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Conceptual foundations for semantic mapping and semantic search
Dagobert Soergel
Department of Library and Information Studies, University at Buffalo
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Cologne Conference on Interoperability and Semantics in Knowledge OrganizationCologne University of Applied Sciences
Institute of Information Management (IIM)July 19, 2010
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Hub
Water transport
Inland water transport
Ocean transport
Traffic station Water transport⊓
Traffic station Inland water tr.⊓
Traffic station Ocean transport⊓
Dewey
387 Water, air, space transportation
386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation
387.5 Ocean transportation
386.8 Inland waterway tr. > Ports
387.1 Ports
LCSH
Shipping
Inland water transport
Merchant marine
Harbors
GermanHafen
Mapping through a Hub
Outline
• Objective: Interoperability Plus
• KOS concept hub: canonical expressions
• Examples: Knowledge base and applications
• ImplementationCanonical expressions local, hub globalKnowledge-based, computer-assisted creation of canonical expressions to represent concepts.Crowdsourcing
• Cross-language mapping and shades of meaning
• Conclusion
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Objective
Improve semantic-based search across multiple collections in multiple languages.
• Interoperability between any two participating KOS(Knowledge Organization Systems)
• Support for search, esp. facet-based search • for any collection indexed by a participating KOS• for search based on free-text or free-form social tagging
• Assistance in cataloging (metadata creation) by catalogers or users (social tagging)
• Long-range goal: Web service where a KOS can be uploaded and mappings to specified target KOS are returned
4
KOS Concept Hub
• Interoperability is achieved by representing concepts from all participating KOS through canonical expressions, such as a description logic formula using atomic concepts and relationships
• The backbone of the proposed system is an extensible faceted core classification of atomic concepts together with a set of relationships
• Mapping from KOS to KOS is achieved by reasoning over these canonical expressions
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Hub
Water transport
Inland water transport
Ocean transport
Traffic station Water transport⊓
Traffic station Inland water tr.⊓
Traffic station Ocean transport⊓
Dewey
387 Water, air, space transportation
386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation
387.5 Ocean transportation
386.8 Inland waterway tr. > Ports
387.1 Ports
LCSH
Shipping
Inland water transport
Merchant marine
Harbors
GermanHafen
Mapping through a Hub
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HubTraffic station
Vehicle parking
Terminal facilities
Water transport
Inland water transport
Ocean transport
Traffic station Water transport⊓
By type of water transport
Traffic station Inland water tr.⊓
Traffic station Ocean transport⊓
By component of traffic station
Vehicle parking Water transport⊓
Terminal facilities Water transport⊓
Dewey
387 Water, air, space transportation
386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation
387.5 Ocean transportation
386.8 Inland waterway tr. > Ports
387.1 Ports
LCSH/AAT
Shipping
water transport
Inland water transport
Merchant marine
Harbors
ports
harbors
Mapping through a Hub
L00 Transportation and trafficL10 Traffic system components
L13 Traffic facilities
L15 Traffic stations
L17 Vehicles
L30 Modes of transportation
L33 Air transport
L37 Water transport
P00 Buildings, constructionP23 Buildings
P27 Architecture
P43 Construction
R00 EngineeringR30 Acoustics
R37 Soundproofing
T70 Military vs. civilian T73 Military
T77 Civilian
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Core Classification faceted classification
HE550-560 Ports, harbors, docks, wharves, etc.
NA2800 Architectural acoustics
NA6300-6307 Airport buildings
NA6330 Dock buildings, ferry houses, etc.
