Computer Organization Lecture Set – 01 Course Overview & Chapter 1 Huei-Yung Lin.

Computer Organization

Lecture Set – 01

Course Overview & Chapter 1

Huei-Yung Lin

CCUEE Computer Organization 2

Textbooks

Required: “Computer Organization and Design”, 3rd Ed. Patterson & Hennessy (No translation yet!)

References: “Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach”, 3rd Ed. Hennessy &

Patterson MIPS Assembly Language Programming,

http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~ellard/Courses/cs50-asm.pdf Chapter 2: MIPS Tutorial Chapter 4: The MIPS R2000 Instruction Set

Programmed Instruction to MIPS Assembly Language, http://chortle.ccsu.edu/AssemblyTutorial/TutorialContents.html

Chapter 26 — Simple Subroutine Linkage. Chapter 27 — Stack-based Linkage Convention


Grading

Grading Policy (total score : 110): 2 Midterms: 40% (each with 20%) Final: 30% Home work 20%: NO LATE home work Participation & Quiz: 20%

Please note if you miss three quizzes, you will get 0 point from this category. Further, you will pay the extra penalty (5 points of the total score) for each missing quiz when you are absent over three quizzes.

No makeup exams!


Course Outline

Computer Abstractions and Technology (2 lectures) Instructions: Language of the Computer (6 lectures) Midterm #1 Arithmetic for Computers (6 lectures) Assessing and Understanding Performance (2 lectures) The Processor: Datapath and Control (3 lectures) Midterm #2 Enhancing Performance with Pipelining (5 lectures) Large and Fast: Exploiting Memory Hierarchy (3 lectures) Storage, Networks, and Other Peripherals (1 lectures) Final


Introduction

This course is all about how computers work But what do we mean by a computer?

Different types: desktops, servers, embedded devices Different uses: automobiles, graphics, finance, genomics, … Different manufacturers: Intel, Apple, IBM, Sun, … Different underlying technologies and different costs!

Analogy: consider a course on “automotive vehicles” Many similarities from vehicle to vehicle (e.g., wheels) Huge differences from vehicle to vehicle (e.g., gas vs. electric)

Best way to learn: Focus on a specific instance and learn how it works While learning general principles and historical perspectives


Why Learn This Stuff?

You want to call yourself a “computer scientist” You want to build software people use (need

performance) You need to make a purchasing decision or offer “expert”

advice


Overview

Both hardware and software affect program performance: Algorithm determines number of source-level statements

Determines both the count of source level statements and I/O operations Language/Compiler/Architecture determine machine instructions

(Chapters 2 and 3) Determine the number of machine instructions

Processor/Memory determine how fast instructions are executed (Chapters 5, 6 and 7) Determines how fast instructions are executed

I/O system (hardware and OS) (Chapter 8) Determines how fast I/O operations are executed

Accessing and understand performance in Chapter 4


Computer Systems Overview Technology Trends Instruction Sets (and Software) Logic and Arithmetic Performance Processor Implementation Memory Systems Input/Output

Roadmap for the Term: Major Topics


Classes of Computer Systems

EmbeddedDesktop Server

Image sources: Dell Computer www.dell.com Rackable Systems www.rackablecom Apple Computer www.apple.com


Desktop Computer Systems For “General-Purpose” Use

Word-Processing, Web surfing, Multimedia, etc. Computation and Programming

What’s in the box Microprocessor Memory - Synchronous DRAM Hard disk(s), CDROM/DVD, etc. I/O - mouse, keyboard, video card, monitor, network, etc.

Important Issues: Performance - how fast is “fast enough”? Basic capabilities (and expandability) Cost


Server Computer Systems

Large-Scale Services File storage Computation (e.g., supercomputers) Transaction Processing, Web

What’s in the Box(es) Microprocessor(s) Hard disks Network Interface(s)

Important issues: Performance Reliability, availability Cost

One Rack-Mount PC Unit(Google uses ~ 10,000)


Embedded Computer Systems Computer as part of larger system

Consumer electronics, appliances Networking, telecommunications Automotive / aircraft control

What’s in the box Microcontroller / Microprocessor Memory: RAM, ROM; Disk Special-purpose I/O (including analog stuff)

Important issues Cost, Power Consumption Performance (against real-time constraints) Reliability and Safety


“Five classic components”

Processor

Computer

Control(“brain”)

Datapath(“brawn”)

Memory

(where programs, data live whenrunning)

Devices

Input

Output

Keyboard, Mouse

Display, Printer

Disk (where programs, data live whennot running)

Computer System Organization


Executing Programs - the “fetch/execute” cycle Processor fetches instruction from memory Processor executes “machine language” instruction

Processor

Control

Datapath

100101001011000000101001010100011111011101100110100101001011000010010100101100001001010010110000

Memory

111101110110011010010100101100001001010010110000

nextinstr

OK, but how do we write useful programs using these instructions?

