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COMPRESSORDedicated To Gas Compression Products & Application
Mexicos case study: PuMPtech
GrowinG ThirsT Torsional analysis issue
APRIL 2013
Compressor Efciency
Drops With Black
Powder Build-Up
Managing
Screw Compressors
In The Field
compressormaintenance
www.compressortech2.com
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HOERBIGER Engine Solutions
Click on company logo to see ad page
This issue Driven By
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C O M P R E S S O R S n T U R B I N E S n G L O B A L S E R V I C E
EBARA CORPORATION
www.elliott-turbo.com
nCustomers: Global oil and gas producers.
nChallenge:Changing compression requirementsas felds mature and production peaks.
nResult: Flexible, reliable compressor designs
or extended, cost-efcient operations.
They turned to Elliottfor reliable compression solutions.
From Aberdeen to Rio de Janeiro, Calgary to Jakarta, Elliott compressors, turbines, andexpanders deliver the reliable, efcient perormance that producers and processors require.And every piece o Elliott equipment is backed by our unmatched global service network.
Customers throughout the world turn to Elliott or critical turbomachinery and servicebecause our resources are global and our execution is local. Who will you turn to?
The world turns to Elliott.
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Ariel reciprocating compressors from 100 to 10,000 BHP are utilized in the upstream, midstream, and downstream
sectors. Our compressors are designed and built for long service life and ease of maintenance. Ariel is there every
step of the way, offering you the best customer service in the industry. For all your compression needs, choose
Ariel.
Learn more about unit F40,000 at www.arielcorp.com/unit40k
IF NOT, TALK TO US ABOUT YOUR COMPRESSION NEEDS.
WELL SHOW YOU THE ARIEL DIFFERENCE.
ARIEL CORPORATION
World Standard Compressors35 Blackjack Road Mount Vernon, OH 43050 www.arielcorp.com
40,000COMPRESSORS SHIPPED TO OVER 100 COUNTRIES SINCE 1966...
CHANCES ARE, ONE OF THEM IS YOURS.
Ariels 40,000th compressor being
assembled in November 2012.
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Joe Kane
Compressortch
2
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tul clit tt ffctig ll t
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my th Ld hld yu i th hllw
f Hi hd. CT2
An Issue We ShouldLose Sleep Over
Page4a mb of Th Dil & G Tubi publicti GuPresident & CEO .................... michl J. ogExecutive Vice President ...michl J. BzickPUBLICATION STAFF
CT2 Founder .......................... Jh m. KPublisher .................................Bt D. Hight
Associate Publisher ..............rbt ChlliiEditor ..........................................ptick CwExecutive Editor .............................. DJ sltSenior Editor ................. michl J. BzickSenior Editor ............................. mik rhdAssociate Editor ...............................Jck BukAssociate Editor ............................Chd elCopy Editor ............................... Jy Kwicz
Digital Content Manager...........Cti Btt
Advertising Manager ..........Chit L. JhCirculation Manager ..................shil LizdProduction Manager ............ mi J. rbtGraphic Artist .......................Bd L. BubchGraphic Artist ............................Cl D. LkGraphic Artist ..........................ad J. ryGraphic Artist ...............................aly L
PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS20855 Wttw rd, suit 220Wukh, Wici 53186-1873
Tlh: (262) 754-4100 Fx: (262) 754-4175
CONTRIBUTING EDITORSell Hki - midld, Txn shd - Cbidg, ohi
mu Bl schid - ri Gd du sul, Bzil
HOUSTON OFFICEBt D. Hight, publih
ptick Cw, editmik rhd, si edit
12777 J rd, suit 225Hut, Tx 77070
Tlh: (281) 890-5310 Fx: (281) 890-4805
GERMAN OFFICELi Hchkfl, advtiig mgGbil Dil, advtiig mg
nillt. 973760 otfild, Gy
Tlh: +49 711 3416 74 0 Fx: +49 711 3416 74 74
UNITED KINGDOM OFFICEI C, rgil mg/editLid C, advtiig mg
40 pi avuahbu, Dbyhi,
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ITALIAN OFFICESrbt Chllii, acit publih
44, Vi Dll FbiciI-50133 Fiz, Itly
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B sv, Fild edit/Bui mgDudbckvg 20
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JAPANESE OFFICEakiyhi oji, Bch mg
51-16-301 Hku sti, nk-kuYkh, 231-0824 J
Tlh: +81 45 624 3502 Fx: +81 45 624 3503
CHINESE OFFICEs.H. mk, Bch mgr 1405, Kwl Buildig
555 nth rdKwl, Hg Kg
Tlh: +852 3118 7930 Fx : +852 3110 3572
COMPRESSORDedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications
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More power on less fuelwith lower emissions.Recognized leader in the energy production industry.
GEs Gas Engines business has a track record of more than 170 years of reciprocating engine
technology experience. This legacy of innovation goes into each new engine developed to
meet the demands of future generations. Waukesha gas engines are a driving force to leverage
natural gas reserves and deliver powerful gas compression solutions for global applications.
For more information on GEs Gas Engines business, visit us at www.ge-waukesha.com.
GE Power & WaterGas Engines
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Featured Articles16 Compressor Efficiency Drops With Black Powder Build-Up
24 Caring For A Compressor
42 Mexicos Growing Thirst
46 Mecos Acquisition Opens Opportunities For MAN
72 Lubes Evolve With Higher Turbine Performance
74 Turbine-Driven Compression For China
88 IEA Urges More Competition In Asia Pacific Gas Market
90 Case Study: Torsional Analysis
PUMPtech52 Warning: Contents Are Hot
58 Wrtsil Pumps It Up
62 Unusual PD Pump Pulsation Solutions
TECHcorner32 A Review Of Reciprocating Compressor Crosshead Pin Nonreversals76 Vector Analysis Of Crankshaft Web Deflections
Departments4 Page 4 An Issue We Should Lose Sleep Over
8 Global Perspective Russia Looks Toward Asia Pacific Energy Market
10 Meetings & Events
12 About The Business Compression Industry Reports Strong 2012 BusinessDespite Low Gas Prices
14 Monitoring Government Meltdown Looms For Europes CarbonTrading Program
40 Literature
73 Prime Movers
86 Featured Products
95 Snapshot Oklahoma School Tops Out Building
96 Scheduled Downtime
97 Marketplace
98 Advertisers Index
100 Cornerstones Of Compression Waukesha VHP Series Gas Engines
Compressortch2 (ISSN 1085-2468)
Volume 18, No. 3 Published 10 issues/year (January-February, March, April, May,June, July, August-September, October,
November, December) by Diesel & GasTurbine Publications, 20855 WatertownRoad, Waukesha, WI 53186-1873,U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 peryear/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicalspostage paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 andat additional mailing offices. Copyright 2013DIESEL & GAS TURBINE PUBLICATIONS.
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Fllw Compressortch2
at www.ctch2.c
COMPRESSORDedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications
April 2013
Cover Designed ByAmanda Ryan
MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDEPRINTED IN THE U.S.A.
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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Catalyst elements work hard under extreme conditions, and even with regularmaintenance, a failure is always possible. And a plant operation shutdown is
never a good thing.
A quick replacement with top quality DCL Metalcor products is the key to
getting you out of trouble. We stock a wide range of products in our Dallas
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WHEN CATALYST ELEMENT
FAILURE PUTS YOU IN A BIND,
DCL WILL BE ON THE SPOT.
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
11/105APRIL 2013 8 ComPRessoRtch2
For many years, Europe has been the primary ex-
port market for Gazprom, the Russian natural
gas monopoly.
