Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry
Volume 73
The Quality of Air
Edited by
Miguel de la GuardiaDepartment of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia,Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
Sergio ArmentaDepartment of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia,Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
ELSEVIER
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Contents
Contributors to Volume 73 xxiii
Series Editor's Preface xxvii
Preface xxix
Section I
Atmospheric Air Framework
1. Physicochemistry of the Atmosphere 3
S. Armenta, M. de la Guardia
1. Earth's Atmosphere 32. Physical Processes 53. Chemical Processes 9
4. Climate—Chemistry Interactions 145. Dynamics and Long-Range Transportation 15
6. Biosphere, Geosphere and Hydrosphere Interactions 18Acknowledgements 21References 21
2. Pollutants and Air Pollution 27
S. Armenta, M. de la Guardia
1. Air Pollution: Chemicals in Motion 27
2. Primary and Secondary Pollutants 293. 'Criteria'Air Pollutants 31
3.1 Particle Matter Pollution 32
3.2 Ground-Level Ozone 34
3.3 Carbon Monoxide 35
3.4 Sulphur Oxides 363.5 Nitrogen Oxides 373.6 Lead 37
4. Hazardous Air Pollutants 39
5. Biological Pollutants 41
v
vi Contents
6. Emerging Pollutants 41
Acknowledgements 43
References 43
3. Indoor Air Pollution 45
V.G. Mihucz, G. Zaray
1. Classification of Indoor Air Pollutants 47
1.1 Major Inorganic Air Pollutants 47
1.2 Organic Indoor Air Pollutants 481.3 Airborne Particulate Matter 49
2. Strategies for Sampling of Indoor Air Pollutants 492.1 Passive and Active Sampling 492.2 Strategies for Particulate Matter Sampling Indoors: Filter
Materials and Sampling Devices 503. Analytical Techniques for the Determination of Indoor Air
Pollutants 51
3.1 From Routine Analysis to Complex Approaches 51
3.2 Chromatographic Techniques for Determination of OrganicPollutants 52
3.3 Analytical Techniques for Characterisation of Indoor
Particulate Matter 52
4. Assessment of Indoor Air Quality 54
5. Terpene Oxidation Indoors 54
6. Assessment of Oxidative Potential of Particulate Matter 60
7. Collaborative Research Projects on Indoor Air Quality 618. State-of-the-Art of Regulation for Indoor Air Quality 62
8.1 General Considerations 62
8.2 Health Limit and Guideline Values for Major Indoor Air
Pollutants 65
Acknowledgements 65
References 66
4. Outdoor Air Pollution 73
P.B.C. Forbes, R.M. Garland
1. Introduction 73
2. The Environmental Cycling of Atmospheric Pollutants 743. Outdoor Air Quality Impacts 75
4. Outdoor Air Pollutants 77
4.1 Inorganic Outdoor Air Pollutants 77
4.2 Particulates 84
4.3 Organic Outdoor Air Pollutants 854.4 Concluding Comments 93
References 93
Contents vii
5. Theoretical Predictive Air Quality Models 97
M. Gavrilescu
1. Introduction 98
2. Air Quality Models Features 993. Deterministic Versus Statistical Models 99
4. Structure of Air Quality Models 1015. Deterministic Air Quality Models 102
5.1 Governing Equations 1035.2 Steady State Gaussian Model 1065.3 Time-Dependent Models: Eulerian and Lagrangian 108
6. Ensembles of Air Quality Predictions 1107. Conclusions 113
Acknowledgement 113References 113
6. Lichens as Biomonitors of Heavy-Metal Pollution 117
M.E. Conti, M.B. Tudino
1. Introduction 118
2. Lichens as Biomonitors of Air Pollution 120
3. Experimental Procedures Employed in the Analysis ofLichens for the Determination of Inorganic Pollutants 1243.1 Sampling Strategies 1243.2 Sample Preparation 1263.3 Analytical Techniques 129
