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Advanced Computer NetworksUNIT - II
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Learning ObjectivesIn this Unit we will discuss : Network Layer
ARP, RARP ICMP Routing Algorithms and Protocols Router Operation
and Configuration Internetworking IPV4 Protocol IPV6 Protocol
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Network Layer
Network Layer is responsible for host-to-host delivery and for
routing the packets through the routers.
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ARP
Address MappingARP ProtocolARP Package
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ARP and RARP
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ARP and RARPPosition of ARP and RARP in TCP/IP protocol
suite
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ARP
ARP associates an IP address with its physical address. On a
typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is
identified by a physical or station address that is usually
imprinted on the NIC.
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ARP
It may be noted that the knowledge of hosts IP address is not
sufficient for sending packets, because data link hardware does not
understand internet addresses. For example, in an Ethernet network,
the Ethernet controller card can send and receive using 48-bit
Ethernet addresses. The 32-bit IP addresses are unknown to these
cards. This requires a mapping of the IP addresses to the
corresponding Ethernet addresses. This mapping is accomplished by
using a technique known as Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
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ARP
An ARP request is broadcast to all stations in the network
An ARP reply is an unicast to the host requesting the
mapping
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ARP
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ARPARP Packet
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ARPEncapsulation of ARP packet
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ARPFour cases using ARP
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ARPExample
A host with IP address 130.23.43.20 and physical address
B2:34:55:10:22:10 has a packet to send to another host with IP
address 130.23.43.25 and physical address A4:6E:F4:59:83:AB (which
is unknown to the first host). The two hosts are on the same
Ethernet network. Show the ARP request and reply packets
encapsulated in Ethernet frames.
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ARPNote that the ARP data field in this case is 28 bytes, and
that the individual addresses do not fit in the 4-byte boundary.
That is why we do not show the regular 4-byte boundaries for these
addresses. Also note that the IP addresses are shown in
hexadecimal.
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ARP
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Proxy ARP
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ARP Package
This ARP package involves five modules:
1. a cache table,
2. queues,
3. an output module,
4. an input module,
5. and a cache-control module.
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ARP Package
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Summary
Delivery of packet to a host or router requires two levels of
addresses : logical and physical.
A logical address identifies a host or router at the network
level. TCP/IP call this logical address an IP address.
A physical address identifies a host or router at the physical
level.
ARP protocol is used to find physical address given a logical
address.
ARP request is broadcast to all devices on the network.
ARP reply is unicast to the host requesting the mapping.
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RARPIntroductionRARP ProtocolRARP Package
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RARPThe TCP/IP protocols include another related protocol known
as reverse ARP, which can be used by a computer such as a diskless
host to find out its own IP address. It involves the following
steps:
Diskless host A broadcasts a RARP request specifying itself as
the target
RARP server responds with the reply directly to host A
Host A preserves the IP address in its main memory for future
use until it reboots
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RARPRARP finds the logical address for a machine that only knows
its physical address.
The RARP request packets are broadcast;
the RARP reply packets are unicast.
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RARP
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RARP Packet
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RARP PacketEncapsulation of RARP packet
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Summary
RARP is used to find the logical address for a machine that only
knows its physical address.
RARP request is created and broadcast on the local network.
Another machine on the local network that knows all the IP
addresses will respond with a RARP reply.
Requesting machine must be running at RARP client program.
Responding machine must be running at RARP server program.
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ICMPIntroductionMessagesDebugging ToolsICMP Package
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ICMPTo make efficient use of the network resources, IP was
designed to provide unreliable and connectionless best-effort
datagram delivery service. As a consequence, IP has no
error-control mechanism and also lacks mechanism for host and
management queries. A companion protocol known as Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), has been designed to compensate these two
deficiencies.
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ICMPPosition of ICMP in the network layer
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ICMPICMP encapsulation
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ICMPICMP Messages
ICMP messages are divided into error-reporting messages and
query messages. The error-reporting messages report problems that a
router or a host (destination) may encounter. The query messages
get specific information from a router or another host.
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ICMPICMP Messages
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ICMPICMP messagesICMP messages
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ICMPMessage Format
An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data
section. Although the general format of the header is different for
each message type, the first 4 bytes are common to all.