TC350-374 Harbor works
TH1725 Soundproof construction
TL681.S6 Airplanes. Soundproofing
TL725-726 Airways (Routes). Airports and landing fields. Aerodromes
VA67-79 Naval ports, bases, reservations, docks
VM367.S6 Submarines. Soundproofing
= L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ T77 Civilian⊓
= P27 Architecture R30 Acoustics⊓
= L15 Traffic stations L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓P23 Buildings T77 Civilian⊓
= L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ P23 Buildings T77 Civilian⊓ ⊓
= L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ R00 Engineering T77 Civilian⊓ ⊓
= P23 Buildings P43 Construction ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing
= L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing
= L13 Traffic facilities L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓Technical aspects
= L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ T73 Military⊓
= L17 Vehicles L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing T73 Military ⊓ ⊓Underwater 11
Aeroplanes-Soundproofing
Airports-Buildings
Buildings-Soundproofing
Ships-Soundproofing
= L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing
= P23 Buildings L15 Traffic stations ⊓ ⊓L33 Air transport
= P23 Buildings P43 Construction ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing
= L17 Vehicles L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing
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LC subject headings with combinations of atomic concepts
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Hub
L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing
L17 Vehicles ⊓ L37 Water transport ⊓ R37 Soundproofing
L17 Vehicles ⊓ L37 Water transport ⊓ R37 Soundproofing T73 ⊓Military⊓ Underwater
LCC
TL681.S6 Airplanes. Soundproofing
VM367.S6 Submarines. Soundproofing
LCSH
Aeroplanes-Soundproofing
Ships-Soundproofing
Mapping through a Hub
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Hub
Canonical form of query
(DL formula)
User query
Free text
Combination of elemental concepts through facets (guided query formulation)
Controlled term(s) from a KOS, possibly found through browsing a KOS
Final query
(Enriched) free text query
Query in terms of a KOS
Mapping user queries
TL681.S6 Airplanes. Soundproofing
VM367.S6 Submarines. Soundproofing
Aeroplanes-Soundproofing
Ships-Soundproofing
[L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing]
[L17 Vehicles L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing Military]⊓
[L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing]
[L17 Vehicles L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing]
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Query:L17 Vehicles AND R37
Soundproofing
Examples fromNALT, LCSH, DDC, and SWD
• NALT National Agricultural Library Thesaurus
• LCSH Library of Congress Subject Headings
• DDC Dewey Decimal Classification
• SWD Schlagwortnormdatei
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Hub[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [ca [isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable Undesirable[isa] Legal rule
[isa] Legal rule [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable
LCSH
Air - pollution
Laws and regulations
Air – pollution - Laws and regulations
NALT
Air pollution
Laws and regulations
Air pollution ANDLaws and regulations
Mapping through a Hub
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Mapping through a Hub
Hub[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [ca [isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [prop.] Undesirable [prop.] Undesirable[isa] Legal rule
[isa] Legal rule [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable
[isa] International treaty [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable
[isa] Rights [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable
DDC
363.739 2 Air pollution
340 Law
344.046 342 Air pollution [Law]
363.739 26 Air pollution rights
SWD
Luftverschmutzung
Gesetz
???
Übereinkommen über weiträumige grenzüberschreitende Luftverschmutzung
Umweltzertifikat
Soil moisture vs. Soil water
LCSH term
Soil moisture
[isa] Water [containedIn] Soil
NALT term
Soil water
[isa] Water [containedIn] Soil
Mapping LCSH ▬► NALT
Soil moisture ▬► Soil water
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Greenhouse gardening
LCSH term
Greenhouse gardening
[isa] Gardening [inEnvironment] Greenhouse [inEnvironment] Home
NALT terms
Home gardening
[isa] Gardening [inEnvironment] Home
Greenhouse
[isa] Greenhouse
Mapping LCSH ▬► NALT
Greenhouse gardening ▬► Home gardening AND
Greenhouse
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Salad greens
LCSH term
Salad greens
[isa] Green leafy vegetable [usedFor] Salad
NALT term
Green leafy vegetables
[isa] Green leafy vegetable
Mapping LCSH ▬► NALT
Salad greens ▬► BT Green leafy vegetables
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Emerging diseases
LCSH term
Emerging infectious diseases
[isa] Disease [hasProperty] Infectious [hasProperty] Emerging
NALT term
Emerging diseases
[isa] Disease [hasProperty] Infectious ??? [hasProperty] Emerging
Mapping LCSH ▬► NALT ???