If on one side, the European marketplace is seen as a
slow-growing area with high competition from North Sea,
African and Middle East gas source. On the other side, the
growing economies of the Asia Pacific region ensure a fast-
growing demand for energy. Thats especially true for lique-
fied natural gas (LNG), since Japan and South Korea are
the worlds largest LNG importers.
Strong energy demand has brought very lucrative prices,
and several international oil companies are investing in LNG
plants to monetize the gas reserves of Indonesia, Australia,
the Middle East and the East African coast. The low price
of gas in the United States has even prompted proposals to
export LNG to Asia Pacific.
Russia is looking at this market area with great interest. It
has significant hydrocarbon resources in East Siberia and
on the Russian Continental Shelf (RCS). The easiest, and
the most economical, option would have been a gas pipe-
line from East Siberia to South Korea through North Korea.
Although technically feasible, the political situation in the
area could jeopardize the substantial investment required.
Instead, on Feb. 21, Gazprom decided to invest in the Vladi-
vostok LNG export project. The three-train export terminal will
be built at Perevoznaya Bay on the Lomonosov Peninsula and
will have annual export capacity of about 15 mtpa (20.7 x109
m3/year). The first train is scheduled to start up in 2018.
Last October, Russia had finally decided to invest in the
development of the Chayanda gas and condensate field.
It will build a 2000 mi. (3200 km) pipeline from Yakutia to
Vladivostok to provide feedstock gas for the Vladivostok
LNG project.
The Vladivostok terminal also will draw on gas from
Sakhalin Island area gas fields and from the Irkutsk produc-
tion center (also in East Siberia), which will be linked to the
Yakutia-Vladivostok (Power of Siberia) trunkline.
Gazprom did not disclose a construction cost of the Vladi-
vostok venture. However, it is likely to be greater than the
US$12.7 billion originally estimated, given the increased
scale of the project. The final cost, including the develop-
ment of Chayanda and pipeline construction, likely will be
more than US$50 billion over five years or longer.
The gas export monopoly that Gazprom holds is in-
creasingly threatened by pressure from Russian Presi-
dent Vladimir Putin, whose political allies include Rosneft
chairman Igor Sechin. In fact, Rosneft has made over-
tures to ExxonMobil, as well as Chinese and Japanese
companies, for possible LNG collaboration in its conces-
sions, although a liberalization of Russias gas export
framework has yet to occur.
Gazprom is wise to speed its entry into Asia through the
Vladivostok LNG project while Russian politicians consider ex-
tending its export monopoly. However, rising competition in the
Asia Pacific LNG market could give consuming nations more
bargaining power. Gazprom could find it difficult to secure
long-term contracts at prices that would give it a comfortable
profit margin for the expensive Vladivostok LNG investment.
Rosneft has also offered opportunities for cooperation on
the RCS to Chinese companies and is expected to make
similar offers to Japanese firms. Those deals will probably
follow the pattern of agreements it had inked with ExxonMo-
bil, Eni and Statoil: entry into the prospective Russian shelf,
which could hold 733 billion barrels of oil equivalent (BOE)
of resources, in exchange for the capital and expertise to
develop the fields.
These promise to be beneficial partnerships for the oil
giant Rosneft. Thanks to legislation in 2008 that effectively
granted it and Gazprom exclusive rights to the RCS, the two
firms have been sitting on licenses that could be rich with
hydrocarbon potential.
However, due to the high costs of exploration and produc-
tion, as well as the specialized knowhow needed to operate
offshore a relatively new area of operations for both com-
panies they have been slow to develop the RCS.
In recent months, both firms have been under increas-
ing pressure from political figures such as Prime Minister
Dmitry Medvedev and Natural Resources and Environment
Minister Sergei Donskoy to speed development of the RCS
or risk a forfeit of their licenses. CT2
Russia Looks Toward
Asia Pacific EnergyMarket >BY ROBERTO CHELLINIASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Global Perspective
Gazprom, Rosneft underpolitical pressure to exploitgas, oil resources
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They may display a proud old name on the outside,but the driving orce within the worlds best-engineered,
most efcient, pipeline gas compressors is Rolls-Royce.
The heritage name, Cooper-Bessemer, still carried by older
machines, echoes the engineering excellence that has
earned Rolls-Royce an unparalleled reputation or quality.Today, in a business where productivity and dependability
mean so much, the unsurpassed engineering experience
o the past makes Rolls-Royce the compressor name
o the uture.
A proud past leads to a new future
Trusted to deliver excellence
Its all inthe name...
Cooper-Bessemer is a registered trade name of Cameron Corporation, used under license by Rolls-Royce plc
www.rolls-royce.com
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APRIL
April 7-10
*Gas Processors Association
Annual Convention San Antonio
Tel: +1 (918) 493-3872
Web: www.gpaglobal.org
April 10-11
*Turkish International Oil & Gas
Conference 2013 Ankara, Turkey
Tel: +44 207 596 5147
Web: www.turoge.com
April 15
*Gas Compressor Association
Expo & Conference
Galveston, Texas
Tel: +1 (972) 518-0019
Web: www.gascompressor.org
April 15-17
North Africa Technical Conference
& Exhibition Cairo
Tel: +971 4 390 3540
Web: www.spe.org/events/natc
April 16-17
*Gas Compressor Institute
Liberal, Kansas
Tel: +1 (620) 417-1171
Web: www.gascompressor.info
April 29-May 3*Gulf South Rotating Machinery
Symposium Baton Rouge,
Louisiana
Tel: +1 (225) 578-4853
Web: www.gsrms.org
MAY
May 1-4
Baghdad International Oil & Gas
Conference and Exhibition Baghdad
Tel: +90 212 356 00 56
Web: www.baghdadoilgas.com
May 6-9
*Offshore Technology Conference
Houston
Tel: +1 (972) 952-9494
Web: www.otcnet.org
May 14-16
*Eastern Gas Compression
Roundtable
Moon Township, Pennsylvania
Tel: +1 (412) 372-4301
Web: www.egcr.org
May 14-16
*Sensor+Test Nuremberg, Germany
Tel: +49 5033 9639-0
Web: www.sensor-test.de
May 14-16
Uzbekistan International Oil & Gas
Exhibition Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Tel: +44 207 596 5233
Web: www.oguzbekistan.com/2013
JUNEJune 3-7
*ASME Turbo Expo San AntonioTel: +1 (404) 847-0072
Web: www.asmeconferences.org/
TE2013
June 4-6
*Power-Gen Europe Vienna
Meetings & EventsFor a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com
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Tel: +44 1992 656 617
Web: www.powergeneurope.com
June 4-6
Sensos Exo & Confeence
Rosemont, Illinois
Tel: +1 (617) 219-8375
Web: www.sensorsmag.com/
sensors-expo
June 4-7
Caspian Oil & Gas 2013
Baku, Azerbaijan
Tel: +44 207 596 5000
Web: www.caspianoil-gas.com
June 5-6
Enegy Exosiion
Gillette, Wyoming
Tel: +1 (307) 234-1868
Web: www.energyexposition.com
June 11-13
Calgary Oil & Gas Expo
Calgary, Canada
Tel: +1 (403) 209-3555
Web: www.gasandoilexpo.com
SEptEmbEr
Se. 17-19
*Gas Coesso Confeence
Norman, Oklahoma
Tel: +1 (405) 325-3891
Web: www.engr.outreach.ou.edu/
gascompressor
Se. 18-20
*Wyoing Naual Gas Fai
Jackson, Wyoming
Tel: +1 (307) 234-7147
Web: www.wyogasfair.org
Se. 25-26
ChemInnovations Conference & Expo
Galveston, Texas
Tel: +1 (713) 343-1884
Web: www.cpievent.com
Se. 30-Oc. 3
*Inenaional pu Uses
Syosiu Houston
Tel: +1 (979) 845-2924
Web: http://turbolab.tamu.edu
Se. 30-Oc. 3
*tuoachiney Syosiu
Houston
Tel: +1 (979) 845-7417
Web: http://turbolab.tamu.edu
Oc. 1
Pittsburgh Chemical Day Pittsburgh
Tel: +1 (855) 807-9814
Web: www.pittchemday.com
Oc. 2-4
*powe-Gen Asia Bangkok
Tel: +1 (918) 835-3161
Web: www.powergenasia.com
Oc. 6-9
Gas machiney Confeence
Albuquerque, New Mexico
Tel: +1 (972) 620-4026
Web: www.gmrc.org
Oc. 7-10
Agenina Oil & Gas Exo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Tel: +54 11 4322 57
Web: www.aog.com.ar
*Indicat hw and cnfnc in which Compressortch2 i aticiating
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7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
15/105APRIL 2013 12 ComPRessoRtch2
Compression fabrication and contract services compa-
nies reported strong results for 2012 even though natu-
ral gas prices were subdued.