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ICMPMessage Format
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ICMPERROR REPORTING
IP, as an unreliable protocol, is not concerned with error
checking and error control. ICMP was designed, in part, to
compensate for this shortcoming. ICMP does not correct errors, it
simply reports them.
ICMP always reports error messages to the original source.
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ICMP
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ICMPContents of data field for the error messages
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ICMPDestination-unreachable format
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ICMPDestination-unreachable format
Destination-unreachable messages with codes 2 or 3 can be
created only by the destination host.
Other destination-unreachable messages can be created only by
routers.
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ICMPSource-quench format
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ICMPSource-quench format
A source-quench message informs the source that a datagram has
been discarded due to
congestion in a router or the destination host.
The source must slow down the sending of datagrams until the
congestion is relieved.
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ICMPSource-quench format
One source-quench message is sent for each datagram that is
discarded due to congestion.
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ICMPTime-exceeded message
Whenever a router decrements a datagram with a time-to-live
value to zero, it discards the datagram
and sends a time-exceeded message to the original source.
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ICMPTime-exceeded message
When the final destination does not receive all of the fragments
in a set time, it discards the
received fragments and sends a time-exceeded message to the
original source.
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ICMPTime-exceeded message
code 0 is used only by routers to show that the value of the
time-to-live field is zero. Code 1 is
used only by the destination host to show that not all of the
fragments have arrived within a set time.
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ICMPTime-exceeded message format
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ICMPTime-exceeded message format
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ICMPParameter-problem
A parameter-problem message can be created by a router or the
destination host.
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ICMPParameter-problem message format
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ICMPRedirection concept
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ICMPRedirection concept
A host usually starts with a small routing table that is
gradually augmented and updated. One of
the tools to accomplish this is the redirection message.
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ICMPRedirection message format
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ICMPRedirection message
A redirection message is sent from a router to a host on the
same local network.
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ICMPQUERY Messages
ICMP can also diagnose some network problems through the query
messages, a group of four
different pairs of messages. In this type of ICMP message, a
node sends a message that is answered
in a specific format by the destination node.
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ICMP
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ICMP
An echo-request message can be sent by a host or router. An
echo-reply message is sent by the host or router which receives an
echo-request
message.
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ICMP
Echo-request and echo-reply messages can be used by network
managers to check the operation
of the IP protocol.
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ICMP
Echo-request and echo-reply messages can test the reachability
of a host. This is usually done by
invoking the ping command.
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ICMPEcho-request and echo-reply messages
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ICMP
Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply
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ICMP
Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages can be used to
calculate the round-trip time between a source and a destination
machine
even if their clocks are not synchronized.
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ICMP
The timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages can be used
to synchronize two clocks
in two machines if the exact one-way time duration is known.
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ICMPTimestamp-request and timestamp-reply message format
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ICMP
Mask-request and mask-reply message format
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ICMPRouter-solicitation message format
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ICMPRouter-advertisement message format
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ICMP
Two tools that use ICMP for debugging: 1. ping2. traceroute.
Debugging Tools
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ICMP
Example
$ ping fhda.edu
PING fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 56 (84) bytes of data.64 bytes from
tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=0 ttl=62 time=1.91 ms64
bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=1 ttl=62
time=2.04 ms64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=2
ttl=62 time=1.90 ms64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1):
icmp_seq=3 ttl=62 time=1.97 ms64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu
(153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=4 ttl=62 time=1.93 ms
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ICMPThe traceroute program operation
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ICMP
We use the traceroute program to find the route from the
computer voyager.deanza.edu to the server fhda.edu. The following
shows the result:
Example
$ traceroute fhda.edu
traceroute to fhda.edu (153.18.8.1), 30 hops max, 38 byte
packets1 Dcore.fhda.edu (153.18.31.254) 0.995 ms 0.899 ms 0.878 ms2
Dbackup.fhda.edu (153.18.251.4) 1.039 ms 1.064 ms 1.083 ms3
tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 1.797 ms 1.642 ms 1.757 ms
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ICMP
To give an idea of how ICMP can handle the sending and receiving
of ICMP messages, an ICMP package made of two modules: an input
module and an output module.
ICMP Package
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ICMPICMP Package
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Summary
ICMP send five types of error reporting messages and four types
pairs of query messages to support the unreliable and
connectionless Internet Protocol.
ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams.
Packet InterNet Groper (Ping) is an application program that
uses the services of ICMP to test the reachablity of a host.
A simple ICMP design can consist of an input module that handles
incoming ICMP packets and an output module that handles demands for
ICMP services.
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Routing Algorithms
IntroductionRouting ProtocolsUnicast Routing ProtocolsMulticast
Routing protocols
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Routing Algorithms
Unicast Routing Protocols: RIP, OSPF, and BGP
1. intra and inter domain routing2. distance vector routing and
RIP3. link state routing and OSPF4. path vector routing and BGP
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Routing Algorithms
Intra and Inter Domain Routing Protocols
Routing inside an autonomous system is referred to as
intradomain routing.
Routing between autonomous systems is referred to as interdomain
routing.
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Routing Algorithms
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Routing Algorithms
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Routing Algorithms
Distance Vector Routing
In distance vector routing, the least cost route between any two
nodes is the route with minimum distance. In this protocol each
node maintains a vector (table) of minimum distances to every
node
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Routing Algorithms
In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table
with its immediate neighbors periodically and when there is a
change.
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Routing Algorithms
In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table
with its immediate neighbors periodically and when there is a
change.
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Routing AlgorithmsDistance vector routing tables
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Routing AlgorithmsInitialization of tables in distance vector
routing
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Routing AlgorithmsUpdating in distance vector routing
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Routing AlgorithmsTwo-node instability
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Routing Protocol
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an intradomain routing
protocol used inside an autonomous system. It is a very simple
protocol based on distance vector routing.
RIP
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Routing Protocol
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one of the most
commonly used Interior Gateway Protocol on internal networks which
helps a router dynamically adapt to changes of network connections
by communicating information about which networks each router can
reach and how far away those networks are. Although RIP is still
actively used, it is generally considered to have been obsolete by
Link-state routing protocol such as OSPF.
RIP
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Routing Protocol
RIP uses the services of UDP on well-known port 520.
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Routing ProtocolExample of a domain using RIP
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Routing ProtocolRIP message format
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Routing ProtocolRequest messages
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Routing ProtocolRIP timers
RIP uses certain timers to regulate its performance. The biggest
drawback to a RIP router is the broadcast it makes. RIP uses
numerous timers to regulate its performance. These include a
routing-update timer, a route-timeout timer, and a route-flush
timer. The routing-update timer clocks the interval between
periodic routing updates, each router periodically transmits it
entire routing table to all the other routers on the network.
Generally, it is set to 30 seconds, with a small random amount of
time added whenever the timer is reset.
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Routing ProtocolRIP timers
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Routing ProtocolRIP version 2 format
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Routing ProtocolRIP version 2 format
RIP Version 2 (RIPv2) RIP Version 2 adds a "network mask" and
"next hop address" field to the original RIP packet while remaining
completely compatible with RIP. Thus RIPv2 routers can coexist with
RIP routers without any problems. The subnet mask field contains
the network bit mask associated with the destination; it also
allows the implementation of CIDR addressing. This will allow RIP
to function in a variety of environments, which may implement
variable subnet masks on a network.
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Routing Algorithms
Link State Routing
In link state routing, if each node in the domain has the
entiretopology of the domain, the node can use Dijkstrasalgorithm
to build a routing table.
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Routing Algorithms
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Routing AlgorithmsLink state knowledge
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Routing Algorithms
Dijkstra algorithm
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Routing AlgorithmsExample of formation of shortest path tree
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Routing Algorithms
Routing table for node A
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Routing Protocol
OSPF
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is another Interior Gateway
Protocol. It is a routing protocol developed for Internet Protocol
(IP) networks by the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) working group
of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The working group
was formed in 1988 to design an IGP based on the Shortest Path
First (SPF) algorithm for use in the Internet. OSPF was created
because in the mid-1980s, the Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
was increasingly incapable of serving large, heterogeneous
internetworks. OSPF being a SPF algorithm scales better than
RIP.
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Routing Protocol
OSPF
The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is an intra domain
routing protocol based on link state routing. Its domain is also an
autonomous system.