4. Comparison Among the Different Methodologies 1325. Conclusions 134
References 137
Section II
Analysis of Air
7. Analytical Process 149
M. de la Guardia, S. Armenta
1. The Problems of Air Quality Analysis 1492. Sampling Air: Particulate Matter 1513. Transport and Preservation of Samples 1544. Analytical Techniques 1555. Remote Sensing of Surface Air 1576. Direct Analysis of Air Composition 1587. Air Analysis in the Frame of Green Analytical Chemistry 161
Acknowledgements 163References 163
viii Contents
8. Active Sampling of Air 167
M. Marc, J. Namiesnik, B. Zabiegala
1. Introduction 167
2. Containers With Defined Volume for Air Sampling 1702.1 Containers With a Variable Inner Volume 171
2.2 Containers With a Constant Inner Volume 172
3. Enrichment and/or Preconcentration Techniques for
Dynamic/Active Analyte Sampling From Gaseous Medium 1754. Denudation Technique as a Specific Instrumental Solution in
the Field of Dynamic/Active Isolation and Preconcentration
Techniques 1835. Portable and Hand-Held Devices Applied for Air Quality
Monitoring as an Example of Advanced Devices in the Fieldof Active Air Sampling Techniques 187
6. Air Quality Monitoring Stations as an Example of Online
Stationary Active Sampling Devices 1907. Summary 196
Acknowledgement 197References 197
9. Passive Air Sampling 203
F.A. Esteve-Turrillas, A. Pastor
1. Introduction to Passive Air Sampling 2032. Compounds Sampled 204
2.1 Cases 204
2.2 Volatile Organic Compounds 2082.3 Semivolatile Organic Compounds 209
3. Sampler Designs 2123.1 Diffusive Samplers 2123.2 Membrane Samplers 2173.3 Solid-Phase Microextraction 219
3.4 Polyurethane Foams 2193.5 XAD-Passive Air System 2203.6 Others Samplers 220
4. Analytical Procedures for Sample Processing 2204.1 Traditional Extraction Methods 222
4.2 Green Chemistry Techniques 2234.3 Clean-Up Methods 2244.4 Analyte Determination 224
5. Calibration Models 224
6. Planning a Monitoring Campaign 2277. Final Remarks 228
Acknowledgements 228References 228
Contents ix
10. Sample Preservation and Measurement Techniquesfor the Determination of Air Quality 233
5. Cerutti, R.A. Gil, P.H. Pacheco, D. Gomez, P. Smichowski,L.D. Martinez
1. Sources of Environmental Air Samples and Types ofContaminants 235
2. Sampling Procedures 2372.1 General Considerations 237
2.2 Sampling Strategies 2372.3 Sampling Artifacts 243
3. Some Sampling Approaches for Specific Case Scenarios 2473.1 Airborne Particulate Matter Samplers 2473.2 Hazardous Materials Sample Collection 2503.3 Sampling Strategies for Biocontaminants 252
4. Sample Preservation 2534.1 Sample Preservation for Inorganic Analysis 2534.2 Sample Preservation and Holding Times for Organic
Compounds Analysis 2545. Fit-for-Purpose Methods 255
5.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis 2566. Conclusions and Future Perspectives 261
Acknowledgements 263References 263
11. Application of Chemical Sensors and SensorMatrixes to Air Quality Evaluation 267
J. Gebicki, T. Dymerski
List of Subjects and Sub-subjects 2681. Introduction 268
2. Classification of Chemical Sensors 269
3. Characteristics of Metrological Parameters of ChemicalSensor 269
4. Characteristics of Chemical Sensors Utilised for Air
Quality Control 2715. Design of Chemical Sensors Utilised for Control of
Air Quality 2745.1 Electrochemical Sensor 274