Enerflex recorded sales 22% higher than in 2011 due to
strong activity in the southern United States, South America,
and other international segments. Cameron Process & Com-
pression reported revenues were 21% higher, led by strong
process equipment sales. Dresser-Rands new-unit sales in-
creased 20%.
USA Compression Partners, which closed its IPO in Janu-
ary 2013, had record 20% higher revenues. Exterran Holdingss
revenues were 17% higher for the quarter and 7% for the year,
with growth in all business sectors, but especially in fabrication.
Compressco Partners increased its revenues 23% due to strong
international growth, primarily in Mexico. UE Compression, which
opened a facility in Denver to handle larger packages, reported re-
cord packaging sales in 2012. And SEC Energy enjoyed its highest
volume since 2008.
Nevertheless, tepid economies and low gas prices limited results
for a number of companies. Caterpillars Power Systems group re-
ported sales 6% lower in the fourth quarter of 2012, with soften-
ing in all geographic regions except Asia Pacific. Cat noted that
dealers are not building inventory like they did at the end of 2011.
Rolls-Royce Energy revenues decreased 11% due to the delay of
several large international projects. Small regional packagers, such
as Abby Services in the U.S., and Compass and Sage in Canada,
reported slower activity. That sent them searching for more interna-
tional business and new markets, such as vapor recovery.
Exterran reduced its contract compression fleet (the industrys
largest) by another 3% to 4,461,000 hp (3326 MW), but grew oper-
ating horsepower by 3% to 3,907,000 hp (2913 MW) as utilization
improved to 84%, nearer the industry average. International growth
rates were strongest.
USA Compressions fleet grew 27% during the year to
919,211 hp (685 MW), although utilization fell from 95.7% to
92.8%. Compressco reported 3149 compressor units in ser-
vice, up 8%, with growth focused on Latin American, European
and Asia Pacific markets, as well as unconventional applica-
tions supporting associated gas from liquids production, vapor
recovery and casing gas systems.
Year-end backlogs and order rates were mixed. Dresser-Rand
reported record new-unit orders, a gain of 9%, driven by stronger
worldwide energy infrastructure markets, especially oil produc-
tion and gas transmission. D-Rs year-end unit backlog was 14%
higher than 2011, and new unit orders are forecast to increase
another 10 to 20% in 2013.
Exterrans compression fabrication backlog was up 11%
from the third quarter and 3% from year-end 2011. Manage-
ment reported the highest profitability in more than three
years, and expects further progress in 2013, mostly in the
second half of the year.
Caterpillar and Ariel projected 2013 volumes would match
2012 levels. SEC Energy reported a six-month backlog with a
full shop and a large expansion of its Houston plant and offices
near completion. Camerons process and compression equip-
ment orders and backlog declined 2% and 4%, respectively.
Rolls-Royce Energy, dependent almost entirely on internation-
al markets, reported orders down 9% due to delays of several
large projects.
Enerflexs backlog decreased 31%, with orders slowing in all
areas due to lower gas prices, but especially in Canada and the
northern U.S. The decrease was also affected by a large Omani
gas processing plant that had been included in 2011 bookings.
The company expects continued softness during the first half
of 2013, but is optimistic about opportunities in the southern
U.S., South America and other international markets. Enerflex
doubled its Houston fabrication facility in 2012 to serve demand
in those markets.
Low gas prices sent many small, regional fabricators and con-
tract compression fleets searching for business in new markets.
For example, Bidell, Compass, Sage and Abby all reported their
2012 fabrication backlogs were down from 2011. Dearing Com-
pression, positioned uniquely in the Marcellus and Utica Shale
plays, was an exception.
Niche companies, such as Cobey and ANGI Energy Systems,
are benefiting from strong growth in natural gas vehicle refueling
infrastructure. Vapor recovery compression is also growing as op-
erators try to reduce fugitive emissions. CT2
Compression Industry Reports
Strong 2012 Business DespiteLow Gas Prices >BY NORM SHADE
About The Business
More-or-less flat outlook sendssmall, regional players search-ing for new markets
BY NORM SHADE
Norm Shade is president of ACI Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio.
A 43-year veteran of the gas compression industry, he has written
numerous papers and is active in the major industry associations.
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on-site system analysis and troubleshooting
Our feld service teams can solve any hard to isolate or recurring problems with
your compressor. Downtime is lost money and to minimize it, engineers will do a
complete on-site system analysis, troubleshoot the root causes, and provide solutions.
The technical team also provides support by phone or email 24 hours a day.
The CPI lubrication group feld service teams have the advantage o
providing a ull service ready to tackle any lubrication repair, breakdown
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GCA - Gas Compressor Association -April 14-17, Galveston TX - Booth 116
High Performance Polymers for Oil & Gas - April 10-12, Houston, TX
visit us at...
evolving solutions
around your world
www.c-p-i.com
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MonitoringgovernMent
Appval f a baladngfx n me easly
BY PAtrick crow
Meltdown Looms ForEuropes Carbon Trading
Program >
APRIL 2013 14 ComPRessoRtch2
Eurpes greenhuse gas emssns radng sheme s
near llapse, presenng he Eurpean Unn h
sme ugh hes.
the Emssns tradng Sysem (EtS) as he frs, and s
by far he larges, nernanal framerk fr radng green-
huse gas emssns allanes.
the fae f he EtS ll be lsely mnred n he
Uned Saes. Presden Barak obama s pressng cn-
gress fr glbal armng legslan and ms plans
redue greenhuse emssns nlude ap-and-rade pr-
grams lke he EtS.
cmpressr manufaurers als shuld be ahng h
neres. they uld lke see marke grh fr mpres-
srs used n co2 njen/sequesran prjes.
the EU launhed he EtS n 2005. i affes nearly half
f all co2 emssns n he 27 EU member nans, plus
craa, ieland, Lehensen and Nray.
wrkng frm a 2005 baselne, he prgrams gal s
u emssns frm argeed ndusral sers 21% by 2020.
EU nans have allaed free arbn perms 11,000
ndusral frms and per plans.
An allane perms a faly em 1 nne f co2 r
s arbn equvalen. cmpanes an sell any perms ha
hey dn need. the lm n he al number f allanes
avalable hereally ensures ha hey have a value.
the paper-radng sysem s a gd dea n paper. the
marke mehansm shuld all plluers eher nves n
emssns nrls r purhase allanes frm mpanes
h dn need hem, hhever makes enm sense.
Bu ap-and-rade sysems rk bes hen demand
fr allanes s brsk. thas n been he ase reenly
n Eurpe, here ndusral avy sll s reverng frm
he enm sldn. in parular, demand fr eler
per has drpped and generang plans are he majr
sures f co2 emssns.