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Routing ProtocolOSPF also has the following features:
Advertise about neighborhood: Instead of sending its entire
routing table, a router sends information about its neighborhood
only. Flooding: Each router sends this information to every other
router on the internetwork, not just to its neighbors. It does so
by a process of flooding. In Flooding, a router sends its
information to all its neighbors (through all of its output ports).
Every router sends such messages to each of its neighbor, and every
router that receives the packet sends copies to its neighbor.
Finally, every router has a copy of same information. Active
response: Each outer sends out information about the neighbor when
there is a change.
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Routing Protocol
OSPF packets are encapsulated in IP datagrams.
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Routing Protocol
Areas in an autonomous system
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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Routing ProtocolOSPF common header
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Routing ProtocolLink state update packet
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Routing ProtocolLSA general header
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Routing ProtocolRouter link
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Routing ProtocolRouter link LSA
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Routing ProtocolLink types, link identification, and link
dataLink types, link identification, and link data
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Routing Protocol
Example - Give the router link LSA sent by router 10.24.7.9
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Routing Protocol
This router has three links: two of type 1 (point-to-point) and
one of type 3 (stub network).
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Routing Algorithms
Path Vector Routing
Path vector routing is similar to distance vector routing. There
is at least one node, called the speaker node, in each AS that
creates a routing table and advertises it to speaker nodes in the
neighboring ASs..
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Routing Algorithms
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Routing Algorithms
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Routing Protocol
Border Gateway Protocol
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an inter domain routing
protocol using path vector routing. It first appeared in 1989 and
has gone through four versions.
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Routing Protocol
BGP supports classless addressing and CIDR.
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Routing Protocol
BGP uses the services of TCP on port 179.
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Routing Protocol
Internal and external BGP sessions
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Routing Protocol
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Routing ProtocolBGP packet header
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Routing ProtocolOpen message
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Routing ProtocolUpdate message
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Routing ProtocolKeepalive message
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Routing ProtocolNotification message
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Routing Protocol
A message can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast. Let us
clarify these terms as they relate to the Internet.
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Routing ProtocolUnicast :- the router forwards the received
packet
through only one of its interfaces
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Routing ProtocolMultiicast :- the router may forward the
received packet
through several of its interfaces
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
Emulation of multicasting through multiple unicasting is not
efficient and may create long
delays, particularly with a large group.
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Routing Protocol
In unicast routing, each router in the domain has a table that
defines a shortest path tree to
possible destinations.
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
In multicast routing, each involved router needs to construct a
shortest path tree for each group.
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Routing Protocol
In the source-based tree approach, each router needs to have one
shortest path tree for each
group.
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
In the group-shared tree approach, only the core router, which
has a shortest path tree for each
group, is involved in multicasting.
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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Summary
A metric is the cost assigned for passage of a packet through a
network.
A router consults its routing table to determine the best path
of a packet.
An autonomous system is a group of networks and routers under
the authority of a single administration.
RIP and OSPF are popular intra domain routing protocols used to
update routing table in an AS.
RIP use three timers.
BGP is an inter autonomous system routing protocol used to
update routing tables.
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Router OperationIntroduction to RoutersOverview of Router
ModesRouter Interfaces
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Router ConfigurationOverview of Router ConfigurationStatic
RoutingDynamic RoutingDefault Routing
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IPV4 Protocol
IntroductionDatagramsFragmentationIP Package
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IPV4 Protocol
IP is an unreliable and connectionless best-effort delivery
service protocol. By best effort we mean that there is no error and
flow control. However, IP performs error detection and discards a
packet, if it is corrupted. To achieve reliability, it is necessary
to combine it with a reliable protocol such as TCP. Packets in IP
layer are called datagrams. The IP header provides information
about various functions the IP performs.
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IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 Protocol
A packet in the IP layer is called a datagram, a variable-length
packet consisting of two parts: header and data. The header is 20
to 60 bytes in length and contains information essential to routing
and delivery.
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IPV4 ProtocolIP Datagram
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IPV4 ProtocolService type or differentiated services
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IPV4 Protocol
The precedence subfield was designed, but never used in version
4.
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IPV4 ProtocolTypes of service
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IPV4 ProtocolMultiplexing
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IPV4 ProtocolProtocols
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IPV4 ProtocolFragmentation
The format and size of a frame depend on the protocol used by
the physical network. A datagram may have to be fragmented to fit
the protocol regulations.