5.2 Semiconductor Sensor or MOS-Type Sensor 2765.3 Thermal Sensor (Pellistor) 2775.4 IR-Type Sensor 2785.5 Sensor of PID Type 279
6. Commercially Available Chemical Sensors for Air QualityMeasurement 280
7. Sensor Matrixes for Air Quality Measurement 283
x Contents
7.1 Chemical Sensors Most Frequently Utilised in Designof Electronic Nose Instruments 284
7.2 Commercially Available Sensor Matrixes for Air
Quality Measurement 2888. Summary 288
Acknowledgement 291References 292
12. Spectroscopic Measurement of Pollutant Gases 295
D. Venables
1. Introduction 296
2. Measurement Considerations 297
3. Spectroscopy Overview 2984. Absorption Spectroscopy 300
4.1 UV Photometry 3024.2 Nondispersive Infrared Spectrometry 3034.3 Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy 3054.4 Long Pathlength Cells 3074.5 Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy 3084.6 Cavity-Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy 3094.7 Cavity-Attenuated Phase-Shift Spectroscopy 3104.8 Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy 311
5. Emission Methods 313
5.1 Chemiluminescence Monitors 313
5.2 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 3146. Summary and Outlook 316References 317
13. Volatile and Semivolatile Organic CompoundsDetermination in Air 321
J.E. Colman Lerner, M.A. Orte, D. Giuliani, N. Matamoros,E. Y. Sanchez, A.A. Porta
1. Introduction 321
2. Monitoring Methodologies of VOCs 3232.1 Passive Sampling 3252.2 Active Sampling 3262.3 Equipment for Sampling VOCs 3262.4 Type of Desorption of VOCs 331
3. Monitoring Methodologies of SVOCs 331References 338
Contents xi
14. Particulate Material Analysis in Air 343
W. Wardencki, M. Bielawska
1. Introduction 344
2. General Characteristics of Suspended Particles 345
2.1 Main Sources of Particulate Matter in Air 345
2.2 Classification of Particulate Matter 345
2.3 Effects of Particulate Matter in Air on the Environment 346
3. Air Quality Regulation Guidelines for Particulate Matter
(EU, EPA, WHO) 347
4. Measurement Methods/Techniques for Particulate Matter 3504.1 General Aspects of Methods Used for Analysis of
Particulate Matter 350
4.2 The Reference Method for PMi0 352
4.3 The Equivalence Methods 353
5. Other Methods Used in Analysis of Particulate Matter 362
5.1 Electron Microscopy 362
6. Conclusions 364
References 365
15. Ultrafine Particles Pollution and Measurements 369
P. Kumar, A. Wiedensohler, W. Birmili, P. Quincey, M. Hallquist
1. Introduction 369
2. Sources of Ultrafine Particles 372
2.1 Combustion Sources 373
2.2 Secondary Formation by Atmospheric Processing 3762.3 Other Sources 376
3. Measurements of Ultrafine Particles 377
3.1 Method Description 377
4. Calibration Methods 378
4.1 General Aspects of Instrument Calibration 379
4.2 Condensation Particle Counters 379
4.3 Mobility Particle Size Spectrometers 3805. Measurement Metrics 380
6. Ultrafine Particle Pollution in Urban Environments 381
7. Summary, Conclusions and Future Outlook 383
Acknowledgements 384References 384
16. Bioaerosol Monitoring of the Atmosphere for
Occupational and Environmental Purposes 391
J.R. Sodeau, D.J. O'Connor
1. Background 392
2. Real-Time Analysis of Primary Biological Aerosol Particles 394
xii Contents
2.1 Ultraviolet Aerodynamic Particle Sizer 3952.2 Wideband-Integrated Bioaerosol Sensor (WIBS-4 and
WIBS-4A) 396
2.3 BioScout 397
2.4 Automatic Pollen Counter 398
2.5 BAA500 Pollen Monitor 399
2.6 Future Instrumental Developments 4002.7 Instrumental Comparison 401
