Computer and Network Security

Rabie A. Ramadan

CIA Triad

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Security Goals• Confidentiality,

• Integrity , and

• Availability

Confidentiality

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The property of preventing disclosure of information to unauthorized individuals or systems.

Real Scenario

• a credit card transaction on the Internet requires the credit card number to be transmitted from the buyer to the merchant and from the merchant to a transaction processing network.

• The system attempts to enforce confidentiality by encrypting the card number during transmission, by limiting the places where it might appear (in databases, log files, backups, printed receipts, and so on), and by restricting access to the places where it is stored.

• If an unauthorized party obtains the card number in any way, a breach of confidentiality has occurred.

To ensure confidentiality

To ensure confidentiality

To ensure confidentiality

To ensure confidentiality

Integrity

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Data cannot be modified without authorization. Real scenarios:

• Integrity is violated when an employee (accidentally or with malicious intent) deletes important data files,

• When a computer virus infects a computer,

• When an employee is able to modify his own salary in a payroll database,

• When an unauthorized user vandalizes a web site,

• When someone is able to cast a very large number of votes in an online poll, and so on.

Preventing by Access Control and Encryption

Availability

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The information must be available when it is needed. Highly available systems aim to remain available at

all times. Real Scenarios

• Power outages,

• Hardware failures,

• DoS attacks (denial-of-service attacks).

Preventions by fault tolerance , access control, and attack prevention mechanisms.

Security Goals (Summary)

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Confidentiality• Ensures that computer-related assets are accessed only by authorized

parties.

• Sometimes called secrecy or privacy.

Integrity• Assets can be modified only by authorized parties or only in

authorized ways.

Availability • Assets are accessible to authorized parties at appropriate times.

• The opposite is denial of service.

Security Goals

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Strong protection is based on Goals relations

Goals are Applied to

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Computer Security - generic name for the collection of tools designed to protect data and to thwart hackers

Network Security - measures to protect data during their transmission

Internet Security - measures to protect data during their transmission over a collection of interconnected networks

Threats , vulnerability, and Attacks

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Crossing the water to the right is a Threat to the man.

• Ex. (Computer) software failures

Crossing the water through the wall crack is a Vulnerability.

• Ex. (Computer) Open ports

Somebody or another system destroyed the wall is an Attack

• Ex. (Computer) sending an overwhelming set of messages to another system to block it.

Attacks

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Passive Attacks • Attempts to learn or make use of information from the system but

does not affect system resources.

• Eavesdropping or monitoring of transmissions

Active Attacks • Attempts to alter system resources or affect their operation.

Passive Attacks

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Release of message contents / snooping

Passive Attacks (Cont.)

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Traffic Analysis/ spoofing

Passive Attacks are hard to be detected

Active Attacks

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Active Attacks

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Masquerade• One entity pretends to be a different entity

Active Attacks (Cont.)

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Replay Attack • Passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent retransmission to

produce an unauthorized effect.

Active Attacks (Cont.)

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Modification Attack • Some portion of a legitimate message is altered, or that messages

are reordered, to produce an unauthorized effect

Active Attacks (Cont.)

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Denial of Service• Prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of

communications facilities

Group Activities

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Which of the following attacks is a threat to which of the security goals?

Attacks Security Goals Modification Confidentiality

Masquerading Integrity

Traffic Analysis Availability

Denial of service

Replaying

Snooping

Answer

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Security Attacks

Snooping

Traffic Analysis

Modification

Masquerading

Replaying

Denial of Service

Confidentiality Integrity Availability

Security Services

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Authentication - assurance that the communicating entity is the one claimed

Access Control - prevention of the unauthorized use of a resource

Data Confidentiality –protection of data from unauthorized disclosure

Data Integrity - assurance that data received is as sent by an authorized entity

Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by one of the parties in a communication

Security Mechanisms

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Specific security mechanisms:• Implemented on specific layer (OSI model)

• Encipherment, digital signatures, access controls, data integrity, authentication exchange, routing control, notarization

Pervasive security mechanisms:• Not related to a specific layer

• Trusted functionality, security labels, event detection

Model for Network Security

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Model for Network Security

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Using this model requires us to: • Design a suitable algorithm for the security

transformation.

• Generate the secret information (keys) used by the algorithm.

• Develop methods to distribute and share the secret information.

• Specify a protocol enabling the principals to use the transformation and secret information for a security service.

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Symmetric Cipher Model

Symmetric Cipher Model

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Known as:• Conventional Encryption

• Single-Key Encryption

Plaintext• Original text/msg

Ciphertext• Coded msg

Enciphering/Encryption• The process of converting the plaintext to ciphertext

Deciphering/Decryption • The process of converting the ciphertext to plaintext

Symmetric Cipher Model (Cont.)

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Cryptography • The developed encryption schemes

Cryptanalysis • Techniques used to get the plaintext out of the ciphertext without

prior knowledge to the encryption scheme (breaking the code)

Cryptology • Both the cryptography and cryptanalysis

More Definitions

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Unconditional Security • The ciphertext provides insufficient information to

uniquely determine the corresponding plaintext.

Computational Security • The time needed for calculations is greater than

age of universe

Symmetric Cipher Model (Cont.)

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Symmetric Cipher Model

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Requirements • Strong Key the opponent can not figure it out even if he/she has

a number of ciphertexts

• The key must be exchanged through a secure channel

• Y = E(K,X) ~ Y = EK(X)

• X =D(K,Y) ~ X = DK(Y)

Brute Force Search

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Always possible to simply try every key Most basic attack, proportional to key size

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Substitution Ciphers

Lets have Fun

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You are spying on your friend Ahmed while he is chatting with John, you received the following message:

“Ygjcxgvqmnnvjgrgumfgpv”

Can you decrypt this message?