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IPV4 ProtocolFragmentation
Each network imposes a limit on maximum size, known as maximum
transfer unit (MTU) of a packet because of various reasons. One
approach is to prevent the problem to occur in the first place,
i.e. send packets smaller than the MTU. Second approach is to deal
with the problem using fragmentation. When a gateway connects two
networks that have different maximum and or minimum packet sizes,
it is necessary to allow the gateway to break packets up into
fragments, sending each one as an internet packet. The technique is
known as fragmentation.
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IPV4 ProtocolMaximum Transfer Unit (MTU)
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IPV4 ProtocolMTUs for some networks
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IPV4 ProtocolFragmentation Example
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IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 ProtocolOPTIONS
The header of the IP datagram is made of two parts: a fixed part
and a variable part. The variable part comprises the options that
can be a maximum of 40 bytes.
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IPV4 ProtocolOPTION Format
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IPV4 ProtocolCategories of Option
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IPV4 ProtocolNo Operation Option
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IPV4 ProtocolRecord Route Option
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IPV4 ProtocolRecord Route Concept
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IPV4 ProtocolTime Stamp Concept
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IPV4 ProtocolChecksum
The error detection method used by most TCP/IP protocols is
called the checksum. The checksum protects against the corruption
that may occur during the transmission of a packet. It is redundant
information added to the packet.
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IPV4 ProtocolChecksum
To create the checksum the sender does the following:
The packet is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
All sections are added together using 1s
complementarithmetic.
The final result is complemented to make thechecksum.
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IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 ProtocolIP Package
IP software package to show its components and the relationships
between the components. This IP package involves following
modules.
1. Header-Adding Module2. Processing Module3. Queues4. Routing
Table5. Forwarding Module6. MTU Table7. Fragmentation Module8.
Reassembly Table9. Reassembly Module
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IPV4 ProtocolIP Components
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IPV4 ProtocolMTU Table
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IPV4 ProtocolReassembly Table
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Summary
IP is an unreliable connectionless protocol responsible for
source-to-destination delivery.
Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams.
A datagram consists of a header (20 to 60 bytes) and data.
The maximum length of a datagram is 65535 bytes.
MTU is the maximum number of bytes that a data link control can
encapsulate. MTU is vary from protocol to protocol.
The options section of the IP header is used for network testing
and debugging.
The error detection method used by IP is the checksum.
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IPV6 Protocol
IntroductionPacket FormatTransition from IPV4 to IPV6
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IPV6 Protocol
The network layer that is present in use in commonly referred to
as IPv4. Although IPv4 is well designed and has helped the internet
to grow rapidly, it has some deficiencies, These deficiencies has
made it unsuitable for the fast growing internet. To overcome these
deficiencies, Internet Protocol, Version 6 protocol has been
proposed and it has evolved into a standard.
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IPV6 Protocol
Important features of IPv6 are highlighted below:
IPv6 uses 128-bit address instead of 32-bit address to provide
larger address space Uses more flexible header format, which
simplifies and speeds up the routing process Basic header followed
by extended header Resource Allocation options, which was not
present in IPv4 Provision of new/future protocol options Support
for security with the help of encryption and authentication Support
for fragmentation at source
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IPV6 Protocol
IPv6 has these advantages over IPv4:
1. larger address space 2. better header format 3. new options4.
allowance for extension5. support for resource allocation 6.
support for more security
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IPV6 Protocol
IPv6 Address
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IPV6 Protocol
IPv6 Datagram
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IPV6 Protocol
IPv6 Datagram
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IPV6 Protocol
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 packet header
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IPV6 Protocol
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IPV6 ProtocolIPV6 Extension Header
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IPV6 Protocol
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IPV6 ProtocolComparison between
IPv4 options and IPv6 extension headers
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Summary
IPV6, the latest version of Internet Protocol., has a 128-bit
address space, a revised header format, new options, an allowance
for extension, support for resource allocation, and increased
security measures.
IPV6 uses hexadecimal colon notation with abbreviation methods
available.
An IPV6 datagram is composed of a base header and a payload.
ICMP6, like version 4, report errors, handles group memberships,
updates specific router and host tables, and checks the viability
of a host.