Load DataPerform Calculation

Store Results

Address

Instruction

Computer System Operation


55 E F

Abstractions in Computer Systems Designers use abstraction to manage complexity

Focus on pertinent information Suppress unnecessary detail

Example: Auto controls Well-understood interface (inputs, outputs) Details suppressed


Abstractions in Computer Systems

Coordination of many levels of abstraction

ComputerOrganization

I/O systemProcessor

CompilerOperating

System(Mac OS X)

Application (ex: browser)

Digital DesignCircuit Design

Instruction Set Architecture

Datapath & Control

transistors

MemoryHardware

Software Assembler


Machine Language 00000000001000100100000000100000

High-Level Language (C) c = a + b;

Assembly Language add R8,R1,R2

Assembler

Compiler

Software Abstractions - Languages


Operating system Insulates programmer from low-level details

Manages system resources Manages file system

Coordinates operation of multiple programs Protects from system from damage by user programs

(accidental or malicious) Programs interact with OS through system calls

Libraries Provide programmer access to high-level “primitives” Programs access through well-defined interface (API)

Software Abstractions - System Software


The most important abstraction of computer design

Logic - gates, state machines, etc.

Circuit - transistors, etc.

Layout - mask patterns, etc.

Hardware

Processor I/O System

Software

Compiler

Application Programs

Operating System

Application

Instruction Set ArchitectureInterface between SW & HW

Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) - The Hardware-Software Interface


Instruction Set Architecture

Also called architecture A very important abstraction

Interface between hardware and low-level software Includes instructions, registers, memory access, I/O and so on Advantage: different implementations of the same architecture Disadvantage: sometimes prevents using new innovations

True or False: Binary compatibility is extraordinarily important?

Modern instruction set architectures: IA-32, PowerPC, MIPS, SPARC, ARM, and others


Architecture: features visible to programmer Registers and memory model Data types Instructions

Organization: system implementation Processor design: Datapath, Control, “microarchitecture” System design: Processor + Memory, I/O

Architecture vs. Organization


Memory (Max. 4GB)

0x000000000x000000040x000000080x0000000C0x000000100x000000140x000000180x0000001C

0xfffffffc

0xfffffffc

32 bits

32 General Purpose Registers

R0R1R2

R30R31

PC = 0x0000001C

32 bitsRegisters

32

op rs rt offset

op rs rt rd functshamt

op address

Instruction Formats

Example Architecture: MIPS


Top 5 Reasons to Study MIPS

It’s in the book It’s used in many applications Learning its architecture and implementation exposes you

to important concepts It’s relatively simple and easy to implement (compared to

other architectures) Ideas presented using MIPS generalize to other

architectures (even the 80x86!)


Overview of Physical Implementations

The hardware out of which we make systems

Integrated Circuits (ICs) Combinational logic circuits, memory elements, analog interfaces

Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) Substrate for ICs and interconnection, distribution of CLK, Vdd, and

GND signals, heat dissipation Power Supplies

Converts line AC voltage to regulated DC low voltage levels. Chassis (rack, card case, ...)

Holds boards, power supply, provides physical interface to user or other systems

Connectors and Cables


Under the Hood: A Desktop PC Display (CRT or LCD) Keyboard, Mouse “The Box”

Power Supply Motherboard (see next slide)

Memory Graphics card Standard bus card slots (e.g. PCI) Standard I/O connectors (e.g. USB, Parallel Port, etc) Disks, CDRW, etc.


Organization of a Desktop PC

System Cotroller

(North Bridge)

DRAMMemory(DIMMs)

CPU

AGP Graphics Card

AGP (Graphics) Bus

Memory Bus

PCI Backplane Bus

Peripheral Bus Cotroller

(South Bridge)

LAN SCSI

ISA Bus*

USB

Dual EIDE BIOSROM


Typical Motherboard (Pentium III)

Rear Panel Conn.

Processor

Memory

N. Bridge

S. Bridge

IDE Disk Conn.

AGP

BIOS ROM

Floppy Conn.Power Conn.

PCI Cards


Explanations (I)

Northbridge is the chip or chips that connect a CPU to memory, the PCI bus, Level 2 cache and AGP activities.

Southbridge is the chip that controls all of the computers I/O functions, such as USB, audio, serial, the system BIOS, the ISA bus, the interrupt controller and the IDE channels.

Intelligent Drive Electronics (IDE) interface is an interface for mass storage devices, in which the controller is integrated into the disk or CD-ROM drive.


Explanations (II)

Accelerated Graphics Port: an interface specification developed by Intel Corporation. AGP is based on PCI, but is designed especially for the

throughput demands of 3-D graphics

Peripheral Component Interconnect: a local bus standard developed by Intel Corporation. Most modern PCs include a PCI bus in addition to a more general

ISA expansion bus.