Answer

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Ahmed is telling John:

“Ygjcxgvqmnnvjgrgumfgpv”

“We have to kill the president” Encryption Key:

• Replacement Table Plaintext ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ Ciphertext CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZAB

Encryption Technique • Each letter is replaced by the second one after it

• Remove blanks

Caesar Cipher

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Earliest known substitution cipher by Julius Caesar first attested use in military affairs replaces each letter by 3rd one after it

E.g.meet me after the party

PHHW PH DIWHU WKH SDUWB

Caesar Cipher (Cont.)

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Transformation :

Mathematically give each letter a numbera b c d e f g h i j k l m0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12n o p q r s t u v w x y Z13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Then have Caesar cipher as:C = E(p) = (p + k) mod (26)p = D(C) = (C – k) mod (26)

Caesar Cipher (Cont.)

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Cryptanalysis

• Only have 26 possible ciphers

•A maps to A,B,..Z

• Could simply try each in turn

Monoalphabetic Cipher

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Rather than just shifting the alphabet Could shuffle (jumble) the letters arbitrarily Each plaintext letter maps to a different random

ciphertext letter The key is 26 letters long

Plain: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Cipher: DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZNPlaintext: ifwewishtoreplacelettersCiphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA

Monoalphabetic Cipher Security

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now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys with so many keys, might think is secure but would be !!!WRONG!!!

Language Characteristics Problem

• Using the occurrence frequency of each letter , we can deduce the letters in the ciphertext

English Letter Frequencies

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Playfair Cipher

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Invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854, but named after his friend Baron Playfair.

Encrypts multiple letters

Uses Playfair Matrix

Uses some of the rules to interpret the matrix

Playfair Key Matrix

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A 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword Fill in letters of keyword (Avoid repetition) Fill rest of matrix with other letters E.g. using the keyword MONARCHY

M O N A R

C H Y B D

E F G I/J K

L P Q S T

U V W X Z

Playfair Rules

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Plaintext encrypted two letters at a time: • if a pair is a repeated letter, insert a filler like 'X',

• eg. "balloon" encrypts as "ba lx lo on"

• If both letters fall in the same row, replace each with letter to right (wrapping back to start from end), • eg. “ar" encrypts as "RM"

• If both letters fall in the same column, replace each with the letter below it (again wrapping to top from bottom), • eg. “mu" encrypts to "CM"

• Otherwise each letter is replaced by the one in its row in the column of the other letter of the pair,• eg. “hs" encrypts to "BP", and “ea" to "IM" or "JM" (as desired)

Group Activity

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Based on Playfair encryption, encrypt the word

“Hello”

Key :

Note: The key is an arrangement of all of the alphabetic letters

L G D B A

Q M H E C

U R N I/J F

X V S O K

Z Y W T P

Answer

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Step 1: Group the letters

• He ll o

• 1st rule repeated letters ll

• He lx lo Step 2: find the corresponding text in the key

• He EC - rule 2 H and e on the same row (replace each with letter to right) EC

• Lx QZ -- rule 3 L and x at the same column (replace each with the letter below it) QZ

• loBX -- rule 4 l and o at different rows and columns (replaced by the one in its row in the column of the other letter of the pair)

E (Hello) “ECQZBX”

Security of the Playfair Cipher

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Security much improved over monoalphabetic

Since have 26 x 26 = 676 diagrams

Was widely used for many years (eg. US & British military in WW1)

It can be broken, given a few hundred letters since still has much of plaintext structure

Polyalphabetic Ciphers

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Another approach to improving security is to use multiple cipher alphabets

Makes cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets to guess and flatter frequency distribution

Use a key to select which alphabet is used for each letter of the message

Use each alphabet in turn Repeat from start after end of key is reached

Vigenère Cipher

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Simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher effectively multiple Caesar ciphers key is multiple letters long K = k1 k2 ... kd ith letter specifies ith alphabet to use use each alphabet in turn repeat from start after d letters in message decryption simply works in reverse

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Example

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eg using repeated keyword deceptive

key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive

plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself

ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ

From the previous table lookup the key letter then the

plain text letter.

The cipher letter is the intersection letter

Security of Vigenère Ciphers

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have multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter

Letter frequencies are obscured

But not totally lost

Autokey Cipher

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Ideally want a key as long as the message Vigenère proposed the autokey cipher The keyword is prefixed to message as key Still have frequency characteristics to attack

Eg. given key deceptive

key: deceptivewearediscoveredsav

plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself

ciphertext: ZICVTWQNGKZEIIGASXSTSLVVWLA

One-Time Pad

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Select a random key that is equal to the message length.

Use a table structure such as Vigenère table

Problems: • Generating long random keys

• Bandwidth problem sending the key as long as the Msg

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Transposition/Permutation Ciphers

Transposition (Cont.)

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The letters of the message are rearranged

Columnar transpositionThe number of columns is required

Example:

THIS IS A MESSAGE TO SHOW HOW A COLMUNAR TRANSPOSITION WORKS

Transposition (Cont.)

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T H I S I S A M E S S A G E T O S H O W H O W A C O L M U N A R T R A N S P O S I T I O N W O R K S

tssoh oaniw haaso lrsto imghw utpir seeoa mrook istwc nasna

Group Activity

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Given the following message

“ This is the second lecture”

Divide the message onto a block of 5 letters block Transpose the message Use Autokey cipher to encrypt the result

• Key : “ NetworkSecurity”

Stream Vs. Block Ciphers

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Stream converts one symbol of plaintext into a symbol of ciphertext

Block encrypts a group of plaintext symbols as one block.

Reading materials

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Stallings Chapter 1

Chapter 2