Sne 2009, he supply f EtS allanes has nss-
enly surpassed demand buldng a surplus f abu 2
blln nnes and hus he pre f raded arbn reds
has rended dnards.
Earler hs year, he pre f reds slpped a l f
2.80 (US$3.75) fr eah nne allane f co2. tha
as dn frm 9 n 2012 and 30 n 2008.
in lae February, he mmnen llapse f he EtS fred
he EUs cmmee n Envrnmen, Publ Healh and
Fd Safey draf a balu plan. t ghen he marke,
prpsed bakladng fuure allanes: deferrng he
ssuane f 900 mlln nnes f arbn perms ha ere
due be auned frm 2013 2015. tha uld be
abu a furh f he planned fferng.
the envrnmen mmee has sen a lear sgnal n
favr f a srng and healhy emssns radng sysem,
cmmee charman Mahas Gre sad. A srnger
arbn pre ll help aalyze Eurpes ransn ards
a l-arbn enmy.
tha balu plan n mus be apprved by he Eurpean
cmmssn, hh represens all f he gvernmens f
EU member saes, and he Eurpean Parlamen. ther ap-
prvals may n me easly r may n me a all.
Sme members f Parlamen ppse bakladng be-
ause he emprary fx hreaens samp he marke hen
he deferred perms are ulmaely ssued n 2019 and 2020.
in he Eurpean cmmssn, nans ha benef frm
he urren l arbn pres ll argue agans hangng
he radng prgram. in he frefrn ll be Pland, a majr
nsumer f al, hh s he fuel ha generaes he ms
arbn emssns.
the Eurpean Assan fr cal and Lgne has m-
planed he EU ha bakladng n nly s nrary
he fundng prnples f he EtS, bu als uld make he
prgram a sheme subje plal manpulan.
Envrnmenal grups are dvded. Sme say he EtS
needs permanen sruural refrms be vable. ohers
argue ha he EtS shuld be srapped and replaed h
ugher mandaes redue pllun. they d agree ha
he abundane f heap perms has remved any nenve
fr pllung frms u her emssns.
the EU mgh nsder sme alernaves baklad-
ng bu all f hem are a leas as nrversal. i uld
redue he 2020 arge, permanenly remve a large
blk f allanes, nrease he annual emssns us,
brng mre ndusres n he prgram, r se a flr
pre fr he allanes.
only ne hng s lear. if he EU des nhng, EtS ar-
bn pres ll dp ard zer. Ct2
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
18/105
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The formation of black powder
a chemical reaction of hy-
drogen sulfide (H2S), water and
iron is a problem for compressors
that can escalate if preventative and
removal actions are not taken.
Black powder is a common chal-
lenge that spans all phases of the
natural gas industry from the wellhead
to the burner tip. Its removal is nec-
essary to improve or maintain opera-
tional efficiency and safety.
This paper assimilates information
from several sources and provides ex-
periences from operators perspective
on the difficulties that foreign materi-
als in the gas stream pose for produc-
tion, gathering, processing and pipe-
line transportation.
Typical contaminants in the gas
stream are water, glycol, amine,
methanol, compressor lubricating
oils, salts, chlorides, liquid hydrocar-
bons, sand, dirt, production stimula-
tors and black powder.
Of those, black powder is the most
troublesome. Black powder contami-
nation manifests itself through re-
duced pipeline efficiency, clogged
instrumentation, fouled measurement
equipment and valves that cannot op-
erate due to an accumulation of debris.
It can clog compressor valves, com-
pressor cylinders, compressor pistons,
and filter/separators.
Additionally, black powder can af-
fect pipeline integrity programs that
rely on magnetic flux leakage inspec-
tion and geometry tools due to debris-
induced, liftoff of sensors. Sometimes
the contamination is dry and powdery.
At other times it is wet or has a tar-like
appearance. Black powder is not just
a corrosion issue; it is produced in the
gas stream from chemical reactions
or from microbial activity.
Black power can be an expensive
problem. One pipeline has stated that it
spends US$5.2 million a year in direct
costs associated with black powder re-
moval. A single compressor station that
has had a filter/separator compromised
due to filter collapse can have remedia-
tion costs of more than US$400,000.
Other expenses would include fil-
ter element replacement, solid waste
volume disposal of filter elements,
increased horsepower to pump the
same throughput, compressor valve
replacements and substitution or re-
pair of fouled instrumentation.
Chemistry
As stated earlier, black powder is
formed through the chemical reaction
of H2S, water and iron in a pipe. The
major components of these reactions
are iron sulfide (Fe + S) and iron oxide
(Fe + O). The resulting compounds
Compressor Efficiency Drops With Black
Powder Build-Up >Pvntativ, stoativ masuscan minimiz ion sufi, ion oxi
contamination
By Fred MUeller
Fred Mueller is president of Mueller Envi-
ronmental Designs Inc., Houston. Mueller
worked for several years in engineering,
operations, service and sales, incorporat-
ing his company in 1991. He holds a patent
for a helical coil separator used to remove
black powder from pipelines. E-mail him at
APRIL 2013 16 ComPRessoRtch2
nThis compressor suction valve was fouled by black powder.
continued on page 18
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
20/105
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are black in appearance, therefore the
term black powder.
H2S + Fe g FeS + H2Iron sulfide
2H + Fe g Fe2+ + H2Iron oxide
Iron sulfide and iron oxide particles,
whether wet or dry, are extremely
small. Laboratory analysis of both wet
and dry samples indicates a range 0.2
< particle diameter < 4 , with more
than 81.6% of the particle sample
being less than 1 with the greatest
concentration of that particle range
being 0.2 < particle diameter < 0.4 .
Subsequently, dry black powder has a
smoke-like appearance.
Wet black powder may exhibit as
clumps, but when it is subjected to high
velocity or impinges upon hard sur-
faces, it may shear into smaller submi-
cron particles. When black powder is in
suspension as a liquid, it presents the
same characteristics as when dry. Typi-
cal density for iron sulfide and iron oxide
are 151 lb./cu.ft. (1.9 kg/m3) and 355 lb./
cu.ft. (4.6 kg/m3), respectively.
The common chemical forms of
iron sulfide include pyrrhotite, troilite,
mackinawite, pyrite and marcasite,
mous surface area-to-volume ratio.
Subsequently, when exposed to air, it
is oxidized back to iron oxide and ei-
ther free sulfur or SO2 gas is formed.
This reaction between iron sulfide
and oxygen is accompanied by the gen-
eration of considerable amount of heat.
In fact, so much heat is released that in-
dividual particles of iron sulfide become
incandescent. This rapid exothermic
oxidation with incandescence is known
as pyrophoric oxidation and it can ignite
flammable hydrocarbon-air mixtures.
Iron sulfide in the chemical forms of
mackinawite, smythite and greigite are
typical indicators of microbial activ-
ity in the gas pipeline. Additionally, the
confirmation of sulfate-reducing bacte-
ria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria
(APB) in the pipeline is a positive indi-
cation that microbial corrosion exists.
The SRB microbes Clostridium and
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans consume
sulfates and produce H2S. While APB
microbes do not produce H2S, they
supply nutrients and provide hospi-
table environments for SRB to grow.
Reducing black powder
Regardless of the origin of H2S in the
APRIL 2013 18 ComPRessoRtch2
nThis orifice plate also shows black powder fouling.
nThere are many forms of black powder.
ferric sulfide, smythite and greigite. Of
these forms of iron sulfide, pyrrhotite
exhibits pyrophoric tendencies.
Pyrophoric iron sulfide oxidizes
exothermally when exposed to air. It is
formed in the gas stream where H2S
exceeds the concentration of oxygen.