Industry Standard Architecture bus, the bus architecture used in the IBM PC/XT and PC/AT.


BIOS (basic input/output system) A built-in software On PCs, the BIOS contains all the code required to

control the keyboard, display screen, disk drives, serial communications, and a number of miscellaneous functions.

The BIOS is typically placed in a ROM chip that comes with the computer (it is often called a ROM BIOS).

This ensures that the BIOS will always be available and will not be damaged by disk failures.


Source: EE Times, www.eetimes.com

Under the Hood: Apple iPod


Computer Systems Overview Technology Trends Instruction Sets (and Software) Logic and Arithmetic Performance Processor Implementation Memory Systems Input/Output



Computer Systems Overview

Types of Computer Systems Abstractions used in Computer Systems Architecture vs. Organization Common Architectures “Under the Hood” - chips and systems


Technology Trends

Historical Notes Current Technology (CMOS VLSI) Trends (Moore’s Law)

Image Source:Intel Corporationwww.intel.com


Instruction Sets (and Software) General principles of instruction set design The MIPS instruction set Software concerns: procedures, stacks, etc.

op rs rt offset

op rs rt rd functshamt

op address


Logic & Arithmetic

Quick review: binary numbers and arithmetic Adder & ALUs; multiplication & division Floating Point

A

B

F(A,B)

OperationSelect

ALU


Performance

Response Time vs. Throughput Measuring performance using individual programs Combining measurements Benchmarks


Processor Implementation

Basic implementation Single-Cycle Multicycle

Pipelined implementation Advanced techniques

0 2 4 6 8 10Time

12

IF ID EX MEM WB

14

IF ID EX MEM WB

IF ID EX MEM WB

IF ID EX MEM WB

14


Memory Systems

Memory Technology Overview Memory Hierarchy

Cache Memories - making access faster Virtual Memory - making memory larger using disk

Registers Cache

MemoryProcessor Disk


Input/Output

I/O Overview Impact of I/O on Performance Buses Interfacing

Image Source:Seagate Technolgy LLCwww.seagate.com


Roadmap for the Term: Major Topics Computer Systems Overview Technology Trends Instruction Sets (and Software) Logic and Arithmetic Performance Processor Implementation Memory Systems Input/Output


Outline - Technology Trends

Brief History of Computer Technology Today’s Technology: VLSI CMOS VLSI Technology Trends


1940s-50s - Vacuum Tubes 1950s-60s - Discrete Transistors 1960s-70s - Discrete ICs (e.g., TTL) 1970s-present - LSI and VLSI microprocessors

A Brief History of Computer Technology


Computer History - 1940s-1960s

ENIAC - 1940s(Vacuum Tubes)

IBM 360 - 1960s(Transistors)


Computer History - 1970s

DEC VAX 11/780 - 1970s(Discrete IC’s)

Intel 4004 - 1970s(First Microprocessor)



MOS Technology 6502

Apple II Computer



Intel 8088(LSI Microprocessor) Original IBM PC

Images:Intel Corporation www.intel.compcbiography members.tripod.com/pcmuseum



Brief History of Computer Technology Today’s Technology: VLSI VLSI Technology Trends


Today: VLSI Microprocessors

PowerPC 7400 (G4)6.5M transistors / 450MHz / 8-10W

L=0.15µm

Pentium® III28M transistors / 733MHz-1Gz / 13-26W

L=0.25µm shrunk to L=0.18µm



Pentium® 442M transistors / 1.3-1.8GHz

49-55WL=180nm

Pentium® 4 “Northwood”55M transistors / 2-2.5GHz

55WL=130nm Area=131mm2

Process Shrinks

Pentium® 4 “Prescott”125M transistors / 2.8-3.4GHz

115WL=90nm Area=112mm2



PowerPC® 940 (G5)58M transistors / 2GHz / 97W

L=130nm Area=118mm2

Image courtesy International Business Machines All Rights ReservedIntel Itanium® 2

410M transistors / 1.3GHz / 130WL=130nm Area=374mm2

Image source: Intel Corporation www.intel.com


VLSI Technology Overview

Fabrication of multiple transistors on a chip Dominant technology: CMOS Other technologies:

Bipolar (e.g., TTL) Bi-CMOS - hybrid Bipolar, CMOS GaAs - Gallium Arsenide (for high speed) Si-Ge - Silicon Germanium (for high speed, RF)


2002: L=130nm2003: L=90nm2005: L=65nm?

Transistor length Lshrinks over time!

p+ p+

n substrate

channel

Source Drain

p transistor

G

S

D

SB

Polysilicon GateSiO2

Insulator L

W

G

substrate connectedto VDD

Polysilicon GateSiO2

Insulator

n+ n+

p substrate

channel

Source Drain

n transistor

G

S

D

SB

LW

G

S

D

substrate connectedto GND

VLSI Technology - CMOS Transistors


A

B

A B

OUT B

A

A

B

OUT

NAND NOR

What logic functions do these gates perform?