3. Applications of Real-Time Flow-Cytometry to Outdoor andIndoor Air Analysis of Bioaerosols 401
4. Impacts on Environmental and Occupational Monitoring ofAirborne PBAP 407
4.1 A "Pristine" Protected National Park 407
4.2 A Green Waste/Composting Commercial Site 4084.3 An Occupied University Classroom 4094.4 A Swine Containment Building 410
5. An Overview of Bioaerosol Concentration Levels Measured
in Air 411
6. Future Prospects 413
Glossary of Acronyms 413
Acknowledgements 414References 414
Section III
Real Scenarios
17. Pesticides and Agricultural Air Quality 423
C. Coscolla, V. Yusa
1. Introduction 424
2. Emissions and Behaviour of Pesticides in the Atmosphere 426
3. Sampling and Analysis of Pesticides in Ambient Air 4303.1 Sampling 4303.2 Analysis 440
4. Occurrence of Pesticides in Ambient Air 449
5. Exposure and Risk Assessment of Pesticides in Ambient Air 481
6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives 485References 485
18. Air Quality Downwind of Burned Areas 491
F. Dempsey
1. Introduction 492
1.1 Scale and Impact of Vegetation Burning 492
1.2 Significance for Human Health 494
2. Sources and Quantities of Emissions 495
2.1 Natural Sources 495
Contents xiii
2.2 Human Initiated Burning 495
2.3 Smouldering Peat 496
2.4 Emissions From Post-Fire-Burned Areas 496
3. The Nature of the Emissions 498
3.1 Composition of Biomass Fuels 498
3.2 Physical and Chemical Processes Affecting Emissions 4983.3 Other Factors Affecting the Nature of Emissions 500
4. Transport, Dispersion and Transformation of Compoundsand Particles 501
5. Effects of Transported Plumes on Ground-Level Air Quality 5035.1 Pollutants Affecting Air Quality 5035.2 Local Meteorology and Effects on Air Quality 503
5.3 Example of Transport of Plumes From Fires: 21
July 2012, Central North America 5056. Remote Sensing of Emissions 507
7. Summary 511
Acknowledgement 513
References 513
19. Air Quality in European Cities 517
A. Bougiatioti, M. Kanakidou, N. Mihalopoulos
1. Introduction 518
2. Gaseous and Particulate Pollutants in Urban Environments 519
2.1 Ozone 520
2.2 Particulate Matter 520
2.3 Nitrogen Dioxide 5212.4 Sulphur Dioxide 5212.5 Carbon Monoxide 522
2.6 Heavy Metals 522
3. New Measuring Technics Developments and Emerging Issues 522
3.1 The Aerosol Chemical Speciation Monitor 523
3.2 The Proton-Transfer-Reaction Mass Spectrometer 523
3.3 The Particle-lnto-Liquid Sampler 5243.4 The Dithiothreitol Assay for the Oxidative Potential
of Aerosol 525
4. Sources (Primary, Secondary, Long-Range Transport) 526
5. Sources of Air Pollution of Increasing Importance: Wood
Burning 5285.1 Open Fires 528
5.2 Wintertime Biomass Smoke 528
5.3 Domestic Burning and Economic Crisis 529
6. Seasonality and Interranual Trends of Gaseous and
Particulate Pollutants 529
7. Levels 531
7.1 Air Quality Indexes 5317.2 North—South Gradient in Europe 533
xiv Contents
8. The City of Tomorrow: Predictions (Emissions/Mitigations),Green Cities (Low Emission Zones) 536
Acknowledgements 537References 537
Sources 542
20. Home Air Quality 543
M. Millet
1. Generality of Indoor Air Quality 5432. Origin of Indoor Air Pollution 544
2.1 Volatile Organic Compounds 5472.2 Semivolatile Compounds 548
References 558
21. Air Quality and the Petroleum Industry 563
G.S. Cholakov
1. Introduction 563
2. Sustainable Air Quality and the Petroleum Industry 5652.1 Strategies for Sustaining Air Quality 5652.2 Estimation of the Impact of Air Pollutants 567