Emerging infectious diseases ▬► Emerging diseases
Emerging infectious diseases ▬► BT Emerging diseases
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Hub
[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female
[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee
[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee [hasPayStatus] HourlyPay
[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee [hasPayStatus] HourlyPay[hasQualification] Unskilled
[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee [hasPayStatus] HourlyPay[hasQualification] Skilled
[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee[hasPayStatus] Salaried
[isa] Work BeingDone [executedBy] {Worker [hasGender] Female}
DDC
331.4 Women workers
SWD
Arbeitnehmerin
Arbeiterin
Ungelernte ArbeiterinHilfsarbeiterin
Facharbeiterin
Angestellte
Frauenarbeit
Mapping through a Hub
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Physician = [isa] Worker [profLevel] Doctoral [domain] Medicine
Oncologist = [isa] Worker [profLevel] Doctoral [domain] Oncology
Ophthalmologist = [isa] Worker [profLevel] Doctoral [domain] Ophthalmology
Physician ST Doctor
Ophthalmologist ST Eye doctor
Medicine BT Health care
[isa] Worker [profLevel] Doctoral BT Professional
Income ST Earnings
Income NT Compensation
Compensation ET Pay
Compensation NT Wages
Fee schedule [usedBy] {Insurance company [domain] Health care} <influences> Compensation [receivedBy] Physician
Knowledge base for query formulation
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Hub
Compensation [receivedBy] Physician
User query
Doctor's pay
Final query
(Enriched) free text query
See below
Mapping user queries
[(Physician OR Doctor OR Oncologist OR Ophthalmologist OR (Professional AND (Medicine OR "Health care" OR Oncology OR Ophthalmology))) AND(Pay OR Earnings OR Compensation OR Wages OR Income)]OR[("fee schedule" OR fee) AND ("health insurance" OR "Blue Cross" OR Medicare OR Medicaid)]
Examples from the realm of AAT Taiwan
AAT Art and Architecture Thesaurus (Getty)
AAT Taiwan TELDAP, Institute for Information Science
Academia Sinica
TGM Thesaurus of Graphic Materials, Library of Congress
E-HowNet A Lexical Knowledge Base for SemanticComposition, Academia Sinica
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Hub
Facility Worship⊓
Facility Worship Judaism⊓ ⊓
Facility Worship Christianity⊓ ⊓
Facility Worship Islam⊓ ⊓
Facility Worship Buddhism⊓ ⊓
Facility Worship Taoism⊓ ⊓
TGM
temples
synagogues
churches
mosques
Buddhist temples
Taoist temples
AAT/ Chinese
temples (buildings)
synagogues (buildings)
churches (buildings)
mosques (buildings)
禪寺
道觀
Mapping through a Hub
Mapping to Chinese
• Use E-HowNet formal semantic expressions
• Use terms that already exist in E-HowNet
• Add terms using computer-assisted derivation of semantic expressions as described later for English
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E-HowNet ontology 廣義知識知識本體• Building | 建築物 Facilities |設施 Chinese Word: 廟 English: Temple
Conceptual expression: {facilities |設施 : domain = {religion |宗教 }}
Chinese Word: 禪寺 English: Buddhist temple
Conceptual expression: {facilities |設施 : domain = {Buddhist |佛教 }}
Chinese Word: 道觀 English: Taoist temple/ Taoist quan
Conceptual expression: {facilities |設施 : domain = {Taoism |道教 }}
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Examples of derivingcanonical expressions
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• Creating canonical expressions is key
• Start out with some examples
L00 Transportation and trafficL10 Traffic system components
L13 Traffic facilities
L15 Traffic stations
L17 Vehicles
L30 Modes of transportation
L33 Air transport
L37 Water transport
P00 Buildings, constructionP23 Buildings
P27 Architecture
P43 Construction
R00 EngineeringR30 Acoustics
R37 Soundproofing
T70 Military vs. civilian T73 Military
T77 Civilian
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Underlying faceted classification
HE Transportation
HE550-560 Ports, harbors, docks, wharves, etc.
