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Computer Architecture
Lecture 1: Introduction
Piotr Bilski
Plan of the Lectures1. Introduction, history of the computers, Moore's Law2. Structure of the computer system. System bus. Orders'
cycle3. Logical systems. Computer's arithmetics4. Processor's instruction list5. Structure and work regime of the processor6. Control Unit7. Cache memory8. Internal and external memory9. Input/output devices10. Operating system support11. RISC processors12. Superscalar processors13. Parallel architectures14. IA-64 architecture
Points and Grades
Two tests during the semester: 50 points MAX
Two programming projects: 50 points MAX
26 pts – grade 3
31 pts – grade 3,5
36 pts – grade 4
41 pts – grade 4,5
46 pts – grade 5
ReferencesW. Stallings, “Computer Organization and Architecture. Designing and Performance. 7th Edition”, Prentice Hall, 2006.
A.J. van de Goor, “High Performance Computer Architecture,” Prentice-Hall, 1989.
B. Wilkinson, Computer architecture (2nd ed.); Prentice-Hall 1996.
Hennessy, J.L. Patterson, Computer architecture – a quantitative approach (3nd ed.); Morgan Kaufman 2005.
J. Silc, B. Robin, T. Ungerer, Processors architecture: from dataflow to superscalar and beyond; Springer-Verlag 1999.
Organization and Architecture of the Computer System
• Organization determines operational units and connections between them, which realize architecture
• Architecture describes attributes (characteristics) of the computer system, visible (accessible) for the programmer
Definition of the Computer
• Computer is, in general meaning, computing machine, used for processing of the information represented in the digital form or as the continuous signal
• What is the difference between the calculator and the computer?
Classification of the ComputersSize of the instruction set
RISC
CISC
Method of the data processing
Serial (scalar)
Parallel
Matrix
Vector
Multiprocessor
Application
Universal
Problem-oriented
Specialized
Breadth of the address bus
8-bit
16-bit
32-bit
64-bit
Functional Scheme of the Computer
Data storing module
Control module
Data processing module
Transfer data module
Environment
Data transmission
Data storageInternal processing of data
Data processing with transmission
Phases of the Computer Development
1. Computers based on the vacuum lamps (1946-1957)
2. Transistor-based computers (1958-1964)
3. SSI, MSI structure-based computers (1965-1971)
4. LSI structure-based computers (1972-1977)
5. VLSI structure-based computers (1978-??)
6. New architectures: molecular, quantum, optical, neurocomputers
Phases of the Processor Development (Intel)
1. 8-bit processors (8086-80188)
2. 16-bit processors (80286)
3. First 32-bit processors (80386)
4. 486 family (80486)
5. Pentium family (80586)
6. Pentium Pro family (80686)
7. Pentium IV family
8. 64-bit processors (Pentium IV Extreme)
9. Multicore processors (Dual Core, Core2Duo, Core2Quad, X2, X4, i7)
Pentium and PowerPC• PowerPC:
– Manufactured by IBM-Apple-Motorola
– The best RISC processor
– Models: 601, 603, 604, 620, G3, G4
– Currently installed in the network devices, printers (Kyocera) and consoles (PS3, Nintendo Wii)
• Pentium:– Manufactured by Intel– Classical superscalar
representative of the x86 architecture
– Pentium, Pentium II, Pentium Pro, Pentium IV, IA-64 (64-bit!)
ENIAC (J.P. Eckert, J.W. Maulchy - 1946)
• Considered (erroneously) as the first computer in the world
• Calculations in the decimal system (no memory)• Weight – 30 tons, 20 thousand of the vacuum
lamps inside, 5000 op/s, power required: 140 kW• Applications: calculations for the military (missiles
ballistics, viability to construct the hydrogen bomb)
Commercial Computers (since 1951)
701, 702 (IBM)UNIVAC I (Sperry-Rand Corporation)
Characteristics:
Central Processing Unit (CPU) based on the vacuum lamps
Operational memory based on the ferrite rings or electrostatic lamps
The First Microprocessor (1971)
• Developed in the Intel company, labelled as 4004 (author: Ted Hoff)
• Built from 2300 transistors
• Impemented operation of adding two 4-bit numbers
• 100 kHz clock
The First General Purpose Processor (1974)
• Signature: 8080• 8-bit processor• Clock speed: 2 MHz• 6000 of transistors in the circuit• 64 kB of addressable memory
Apple II Computer (1977)
• The first one to present the colour graphics
• Open architecture (easy to expand)
• MOS 6502 processor (1MHz to 3 MHz)
• RAM memory 4KB, max. 64 KB
• WOZ Integer Basic operating system
IBM PC/XT Computer (1983)
• Intel 8088 processor (4,77 MHz), later (in the turbo mode) to 14 MHz
• RAM memory – max. 640 kB
• 8-bit ISA bus• Later replaced by
IBM PC/AT and IBM PC/XT/286
Moore’s Law (1965)
„Economically optimal number of the transistors in the integrated chip will be doubled every 18 months”
Gordon Moore (born in 1929, San Francisco, California), PhD in physics in 1954 r. One of the founders of the Intel corporation in 1968 r.
„Computational power of the microprocessors will be doubled every 18 months, assuming constant production cost”
Moore's Law (cont.)
• Original drawing from Moore's paper (1965)
Moore’s Law (cont.)
„If the car technology in 1971 was accelerating in the same pace as microelectronics, today we would travel from San Francisco to New York within 13 seconds”
0,1
1
10
100
1000
10000
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
years
Pro
ce
ss
or'
s c
loc
k [
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Increase of the Integration Scale in Time
0,01
0,1
1
10
100
1000
8080
286 386 486 P
P MM
X
P PRO P II
P III
P IV
P IV 6
4
DualC
ore
Pentiu
m D
Core2
Core2
Duo
Core2
Extrem
e
Core2
Quad
Core
i7
processors
Nu
mb
er
of
tra
ns
isto
rs [
mln
]
Performance Gap
• Efficiency advancement of processors and memory was not uniform
• Frequencies of the processor clock are much greater than these of memory
• Numerous methods of compensating for this gap are applied:– Increasing of the memory clock– Increasing of the cache memory size– Modifying the sequence of the instructions
execution flow
Illustration of the Performance Gap
Problem of the physical limitations
• Size of transistors cannot be decreased indefinitely!
• A significant problem is the heat emission (cooling issue!)
• Processor core has a crucial influence on the calculations efficiency and emitted heat
Comparison of Single- and Multicore Architectures
Single core Multiprocessor Multicore
cache
cache
cache
cache
Turing Machine (1937)
• The first theoretical model of the computer• Was used to design the Colossus computer• Symbols are read from the tape, result of the
calculations is also stored on the tape
10 B 2 F 6 ?
Head control
tape
head
Work Regime of the Turing Machine
• Control unit is the processor, moving over the tape and performing write/read operations
• Control unit's action depends on the symbol read from the tape and state of the control unit
• Instruction of the Turing machine:
(S0, qi, Sz, qj, L/P)
Operational part of the instructionIdentification part of the instruction
von Neumann Architecture (1945)
• Universal uniprocessor architecture, the base for the modern computers
• First practical realization: IAS computer (1952)• Functional structure:
– Central Processing Unit (CPU) consisting of the Arithmetical-Logical Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU)
– Main memory used to store data and instructions
– Input/output modules
Organization of the von Neumann Machine
main memory
I/O devices
CPU
Computational part of the CPU
Control part of the CPU
MBR
AC
MAR
PC IRCU
ALU
Internal bus
System bus