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ConclusionNetwork Layer
ARPAddress MappingARP ProtocolARP Package
RARPIntroductionRARP ProtocolRARP Package
ICMPIntroductionMessagesDebugging ToolsICMP Package
Routing Algorithms and ProtocolsIntroduction
Routing ProtocolsUnicast Routing ProtocolsMulticast Routing
protocols
Router Operation and Configuration
IPV4 ProtocolIntroductionDatagramsFragmentationIP Package
IPV6 ProtocolIntroductionPacket FormatTransition from IPV4 to
IPV6
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Objective Type1. Network layer is responsible for ____ to ____
delivery.
2. ARP is used to find ______ address to _______ address.
3. RARP is used to find _________ address to ____ address.
4. An autonomous system is a _______ of network.
5. BGP is a _________ protocol.
6. ICMP is a companion to the _______ protocol.
7. _______ and _______ are two types of ICMP messages.
8. In IPV4 address is of _____ bits.
9. In IPV6 address is of _____ bits.
10. Router works on _____ layer.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and
Management, New Delhi-63 by Vishal Jain U2.. 200
Short Questions
1. Which layer determines path selection in an internet
work?
2. What is one method mapping network addresses to MAC
addressed?
3. What is one method mapping MAC address to network
address.
4. What do you mean by Encapsulation.?5. What do you mean by BGP
?6. What is fragmentation in IP protocol ?7. What are the various
roles played by the Network
Layer?8. Compare link-state and distance vector routing
algorithms.9. Compare IPV4 and IPV6 header fields.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and
Management, New Delhi-63 by Vishal Jain U2.. 201
Short Questions10)Explain the following ICMP messages11)Write a
Short note on RARP header.12)Explain debugging tools in
ICMP.13)Explain different types of messages in ICMP.14)How does ARP
protocol work when a packet is to be
sent?15)Explain the working of RARP.16)Write the commands for
configuring the router for
giving address to various interfaces. Give commands for
establishing connection between two networks & communicating
between them using some protocol. Save the configuration. Write
commands for seeing other commands. How will you give password to a
router?
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MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and
Management, New Delhi-63 by Vishal Jain
U2.68
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and
Management, New Delhi-63 by Vishal Jain U2.. 202
Long Questions1. Draw IPV4 header and explain in detail.2. A
host with IP address 130.23.43.20 and physical
address Ox B23455102210 has a packet to send to another host
with address 130.23.43.25 and physical address Ox A46EF45983AB. The
two hosts are on the same Ethernet network. Show ARP request and
reply packet encapsulated in Ethernet frame.
3. Explain RIP protocol in detail.4. Draw and differentiate
between IPV 4 and IPV 6
header.5. Compare ARP and RARP. Give their respective
operations.6. Explain various parameters set during router
configuration.7. Explain ARP package8. Explain RARP package
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and
Management, New Delhi-63 by Vishal Jain U2.. 203
Long Questions9. Explain the types of BGP messages. Explain
the
various fields involved.10.Explain the various query messages in
ICMP. Also
draw and explain the packet formats.11.Describe the various
links in OSPF.12.What are the various components of a CISCO
Router? Explain them briefly.13.Discuss the header of the
Internet Protocol (IP).
Explain how fragmentation is done in IP with the help of an
example. What is the need of fragmentations?
14.What is proxy ARP? Explain with the help of an example.
15.What are the problems associated with RIP? How can these
problems b overcome. Explain with the help of example.
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and
Management, New Delhi-63 by Vishal Jain U2.. 204
ReferencesMain Reading Books:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, TCP/IP Protocol Suit, TMH, 4th Edition2.
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communication and Networking, TMH, 3rd
edition Reference Books:1. Black U, Computer Networks-Protocols,
Standards and Interfaces, PHI, 1996.2. Stallings W., Data and
Computer Communications, 6th Ed., PHI, 2002.3. Stallings W., SNMP,
SNMPv2, SNMPv3, RMON 1 & 2, 3rd Ed., Addison Wesley,1999.4.
Laurra Chappell (Ed), Introduction to Cisco RouterConfiguration,
Techmedia, 1999.5. Tananbaum A. S., Computer Networks, 3rd Ed.,
PHI, 1999.