3. Impact of the Petroleum Industry on Air Quality 5703.1 Production of Petroleum 570
3.2 Transportation of Petroleum 571
3.3 Refining of Petroleum 5723.4 Transportation and Marketing of Petroleum Products 580
4. Control and Management of Air Pollution in the
Petroleum Industry 5824.1 Storage and Handling Emissions 5834.2 Fugitive Emissions 5844.3 Process Emissions 584
4.4 Secondary Emissions 5845. Perspectives and Concluding Remarks 585References 585
22. Pharmaceutical Industries Air Quality 589
E. Oddone, S. Negri, F. Morandi, M. Imbriani
1. Introduction 590
2. Occupational Exposure in Pharmaceutical Industries: AnOverview 591
3. Environmental Monitoring, Sample Methods and Analysis 5933.1 Environmental Monitoring and Sampling Methods 5943.2 Pharmaceutical Drugs Normally Considered as Nonvolatile
Compounds: Cytostatic Antibiotics, Glucocorticoids andSteroids 596
Contents xv
4. Risk Assessment: Suggestions and Issues 6004.1 NOAEL, LOEL and OEL 600
4.2 Threshold of Toxicological Concern 6025. Main Health Effects 603
5.1 Acute Pharmacological Effects 6045.2 Chronic Effects 604
5.3 Epidemiologic Data 611References 613
23. Print and Related Industry Air Quality 623
J.S. Kiurski, LB. Oros, V.S. Kecic
1. Printing Industry as Polluter 6241.1 Printing Inks 626
1.2 Washout Solvents 627
1.3 Offset Printing 6271.4 Flexographic Printing 6281.5 Screen Printing 6281.6 Pad Printing 6291.7 Digital Printing 6291.8 Quantitative Analysis of Specific Printing Pollution 630
2. Photocopying as Polluter 6352.1 Carbon Monoxide Emission 639
2.2 Carbon Dioxide Emission 640
2.3 Nitrogen Dioxide Emission 6412.4 Ammonia Emission 642
2.5 Perchloroethylene Emission 6442.6 Non-methane Hydrocarbons Emission 645
3. Future Trends and Challenges in the Field of Printing 646
Acknowledgements 649References 649
24. Pesticide Industries Air Quality 655
S. Armenta, M. de la Guardia
1. Pesticide Industry Air Quality 6552. Occupational Exposure 6623. Organic Compounds Exposure 665
3.1 Very Volatile, Volatile and Semivolatile OrganicCompounds 665
3.2 Particulate Organic Materials and Aerosols 670
4. Sampling, Sample Treatment and Determinations in AmbientAir of Phytosanitary Plants 673
5. Personal Protective Equipment 6746. Challenges and Proposals for the Pesticide Industry 675
Acknowledgements 678References 678
xvi Contents
25. Cement Manufacturing and Air Quality 683
K.H. Karstensen, C.J. Engelsen, S. Ng, P.K. Saha, M.N. Maimedal
1. Introduction 684
2. Environmental Significance of Cement Production 6852.1 Dust 686
2.2 Caseous Atmospheric Emissions 6872.3 Trace Elements 695
2.4 Mode of Operation 6972.5 Other 'Emissions' 698
2.6 Normal Emission Levels From Rotary Kilns 6992.7 Impacts on Emissions by Utilising Wastes 699
3. Occupational Exposure and Potential Risks to HumanHealth 701
References 704
26. Ceramic Industry Air Quality. Emissions Into the
Atmosphere From Ceramic Tile Processes 707
G. Timellini, R. Resca, M.C. Bignozzi
1. Introduction 708
2. Emissions Into the Atmosphere From Ceramic Processesand Plants 710
2.1 Classification per Manufacturing Phase and Function 7102.2 The Pollutants 713
3. The Characterisation of Emissions Into the Atmosphere 7153.1 Measures of Flow Rate and Pollutants Concentration 715
3.2 Parameters and Indicators for the Characterisation 715
4. Evolution of the Emissions into the Atmosphere FromCeramic Tile Industries in Italy 7174.1 General Approach 7174.2 The Remediation of the Sassuolo Ceramic District 718