As stated, due to the submicron par-
ticle size of iron sulfide, it has an enor-
continued on page 20
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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gas stream, a concentration of 1 ppm
and a throughput of 500 MMscfd (14 x
106 m3/d) potentially could produce as
much as 3600 lb. (1630 kg) of black
powder in a month.
Operators who can minimize the
introduction of water and reduce the
H2S content in their gas stream will
see a resulting reduction in black pow-
der formation.
Microbiologically influenced cor-
rosion cannot exist without water, so
water should be removed wherever it
is known to accumulate.
The best barrier to black powder
production is tariff enforcement. Un-
fortunately, even when some con-
stituents in the gas stream (such as
CO2, H2S, oxygen, water, and sulfur
compounds) meet the existing tariff
requirements of a few percent to a few
parts per million, they still can allow
significant corrosion.
The greatest impediment to black
powder formation is a conservative
tariff that limits H2S to 1 ppm, total
sulfur content of five grains per 100
scf, 5 lb. of water per MMscf, 1.4% by
volume of CO2 and 10 ppm of oxygen.
Removal methods
Under current technology, black pow-
der can be removed from gas pipelines
through chemical or physical means.
In the chemical process, water or
an oil-soluble chemical agent is inject-
APRIL 2013 20 ComPRessoRtch2
ed into the gas stream. The chemical
agent should be compatible with the
solids to be removed and is based
on pipeline operating parameters.
The important operating parameters
include the type of compressor, dew
point, and waste disposal plans.
In addition to operating parameters,
the nature of the deposit is critical. Hy-
drocarbon deposits comprised of waxes
and paraffin are easier to remove with
an oil-soluble chemical while salts are
easier to clean with an aqueous clean-
ing solution. It is important to remember
that when using a water-soluble chemi-
cal agent, the pipeline must be thor-
oughly dried after debris is removed.
Another important aspect of injecting
a chemical agent into the gas stream is
solvent compatibility. Solvents include
water and methanol for water-soluble
cleaners or diesel and hydrocarbon
condensate for oil-soluble cleaners.
An effective cleaning agent must form
either a stable dispersion or a complete
solution. A solution is clear or translu-
cent in appearance with no distinct
phases. A stable dispersion for pipeline
injection applications must remain in a
homogenous single phase for a mini-
mum of 72 hours to be effective. Should
the cleaning solvent separate from the
cleaning agent, its performance will be
significantly reduced.
Physical removal of black powder
is accomplished through pigging and
filtration/separation. In the pigging pro-
cess, a tool is inserted and pushed
through the pipeline using compression.
There are two methods of pigging:
dry and chemical. The cleaning action
of the pig is a function of brushes or
cups that scrape the pipe wall. The
scraping action loosens black powder
on the metal and pushes loose debris
ahead of it.
Four aspects of chemical pigging
are important for optimal cleaning
results: solids penetration, solids sus-
pension, mixture viscosity and mix-
ture separability.
Solids penetration is the ability of
the chemicals to break the surface
contact of debris and loosen it from
the pipe sidewall. After the debris is
loosened, it must be carried down the
pipe in suspension in large quantities.
The carrying capacity of the chemi-
cal agent and solvent is much greater
than the original density. Therefore,
the mixture viscosity is extremely im-
portant; it must not increase greatly in
viscosity or surface tension.
The final aspect, mixture separa-
bility, is the tendency of the debris to
separate into distinct phases in order
to facilitate disposal. Should an emul-
sion be present, the entire quantity of
material will require disposal.
Optimally, three phases will pres-
ent oil, aqueous, and solids. This
will enable the capture of the cleaning
agent for a subsequent chemical pig-
ging project and the removal of solid
debris for reduced volume of hazard-
ous waste material.
Physical removal of black powder
also involves a filtration/separation
function that typically is installed up-
stream of a compressor station or
gas processing facility.
Multiple filters in parallel are placed
in the gas stream to capture and retain
solid particles. They must be suitable for
submicron particle retention and they
must be able to coalesce and pass liq-
uids for capture by the mist extraction
section of the filter/separator.
Most filter element designs are un-
able to perform both processes. A
primary problem with a filter element
that is designed to remove submicron
nThis pig run removed a pile of moist black powder.
continued on page 22
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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particles is that it can become plugged
rapidly and require frequent changing.
If operating conditions do not allow
bypassing or shutdowns, the filter
element pressure differential may
become so great that the elements
collapse, compromising the filter/
separator completely.
Several manufacturers of helical
coil, swirl tube, and cyclone separat-
ing elements are working on technolo-
gies to address these issues.
Sampling
Testing of black powder in pipelines
and compressors is essential to de-
termine the chemical pigging and/or
cleaning process that will be required.
Analysis of the chemical constituents
and particulate sizes of pipeline debris
is needed for the selection of new filtra-
tion/separation equipment.
When samples are taken for test-
ing, they must be sealed immediately.
As soon as the debris sample is ex-
posed to atmosphere, it begins oxidiz-
ing and potentially forming magnetite
(Fe3O4). If that occurs, when the pipe-
APRIL 2013 22 ComPRessoRtch2
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line debris is sampled and analyzed,
it is often presumed that sulfides do
not exist and only pipeline corrosion
byproducts are present.
Type of analysis performed on the
debris should include full particle iden-
tification, bulk density, and particle size
and distribution. Minimum capabilities of
the laboratory should include:
Polarized light microscopy,
Epi-reflected light microscopy,
Scanning electron microscopy,
Energy-dispersive X-ray
spectrometry,
X-ray diffraction,
Attenuated total reflection-Fourier
infrared spectroscopy,
IMIX image processing software,
and ASTM D 854-98 standard test
methods for specific gravity of soils.
Conclusion
Pipeline and compressor operators
should take a two-pronged approach
to battling black powder.
They should minimize the content
of water and H2S in the pipeline, pref-
erably through effective tariffs that
restrict the foreign constituents of the
gas of the gas stream.
When necessary, operators should
use chemical processes and pigging
methods to remove black powder
build-up from gas pipelines.
References
Baldwin, R.M.: Black powder in the
gas industry sources, characteristics
and treatment, Gas Machinery Re-
search Council (1997). See: www.gmrc.
org/technology-reports.html
Brownlee, J.K.; Dougherty, J.A.;
Salma, T.; and Hausler, R.H.: Solv-
ing iron sulfide problems in an off-
shore gas gathering system, Nace
International (2000).
Campbell, S.: The ins and outs of
pipeline cleaners: testing and evalu-
ation for chemical cleaners, Nace
International (2000).
BJ Services: Improved black pow-
der removal. See: www.bjservice.com
Sahdev, M.: Pryophoric iron fires,
Cheresources Online Chemical En-
gineering Information (1991). See:
www.cheresources.com. CT2
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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Insight onsite.
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
29/105APRIL 2013 26 ComPRessoRtch2
The separation of the liquids from the gases
There are two separation systems on a typical natural
gas screw compressor package the gas suction separa-
tor from the well and the oil discharge system to separate
the gas and oil after the compression process. We will dis-
cuss both because they both have to be working properly
to insure success.
The majority of the liquids from the well should be sep-
arated prior to the gas stream coming to the compressor
package. Sometimes this is not the case for wellhead com-
pression systems. The gas suction separator should be de-
signed with the four stages of separation working properly;
this will ensure the minimum amount of liquid carryover to
the compressor. It does not matter if the system has a hori-
zontal or vertical separator system as long as it is designed
correctly for the application.
The first stage of separation is to have the gas enter and
immediately hit an inlet deflector, which forces the gas to
expand, change direction and slow down in velocity. This
will drop out a lot of the heavier fluids. The second stage
is to have the gas change direction and continue to slow in
velocity. The third stage is to have a mist pad so the finer
droplets of liquid can collect and drop out. The fourth stage
is to have the gas stream run through a filtration system.