VLSI Technology - CMOS Logic Gates


VLSI Processing (Fig. 1-14)


Integrated Circuits (2003 State-of-the-Art)

Primarily Crystalline Silicon 1mm - 25mm on a side 2003 - feature size ~ 0.13µm = 0.13 x 10-6 m 100 - 400M transistors (25 - 100M “logic gates") 3 - 10 conductive layers “CMOS” (complementary metal oxide

semiconductor) - most common.

Package provides: spreading of chip-level signal paths to board-

level heat dissipation.

Ceramic or plastic with gold wires.

Chip in Package

Bare Die


Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)

Fiberglass or ceramic 1-20 conductive layers 1-20in on a side IC packages are soldered

down


VLSI Design Tradeoffs

Cost - related to chip size Amount of logic Current technology Non recurring engineering (NRE) cost vs. unit cost

Performance Clock speed Implementation Application

Power consumption Power supply voltage Clock speed



Brief History of Computer Technology Today’s Technology: VLSI VLSI Technology Trends


VLSI Trends: Moore’s Law

In 1965, Gordon Moore predicted that transistors would continue to shrink, allowing: Doubled transistor density every 24 months Doubled performance every 18 months

History has proven Moore right But, is the end in sight?

Physical limitations Economic limitations

I’m smilingbecause I was right!

BUT… No exponential

is forever!

Gordon MooreIntel Co-Founder and Chairmain Emeritus

Image source: Intel Corporation www.intel.com


Year Chip L transistors

1971 4004 10µm 2.3K

1974 8080 6µm 6.0K

1976 8088 3µm 29K

1982 80286 1.5µm 134K

1985 80386 1.5µm 275K

1989 80486 0.8µm 1.2M

1993 Pentium® 0.8µm 3.1M

1995 Pentium® Pro 0.6µm 15.5M

1999 Mobile PII 0.25µm 27.4

2000 Pentium® 4 0.18µm 42M

2002 Pentium® 4 (N) 0.13µm 55M

2003 Itanium® 2 (M) 0.13µm 410M

Source: http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/quickreffam.htm, EE Times

Microprocessor Trends (Intel)


Technology Trends: Microprocessor Complexity

Year

Transisto

rs

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

100000000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

i80386

i4004

i8080

Pentium

i80486

i80286

i80862X transistors/ChipEvery 1.5 years

Called “Moore’s Law”

Alpha 21264: 15 millionPentium Pro: 5.5 millionPowerPC 620: 6.9 millionAlpha 21164: 9.3 millionSparc Ultra: 5.2 million

Moore’s Law

Athlon (K7): 22 Million

Itanium 2: 410 Million


Technology Trends: Processor Performance

0100200300400500600700800900

87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97

DEC Alpha21264/600

DEC Alpha 5/500

DEC Alpha 5/300

DEC Alpha 4/266

IBM POWER 100

1.54X/yr

Intel P4 2000 MHz(Fall 2001)

year

Pe

rfo

rma

nc

e m

eas

ure


Technology Trends: Memory Capacity (Single Chip DRAM)

size

Year

Bits

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

100000000

1000000000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

year size (Mbit)

1980 0.0625

1983 0.25

1986 1

1989 4

1992 16

1996 64

1998 128

2000 256

2002 512


Summary - Technology Trends Processor

Logic capacity increases ~ 30% per year Clock frequency increases ~ 20% per year Cost per function decreases ~20% per year

Memory DRAM capacity: increases ~ 60% per year

(4x every 3 years) Speed: increases ~ 10% per year Cost per bit: decreases ~25% per year

Disk Storage capacity increases ~ 60% per year


Summary

5 classic components of all computers Control Datapath Memory Input Output

processor Two key technologies for modern processors

Compilers Silicon

Two key ideas for Exploiting parallelism via pipelining Exploiting locality of access via caches


Computer Systems Overview Technology Trends Instruction Sets (and Software) Logic & Arithmetic Performance Processor Implementation Memory systems Input/Output



References

Portions of these slides are derived from: Textbook figures © 1998 Morgan Kaufmann Publishers all rights

reserved Tod Amon's COD2e Slides © 1998 Morgan Kaufmann

Publishers all rights reserved Dave Patterson’s CS 152 Slides – Fall 1997 © UCB Rob Rutenbar’s 18-347 Slides – Fall 1999 CMU John Nestor’s ECE 313 Slides – Fall 2004 LC T.S. Chang’s DEE 1050 Slides – Fall 2004 NCTU Other sources as noted

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Computer Organization Lecture Set – 01 Course Overview & Chapter 1 Huei-Yung Lin.

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