4.3 The Pollutant Mass Flow as an Emission Limit 720
4.4 The Environmental Management 7214.5 Environmental Performance and Competitiveness.
Environmental Product Labels and the New ISO
Standard on Sustainable Tiles and Tiling, in Preparation 7234.6 State of the Emissions Into the Atmosphere From
Ceramic Tiles Manufacture in the Most Recent Years 724
5. Conclusions 726
List of Acronyms 728References 728
Contents xvii
27. Air Quality in Metal Industries: Exhaled Breath
Condensate, a Tool for Noninvasive Evaluation of
Air Pollution Exposure 731
T. Pinheiro, S.M. Almeida, P.M. Felix, C. Franco, S.M. Garcia,
C. Lopes, A. Bugalho de Almeida
1. Introduction 733
1.1 Environmental Hazards and Health 733
1.2 Occupational Health and Air Quality 7341.3 Human Biomonitoring for Health Assessment 7371.4 Assessing Occupational Exposure to Metals 7371.5 Biomarker of Exposure for the Respiratory System 7381.6 Exhaled Breath Condensate, a Tool for Noninvasive
Evaluation of Air Pollution 739
1.7 Collection of EBC 740
1.8 Validation of EBC Method 742
2. A Case Study: Using EBC to Assess Exposure in Workersof the Lead Industry 7442.1 EBC a Tool for Noninvasive Evaluation of Pb Exposure 746
2.2 Study Design 7472.3 Characterisation of Exposed and Nonexposed Workers 7482.4 Work Environment Monitoring: Air Particulate Matter 7492.5 Biomonitoring With EBC 752
3. Advantages and Limitations of the Method 7594. Future Perspectives 759
Acknowledgements 760References 760
28. Air Quality Management in Electronic Industries 765
Z. Shareefdeen, S. Taqvi, A. Elkamel
1. Overview of Electronic Industries 766
2. Processes that Contribute to Air Emissions 767
2.1 Materials Phase 767
2.2 Manufacturing Phase 7702.3 Packaging, Transportation and Distribution Phase 7712.4 Use Phase 771
2.5 End-of-Life Phase 771
3. Type of Chemicals and Health Effects 7724. Measurement and Analytical Techniques 774
4.1 Sampling Technique 7744.2 Analytical Technique 775
5. Environmental Regulations Related to Electronic Industries 7756. Technology Used to Control Air Emissions 777
6.1 Vapour Permeation Technique 7786.2 Membrane-Based Gas Absorption Technique 778
xviii Contents
6.3 Condenser Pretreatment Technique 7786.4 Recovery/Recycle Technique 7786.5 Cryogenic and Oxidation Techniques 7796.6 Biofiltration Technique 7796.7 Industrial Case Study 7796.8 Overview of the Different Technologies 780
7. Conclusion 782
8. Recommendations to Improve Air Quality in Electronic
Industry 782References 783
29. Air Quality of Textile and Related Industries 785
C. Estevan, MA. Sogorb, E. Vilanova
1. Relevance of Assessing Chemical Exposure in Textile and
Related Industries 786
1.1 Legislation 7861.2 Occupational Exposure Limits 787
2. Operations and Chemical Products Involved in Textile and
Shoemaking Industries 7872.1 Manufacturing Processes 7872.2 Chemical Products in Textiles and Related Industries 788
2.3 Exposure Control Measures 7893. Sampling and Analytical Methodologies for Air Quality
Monitoring 7903.1 Monitoring Methods 7903.2 Sampling Methods and Sample Selection 7913.3 Analytical Methods 792
4. Characterisation of Exposure to Substances in Textile and
Shoemaking Industries 7924.1 Parameters for Quantification of the Exposure 792
5. Trends and Changes in the Formulation of Industrial Productsto Reduce Health Risks Due to Exposure to Chemicals 7955.1 Reduction of Exposure Index by Using Less Dangerous
Chemicals 795
5.2 Reducing of Risk by No Using COVs 7966. Working Practices Influencing Air Quality 797
6.1 Use of Exposure Control Measures 797
6.2 Changes in Formulation of Chemical Products 797
6.3 Risk Prevention 797
References 799
30. Exposure to Softwood Dust in the Wood Industry 801
K. Hagstrom, V. Schlunssen, K. Eriksson
1. Introduction 802
1.1 Health Effects of Wood Dust 802
Contents xix
1.2 Exposure Assessment of Wood Dust 803
2. Exposures in Sawmills 805
2.1 The Sawing Process 8052.2 Exposure Levels 8062.3 Determinants of Exposure 806
3. Exposure in Furniture Factories and Joinery Shops 8083.1 The Process 808