The filtration system
The filtration system removes any particulate matter from
the gas stream so as to not damage the screw compressor.
The suction filtration filters should have a minimum rating
of no larger than 10 to 20 , the smaller the better. If you
have iron oxide or coal dust in your system then it is recom-
mended no larger than 1 to 3 . If your filters keep getting
plugged up, that means they are working properly.
Filters are designed very differently and have maximum
differential pressure allowances. Be sure to check with your
filter supplier and never allow the differential pressure to ex-
ceed the maximum design for that filter. If it does exceed the
maximum, the filter could collapse and send particulate mat-
ter into your compressor to damage the rotors and bearings.
That is not good and normally will lead to excessive down-
time and a screw compressor rebuild or replacement. Filters
should be checked regularly for proper operation.
Once the gas passes through the separator and is head-
ed to the screw compressor it should be free of liquids and
particulate matter. This is not always the case with an open
ended natural gas application.
The temperature of the gas
This is where the gas analysis is required. The operating
temperature must be 10 to 20 above the highest dew point
in the gas stream. This will ensure that the gas variables
will stay in a vapor state and not liquefy. By keeping the gas
stream variables in vapor form, they will move out of the
system with the discharge gas. If any of the gas variables
liquefy and stay in the oil, they will dilute the oil and create
lubrication problems.
TheThirdS
TageofSeparaTion
Gas Passes ThroughMist Pad
TheS
econdS
TageofS
eparaTion
Gas Slows AndChanges Direction
IllustrationbyKathyBuxkempero
fPROSCo.
IllustrationbyK
athyBuxkemperofPROSCo.
continued on page 28
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
30/105
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Prior to the gas stream entering the
screw compressor, it is mixed with the
oil. The oil serves multiple functions in
the screw compressor compression
process. It is the lubricant, sealant and
coolant. It will lubricate the bearings
and other moving parts. In the screw
compressor, there are very tight toler-
ances and the oil will act as the sealant
between moving parts to create a seal
for compression. As with any compres-
sion process, heat is created and the oil
will help disperse the heat and remove
it from the compression process to pre-
vent excess heating. If the compressor
has too much gap in the clearances be-
tween the rotors and housing from ex-
cessive wear or damage, the oil cannot
seal and there will be a loss in efficiency.
After the compression process, the
oil and gas must be separated so the
gas can be sent down line and the oil
can be reused. The oil must be kept
clean and free of foreign material,
whether it is liquid or particle, therefore
the importance of the discharge sepa-
ration system being designed properly
and well maintained. The discharge
system works similar to the suction gas
separation system with a more refined
fourth stage of separation. On the dis-
charge separation system the filtration
is designed specifically for separating
the oil and gas. This is called a coalesc-
ing filtration system. The coalescing fil-
ter is designed for the separation of the
oil from the gas and will allow the oil to
return to the system. Coalescing filters
should not be rated for greater than 1 to
5 microns and should be checked reg-
ularly. In the opinion of the author, the
smaller the better. This will prevent ac-
cumulation of particulate matter in the
oil and damaging bearings over time.
The oil is the life fluid of the screw
compressor package. Selection of the
right type of oil for your application
is very important. Please consult a
trusted oil supplier to get the right kind
of oil for your application. If the screw
compressor package is designed for
petroleum-based oil and a decision
is made to change to synthetic-based
oil, you could experience many prob-
lems, because the discharge sys-
tem was not designed for the lighter
synthetic oils. Be aware that a major
change in the type of oil will also come
with a major change in the discharge
oil separation system.
Regularly scheduled oil analysis is
the key to maintaining consistent oil
throughout the life cycle of the oil. Oil
analysis is the method for determining
the useful life cycle of the oil and com-
pressor. By analyzing the components
in the oil you will be able to determine
problems before they become cata-
strophic events. Oil analysis will point
you in the direction where issues need
to be addressed, whether they are ex-
cessive liquids in the oil (separation
and temperature) or too much particu-
late matter (filtration). If there is a high
metallic flag on the analysis, this may
tell you that the compressor is getting
near the end of its life cycle, parts are
wearing out and that a rebuild or ex-
change needs to be scheduled.
TheFourTh
STageoFSeparaTion
Coalescing AndFiltration
No well-balanced, preventative
maintenance program can be com-
plete without the incorporation of the
vibration analysis. Vibration analysis
can show the operator the existence
of an issue well before it becomes a
major problem.
In summary, a well-designed and
implemented preventative mainte-
nance program will incorporate oil
analysis, vibration analysis and con-
trol of the separation, filtration and
temperature of the screw compres-
sor system. These factors will allow
the operator to schedule downtime
for maintenance and equipment ex-
changes, eliminating the midnight call
alerting the operator to a catastrophic
event. When all this is done properly,
the screw compressor will become a
very dependable and profitable asset
for natural gas production. CT2
IllustrationbyKathyBuxkemperofPROSCo.
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
32/105
When you need the optimal solution for your gas
compression application, look to Kobelco. We offer
all types of compressors, so we can custom-engineer
the best possible combination of reliability, efficiency,
economy and environmental benefits. Whether you need
the operating cost savings of a screw compressor, the
large volume of a centrifugal compressor or the high
efficiency of a reciprocating compressor were the
ones to call.
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7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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Celebrating30YearsofService
www.kbdelta.com
800-632-3994Torrance,CaliforniaUSA
Ask for Genuine KB Delta Parts
Discover Us!KB Delta is the premier manufacturer ofcompressor valve parts to the natural gas,air, refrigeration and P.E.T. industries.
NorthAmericaslargestpartsinventoryandon-sitemanufacturingprovideKBDeltacustomersthefastestjobturnaroundavailable.
KBDeltasmanufacturingcapabilitiesinclude:
On-siteengineering,re-engineeringandknowledgeofmostOEMcompressorvalveinternals.
InjectionmoldingCarbonPEEK,PEEK,MT,NylonandX-typematerialparts
PrecisionCNCmachiningofthermoplasticvalveplates
Flatandprofilethermoplasticringswithprecisionsealingsurfaces
CompressionmoldingofTeflonbuttonsforvalvesandlanternringsforpumps
Lasercuttingandfinishingofstainlesssteelplates
Manufacturingprecisioncompressionsprings(OEMstandardandcustomspringsavailable)
Unparalleledcustomerservice-Wepickupthephoneeverytime.
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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Valve Kits MajorOEMStyles:Ariel,Hoerbiger,Dresser,Manley,GE/Geminiandothers.
KitsincludeallOEMKitspecifieditemsintheircorrectquantitiessuchas:plates/
rings,springs(coilorplate),buttons,liftwashers,gaskets,ORings,SpirolPinsandother
itemsasapplicable.
Metallic Plates and Rings Valveplates,spring,damping,waferandcushionplates
Highqualitystainlesssteels:420,410,300-Seriesand17-7PH(othersperOEM
specification)
NACEplatesandspringsavailableuponrequest
Thermoplastic Plates and Rings Allmakesandthicknessesofthermoplasticplatesandringsupto15diameter
Materialsinclude:Nylon,MT,PEEK-GlassFilled,PEEK-CarbonFilledandKBDeltas
versionoftheX-stylematerials:NYX,MTX,PKX,formulatedtomeetOEMstandardsfor
X-stylethermoplastics.
GradeAAThermoplasticPlatesandRingsavailableuponrequest.OurGradeAA
precisionsealingsurfaceisdesignedtopassthemostrigorousleaktestsrequiredby
refineriesandprocessgasapplications,eliminatingtheneedforon-sitelapping.
