acid will varydepending on its R group; some are polar while others are not.depending on its R group; some are polar while others are not.

Pictures from HumanBiology by Sylvia S.Mader Page 33

AA PEPTIDE BONDPEPTIDE BONDis formed whenis formed whentwo amino acidstwo amino acidsjoin together byjoin together by

dehydrationdehydrationreaction.reaction.


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Proteins ContinuedProteins Continued

When an amino and acidsWhen an amino and acidsbonding with an R groupbonding with an R group

has been disturbed due tohas been disturbed due topH or temperaturepH or temperaturechange, a processchange, a process

effecting the proteinseffecting the proteinsshape known asshape known as

denaturation occursdenaturation occurs.

There are Four Levels ofThere are Four Levels ofStructureStructure

PRIMARY STRUCTURE:PRIMARY STRUCTURE: Basic sequence ofBasic sequence ofamino acids which are joined by peptideamino acids which are joined by peptide

bondsbonds

SECONDARY STRUCTURE:SECONDARY STRUCTURE: PolypeptidesPolypeptidesadopt certain directions or positions inadopt certain directions or positions inspace (alpha helix [chain coils] / pleatedspace (alpha helix [chain coils] / pleatedsheet [chain pleats])sheet [chain pleats])

TERTIARY STRUCTURE:TERTIARY STRUCTURE: Three-dimensionalThree-dimensionalglobular shape of secondary structureglobular shape of secondary structure

4. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE:4. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE: TheThejoining of two or morejoining of two or morepolypeptidespolypeptides

PicturesfromHumanBiology

by SylviaS. MaderPage 34


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Nucleic Acids:Nucleic Acids:Macromolecules made up of nucleotidesMacromolecules made up of nucleotides

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic AcidDNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Contains five carbon sugarContains five carbon sugardeoxyribosedeoxyribose

Bases Adenine (A), Thymine (T),Bases Adenine (A), Thymine (T),

Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C)Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C) Base can have two rings (A and G) orBase can have two rings (A and G) orone ring (T and C)one ring (T and C)

Possesses genetic information in cellsPossesses genetic information in cells

Copy and distribute geneticCopy and distribute genetic

information during cellular/organisminformation during cellular/organismreproductionreproduction

Double stranded/helix/Double stranded/helix/

Base pairingBase pairing

RNA: Ribonucleic AcidRNA: Ribonucleic Acid

Contains five carbon sugar ribose

Base (U) replaced base (T)

Does not form helix/single

stranded DNA is rewritten in RNA formwhich allows it to be transferred toother parts of the cell with aminoacid sequence information

Protein synthesis

NUCLEOTIDE:NUCLEOTIDE: Molecular structure consisting of three subunit molecules aMolecular structure consisting of three subunit molecules aphosphate, a sugar (sugar deoxyribose or ribose) and a nitrogenous base.phosphate, a sugar (sugar deoxyribose or ribose) and a nitrogenous base.

DNA/RNA are polymersDNA/RNA are polymers

Pictures From Human Biology bySylvia S. Mader Page 35

Backbone /

UprightSides

ATP (adenosine diphosphate):A

TP (adenosine diphosphate): Hi h


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ATP (adenosine diphosphate):ATP (adenosine diphosphate):High energyHigh energycarriercarrier

Composed of adenosine (adenine + ribose) and triphosphate

Bonds are unstable

Undergoes hydrolysis for energy: result is ADP (adenosinediphosphate)

After breakdown, the addition of phosphate molecule is used to

rebuild ADT

Pictures from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader page 36

Picture shows how ATP is hydrolyzed for energy use

W k Cit dW k Cit d


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Works CitedWorks Cited

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.Biology."Biology." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth EditionThe American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton. Houghton

Mifflin Company, 2004. 30 Jan. 2008. Dictionary.comMifflin Company, 2004. 30 Jan. 2008. Dictionary.com.

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Compendium Review Cells Part 2

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