3.2 Exposure Levels and Trends 8083.3 Determinant for Exposure 810
4. Exposure at Production of Wood Pellets 810
4.1 Wood Pellet Production in Sweden 810
4.2 Exposure Levels and Trends 811
5. Wood Dust Exposure in Other Industries 814
6. Variation in Exposure 8147. Other Exposures in the Softwood Industry 814
7.1 Monoterpenes 8157.2 Resin Acids 816
8. Concluding Remarks 817
References 818
31. Improving the Sustainability of Office Partition
Manufacturing: A Case Study 825
F.S. Luisser, M.A. Rosen
1. Introduction 826
2. Background 8272.1 Furniture Manufacturing and Sustainability 8272.2 Impact and Prevention of VOC Emissions 828
3. Processes in Office Partition Manufacturing and VOCEmissions 829
4. Determination of Base VOC Emissions for Office Partition
Manufacturing 8304.1 Mass Balance Approach for Assessing Base Emissions 8304.2 VOCs Emitted From the Office Partition Manufacturing
Facility 8305. Measures to Reduce VOC Emissions 831
5.1 Best Management Practices 8315.2 Paint Equipment Modifications 833
5.3 Production Process Modifications 833
5.4 Product Redesign 8345.5 Recycling and Reuse 8355.6 Abatement Technologies 835
6. Methodology for Assessing and Balancing Measures 8357. Ranked Pollution Prevention Measures 838
8. Discussion of Pollution Prevention Measures Relative to
Evaluation Criteria 841
8.1 Best Management Practices 841
xx Contents
8.2 Equipment Modifications 841
8.3 Process Modifications 841
8.4 Product Modifications 842
8.5 Recycling and Reuse 8428.6 Abatement 842
9. General Discussion 842
10. Detailed Feasibility Analysis 84310.1 Best Management Practices 84410.2 Equipment Modifications 84610.3 Production Process Modifications 848
10.4 Product Redesign 85010.5 Recycling and Reuse 85110.6 Summary of Results 852
11. Measurement and Control 852
11.1 Data Acquisition and Analysis 85312. Benefits 854
12.1 Environmental Benefits 854
12.2 Economic Benefits 854
12.3 Indirect Benefits 854
13. Conclusions 855
References 856
32. Indoor Air Quality in Chemical Laboratories 859
T. Ugranli, E. Gungormus, A. Sofuoglu, S.C. Sofuoglu
1. Pertinent Pollutants, Sources and Health Effects 860
1.1 Particulate Matter 860
1.2 Trace Elements 861
1.3 Inorganic Gases 8611.4 Bioaerosols 862
1.5 Volatile and Semivolatile Organic Compounds 8632. Factors That Determine the Concentrations of Indoor Air
Pollutants in Laboratories 864
2.1 Source Strength 8642.2 Ventilation 865
2.3 Building Characteristics 8653. Indoor Environmental Comfort 866
3.1 Thermal Comfort 866
3.2 Noise 867
3.3 Lighting 8673.4 Vibration 867
3.5 Odour 868
4. Review of the Literature on Laboratory Indoor Air Quality 8685. Indoor Environmental Quality Management 871References 875
Contents xxi
Section IV
Legal Framework and Future Perspectives
33. Damage Costs of Air Pollution and PolicyImplications 881
A. Rabl, J.V. Spadaro
1. Introduction 881
2. Methodology 8822.1 Impact Pathway Analysis 8822.2 Life Cycle Assessment 8842.3 Atmospheric Dispersion and Chemistry 8852.4 Exposure—Response Functions 8862.5 Monetary Valuation 8862.6 Health Impacts 8872.7 Climate Change 888
3. Assumptions and Models 8893.1 Assumptions 8893.2 ERFs and Unit Costs 891
3.3 Damage Costs for Typical Emissions in EU27 8933.4 Uniform World Model: A Simple Model for Damage
Cost Estimation 893
4. Results for Electricity Production 8954.1 General Remarks 895
4.2 Damage Costs of Power in the EU27 895
4.3 Damage Costs of Power in the United States 8974.4 The Nuclear Fuel Chain 900
4.5 Renewable Energy Technologies 9055. Waste Treatment and Energy Recovery 9066. Conclusions 911
Glossary 912References 912
34. The Challenges of Air Protection and Control 917
M. de la Guardia, S. Armenta
1. The Quality of Air in a Sustainable World 917
2. REACH Scenarios of Air Contamination 919
3. Making Decisions From Air Quality Control 9204. Indoor and Outdoor Control of Air 923
5. Sensitivity and Selectivity Challenges 9256. Future Trends in Air Control 926
Acknowledgements 928References 928
Index 931