Profile Rings KBDeltamachinesprecisionradiusandotherprofilerings;specializinginManleyandHoerbiger-styleprofilerings,KBDelta
matchescolorandmaterialspecificationsaswellasallcriticaldimensions.
Springs
KBDeltamanufacturesandstocksspringsforeverymajorOEMvalvetype SpringShapes/Styles:Conical,Cylindrical,Barrel,Hourglass,andSpecialSpringShapes
Dresser-Randstylesprings(withandwithoutnylonbuttoninserts)
WireShapeTypes:Round,Flat,Oval,andSpecialShapes
MaterialTypes:StainlessSteel(17-7PH,302,304,316,),MusicWire,Inconel(600,X-750,718),Nimonic90,Hastelloy(C-
276,C-4),Elgiloy(Phynox),MP35N,Waspaloy,Monel400,TitaniumGr.5/6Al4V,PhosphorBronze,BerylliumCopper,andallothers
perOEMorcustomerspec.
Poppets KBDeltamanufacturesandstockscommonPeekandNylonpoppets.Sealingsurfacesareprecisionmachinedandeachpoppet
isinspectedforproperspringdeflectionandsealing.
Buttons, Nubs and Inserts Buttonsandnubsarecompressionmolded,injectionmoldedandprecision-machined.
Styles:Buttons,WearNubs,ValveStripWearInserts,Guides,StemGuides,Inserts
Materials:StainlessSteel,Teflon,Peek,Nylon,Moly,Carbon
KBDeltaInc.isanaftermarketsupplierofcompressorvalveparts.KBDeltamakesnorepresentationthatthepartswe
manufactureareOEMparts,howevertoourbestknowledge,OEMspecificationsareadheredtoonallofthepartswe
manufacture.
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
35/105
crankshaft can be converted to linear motion of the piston.
While the pin may appear to fit snugly, it must have some
clearance around it so that lubrication oil can prevent metal
to metal rubbing, and hence excess friction and the result-
ing undesirable extreme temperatures to 300, 500, 700F
(149, 260, 371C) and beyond. Repair costs can be minor
(downtime to replace bushings and/or crosshead shoes) to
daunting (extended downtime, new rods, new crossheads,
new cylinder liners, and new crankshafts). Damage-related
costs due to crosshead failures could exceed US$1 mil-
lion per unit. Therefore, safety and good business practices
would suggest that reciprocating compressor controls in-
clude the ability to keep a unit out of potential areas where
pin nonreversals may occur.
Pin reversal calculations and concepts can quickly be-
come complex, but the basic thing to keep in mind is that
the clearance between the pin and the connecting rod (Fig-
ures 1, 1A) changes sides as the piston moves out from
the frame, stops, and then moves back towards the frame.
If the side with the clearance does not change (Figure 2),
then little to no lubrication fluid can be introduced between
the two metal parts. And when metal rubs against metal, the
resulting friction forces will lead to increased temperatures
extremely fast.
continued on page 34
Dwayne A. Hickman serves as director of
Software Development with ACI Services
Inc. He taught university math and com-
puter science courses for 13 years, and
has been in the reciprocating compressor
industry for the last 15 years.
A Review Of ReciprocatingCompressor CrossheadPin Nonreversals >
Many operators of reciprocating compressors are
very familiar with safety issues related to unit per-
formance, such as high pressures and high tem-
peratures, as these are fairly straightforward to conceptual-
ize and even measure in real time. Other issues, such as
low-volumetric efficiencies and static gas force rod loads,
can be readily explained and operators are often provided
a clear method, like a maximum differential pressure or a
maximum compression ratio, to help them identify safe from
potentially unsafe conditions.
Other issues, like calculating rod loads based on internal
gas pressures and inertia forces, or determining when a unit
is operating in pin nonreversal conditions, can be nonintui-
tive and complex. These issues become especially cumber-
some to manage when dealing with higher-speed units due
to their potential for operating over a very wide speed range.
For example, if a high-speed unit is rated at 1200 rpm, its
driver may be able to vary speed to the compressor across
a range of 900 to 1200 rpm. Within that range, 900 to 1075
rpm may be safe, from 1075 to 1100 rpm may be unsafe
as determined by the OEM, and from 1100 to 1200 rpm
may be safe again. Thus, even if your OEM or packager
had checked high (1200 rpm), medium (1050 rpm), and low
(900 rpm) speeds, they would have not identified the subset
of unsafe speeds. The only way to get from 900 to 1200 rpm
is to traverse through the 1075 to 1100
rpm range.
The fundamental mechanical issue
related to pin nonreversal is ultimately
just a lubrication issue. That is, proper
lubrication of the pin that connects the
connecting rod to the crosshead as-
sembly so that the rotating motion of the
TECHcorner
April 2013 32 Compressortch2
Operators should be alert toris operatig coditios
By DWAynE A. HICkMAn
nFigure 1. The clearance gap between pin and connecting rod switches sides when the
piston changes direction.
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
36/105
Reliable SwiSS QualityAPI 618
Rod load up to 1'500 kN/335'000 Ibs
Power up to 31'000 kW/42'100 HP
Full Range:
You get moRe than Just a
PRocess gas comPRessoR
Lubricated up to 1'000 bar, non-
lubricated up to 300 bar
For highest availability: We recom-
mend our own designed, in-house
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Designed for easy maintenance
We are the competent partner
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.rp./p618
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7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
37/105April 2013 34 Compressortch2
OEMs typically specify at least two constraints when set-
ting safety limits based on pin reversals. First, each throw
must have a sufficient number of degrees of pin reversal.
The second constraint is that opposite forces (compression
vs. tension) must be sufficient to ensure that when operat-
ing in the face of real-world phenomenon like pulsations,
dynamic pressure drops and valve wear, the predicted
amount of pin reversal should be realized.
API618 section 6.6.4 states that the minimum degrees
of pin reversal range from 15 to 45, depending on
bushing designs. Most OEMs require at least 30, and
some require at least 60.
API618 section 6.6.4 also states that during one crank-
shaft revolution, at least 3% magnitude is required of
opposing forces, and as high as 20% magnitude de-
pending of bushing design. Most OEMs require at least
15%, and some require as high as 25%.
When calculating the degrees of pin reversal, the internal
dynamic gas pressures are applied to the outside piston
faces exposed within the head end and crank end portions
of the cylinder. These results are then applied when deter-
mining the effective gas forces acting on the pin via the pis-
ton rod (e.g. blue curve shown in Figure 3). Additionally, the
weights of the piston and rod assembly plus the crosshead
assembly contribute inertia forces acting on the same pin
(e.g. magenta curve shown in Figure 3). Those two forces
are combined to give the net forces acting on the pin (e.g.
black curve shown in Figure 3).
When forces act in the direction that stretches the rod,
they are called tension forces, while forces acting to com-
press the rod are called compression forces. To have any
degrees of pin reversal during a complete revolution, the
forces on the pin must reverse at least once between com-
pression and tension. This always happens when only the
inertia forces are considered (magenta curve in Figure 4).
However, since the cylinder is usually sealed and com-
pressing gas, the internal gas forces can make a good situ-
ation better, or a good situation bad.
nFigure 3. This chart displays 170 of pin reversal, with max tension
about 56% of max compression. All forces are within their limits (green
lines). This throws pin loading forces indicate safe operation here.
nFigure 4. This chart shows about 40 of reversal, but only about
3% opposite forces. Most OEMs would identify this as a condition
where unit operations are not permitted.
For the engineers and programmers, inertia forces are
readily calculated by the following equation:
Here, U represents the degree of crank angle and WRE-
CIP is the sum of the combined weight of the piston and
rod assembly and the crosshead assembly for the throw
being considered. (Note: No portion of the connection rod
weight is included in these calculations those additional
weights get used in other calculations such as torsional
forces. Equation also omits unbalanced rotating weights.
Units used are inches and pounds.)
Additionally, Internal Gas Forces are based on the equation:
The sum () is across all cylinders on the throw being
considered (e.g. in cases were tandem cylinders are used).
The head end (HE) and crank end (CE) pressures are in
continued on page 36
nFigure 2. The clearance gap does not switch sides when piston
changes direction.
nFigure 1A. This cutaway shows the crosshead pin referenced in
Figures 1 and 2.
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
39/105April 2013 36 Compressortch2
gage pressure units, not in absolute pressure units. Crank-
case and tailrod catcher (when present) assumed to be at
atmospheric pressure.
Actual prediction of specific head end and crank end in-
ternal pressures (PressHE(u) and PressCE (u)) during thecompression cycle depend on current line pressures, gas
temperatures, unit geometry, valves, pressure drops, gas
being compressed, unit operating speed, and a few other
items. OEMs develop their own unique approach for mod-
eling these internal pressures, albeit most are very simi-
lar. Figure 5 and 6 show some typical internal pressures
(known as pressure-volume and pressure-time diagrams).
The compression (suction to discharge) and expansion
(discharge to suction) sections follow the thermodynamic
rules for the gas being compressed, are exponential, and
tend to be very consistent across the OEMs. The discharge
and suction valve open events tend to vary a bit more be-
tween OEMs (based on valve designs, passageways, valve
porting, liner restrictions, piston masking).
nFigure 5. PV diagram: blue = head end pressures, magenta =
crank end pressures.
nFigure 6. PT diagram: blue = head end pressures, magenta =
crank end pressures.
Since the results from both equations are required to de-
termine the effective forces at the crosshead pin, whenever
any condition of the unit changes (suction pressure, dis-
charge pressure, suction gas temperature, speed or load
step) these forces must be recalculated. API Standard 618,
Fifth Edition (2007) section 6.6.3, requires checking these in
at most 5 increments. If we had a six-throw unit, we would
need to calculate 12 PV diagrams (two ends per cylinder,
one cylinder per throw) and then six throws of inertia data.
Also, all load steps should be calculated so that the PLC
knows which ones are safe and which ones are unsafe.
Convolute this with the thermodynamic modeling needed
for the gas pressure calculations and you can potentially
slow down even a fast desktop PC. And as for PLCs, the
slowdown would be completely unacceptable. Most PLCs
do not consider pin nonreversal issues as they control the
unit. And this omission is not good.
Fortunately, pin nonreversal issues are not that common,
especially when the packager or OEM size the compressor
frame and cylinders to best meet your operating require-
ments. In general, pin nonreversals tend to happen when a
crank end is deactivated or significantly unloaded via added
clearance volume, or when tandem cylinders are used and
one of the tandem cylinders is double acting, or when small-
bore, high-pressure cylinders are used.
Unfortunately, because high-speed units typically allow for
more significant speed turndown, high-speed units are poten-
tially more susceptible to pin nonreversals. Also, due to industry
changes in lubrication fluids to meet environmental needs,
some slow-speed units that survived running units near or at
pin nonreversal areas in the past may now have problems. Fi-
nally, the number of degrees of pin reversals can change quick-
ly with pressures changes and speed changes (Figure 7).
nFigure 7. Degrees of pin reversal can fall quickly shown above
falling from 180 down to about 40 when suction pressure varies
only about 50 psig (3.4 bar) in some areas.
Thus, severe compressor-based dangers can lurk quietly
and then suddenly wreck a unit with little warning. Coding
these unsafe areas into a PLC can be a challenge since
prediction of unsafe areas is nontrivial (Figure 8). Fortunate-
ly, there are some reasonable options available for dealing
with potential pin nonreversal concerns: real-time online
measuring systems, and preventative performance control.
One option is to install real-time internal pressure sensors.
Once calibrated, correctly installed and programmed to each
throws appropriate reciprocating weights, these devices
continued on page 38
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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For more than 53 years, Universal has built a solid foundation of silencing, emissions
and filtration expertise in the Oil and Gas industry by guiding customers through the
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mpressor
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happen. By preventing the unit from even operating in or near
areas of concern, the probability of a pin nonreversal incident
is minimized, with risks also significantly reduced.
nFigure 8. Unlike gas rod loads, discharge temperatures, and low
volumetric efficiencies, the predictability of where unsafe areas ex-
ist due to pin nonreversals is not a trivial task.
Reference: A Discussion of the Various Loads Used to Rate
Reciprocating Compressors, K.E. Atkins, Martin Hinchliff,
Bruce McCain.CT2
can alarm and/or trigger a shutdown whenever internal cyl-
inder conditions approach desired limits of safety. In fact,
even if something else, such as a broken valve, creates pin
nonreversal issues, these real-time systems can often react
fast enough to prevent serious unit harm. For compressors
running near areas of pin nonreversals, or for units where a
review has indicated that damaged valves can quickly put a
unit in pin nonreversals, these real-time systems are ideal.
Another option is to actually prevent unit operations of a
healthy unit near or at conditions leading to pin nonreversals
by having the unit controller change load steps, adjust speed
or adjust pressures to avoid letting the unit damage itself.
OEM performance software determines safe and unsafe
areas based on hardware configuration (load step), speed,
pressures, temperatures, and gas thermodynamics. A con-
trol panel does not have the luxury of being able to run such
sophisticated calculations if it was programmed to model
complex thermodynamics, then by the time it calculated the
results the unit might already be severely damaged. Howev-
er, those supplying the units or the performance can prere-
view millions of potential operating points across the defined
operating map and develop reasonable constraint equations
to prevent operations at undesired conditions.
For packagers, operators, and owners concerned with the
damages that pin nonreversals can cause, there are reason-
able options available to mitigate those concerns. Remember,
quantitative risk is defined as the probability that an accident
will happen multiplied by the expected loss if the accident does
7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013
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NEAC Compressor Service
Utilize NEACs GlobalRepair Coordination Centers
(RCC)
Overhaul of valves, gas packingsand oil wipers
Cylinder repair and liner replacement
Complete assessment of allcompressor parts and evaluation
versusoriginalOEMspecifcation
Crankcase re-machining
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AC Dvs
Toshiba Mitsubishi-Electric
Industrial Systems Corp.
has literature on its TM-
drive MVG, a medium-volt-
age, variable-frequency AC
drive for industrial power
ratings up to 10 MW. The
drive works with existing or
new induction or synchro-
nous motors.
www.tmeic.com
Vca Pmps
Afton Pumps has printed
literature on its model MPV
pumps, which are medium-
pressure vertical pumps
that combine a diffusor
bowl assembly and a steel
outer case. The literature
includes technical data and
construction details of the
pump model.
www.afton-pumps.com
Pogssv
Cavy Pmps
Netzsch has released a
capability brochure, which
highlights the companys
products, technology and
application areas. The com-
pany manufactures a range
of pumps, such as progress-
ing cavity pumps, immers-
ible pumps, and rotary lobe
pumps, as well as joints and
other accessories.
www.netzsch.com
Mag-Dv Pmps
Warrender Ltd. has pub-
lished a brochure on its
mag-drive pump range.
That pump range includes
compact horizontal, process
horizontal, vertical sump,
horizontal molded thermo-
plastic, vertical sump ma-
chined thermoplastic, and
multistage cast. The compa-
ny also offers replacement
spare kits and components.
www.warrender.com
literAture
APRIL 2013 40 ComPRessoRtch2
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directed-energy technology, has been ully feld-tested by large gas engine
operators across North America, and has been ound to outperorm
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applications and on units operating at light loads.
Soon to be available in
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