L00 Transportation and traffic T77 Civilian⊓
Inherited: L00 Transportation and traffic T77 Civilian⊓
Added by editor:L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport⊓
Resolved to:L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓T77 Civilian
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Method: Assigning atomic concepts 1
NA6300-6307 Airport buildings From database already established:
Airport = L15 Traffic stations L33 Air transport ⊓
Buildings = P23 Buildings
Added by editor T77 Civilian
Resolved to
L15 Traffic stations L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓
P23 Buildings T77 Civilian⊓
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Method: Assigning atomic concepts 2
TL681.S6 Airplanes. Soundproofing From database already established:
Airplane = L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓
Soundproofing = R37 Soundproofing
Added by editor: Nothing
Resolved to
L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing
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Method: Assigning atomic concepts 3
Aeroplanes-Soundproofing From database already established:
Aeroplanes = Airplane [Spelling variant]
ThereforeTerm is recognized as same asAirplanes. Soundproofing
Resolved to
L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing
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Method: Assigning atomic concepts 4
Any class formed by geographical subdivision
Such as
NA6300-6307 Airport buildings
NA6305.E3 Egypt
Recognized using a dictionary of geographical names
Inherits from subject class above it; simply add the country
L15 Traffic stations L33 Air transport ⊓ P23 Buildings T77 Civilian ⊓ ⊓ ⊓
Egypt
No editor checking needed
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Method: Assigning atomic concepts 5
Distributed implementation
• Key principle:
Canonical expressions can be created locally,
The hub places each concept in a global structure
• The person or algorithm producing canonical expressions need to know only the core classification. They need not know the structure of the often large KOS to be mapped
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Distributed implementation
• Ideally, use one central faceted classification of core concepts, but multiple mapped core classifications could be used
• The central core classification is extensible and should continuously updated by many contributors
• The central core classification must be able to express shades of meaning and, in the long run, usage information
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Distributed implementation
• A KOS could assign canonical expressions to its concepts − let's call this a semantically enhanced KOS or SEKOS
• It is now a simple matter to map from any SEKOS to any other (somewhat dependent on the core classifications used)
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Efficient creation of canonical expressions
• Apply existing knowledge:Large knowledge base ▬► less effort for processing a new KOS
• Use knowledge of KOS structure for hierarchical inheritance
• Use linguistic analysis of terms and captions
• Eliminate redundant atomic concepts
• Check or produce mapping results from assignment of concepts to the same records
• Get human editors’ input and verification where needed through a user-friendly interface. Crowdsourcing, one term at a time
• KOS “owners” may verify and edit data pertaining to their KOS
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Knowledge base
Requires an ever larger classification and lexical knowledge base containing many kinds of data:
1. A faceted classification of atomic conceptsSeeded from sources with well-developed facets such as
UDC the Alcohol and Other Drug (AOD) Thesaurusthe Harvard Business Thesaurusthe Art and Architecture Thesaurusvarious systems called ontologies
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Knowledge base 2
Requires an ever larger classification and lexical knowledge base containing many kinds of data:
2. Linguistic knowledge bases such as WordNet, E-HowNet (Chinese), FrameNet, and mono-,bi-, and multi-lingual dictionaries and thesauri
3. Many KOS (Knowledge Organization Systems), such as LCC, UDC, DDC, DMOZ directory, LCSH, Schlagwortnormdatei ,MeSH and UMLS, AGROVOC, Gene Ontology
4. These will over time be fused into one large multilingual knowledge base with many terminological and translation relationships and relationships linking terms to concepts, with an increasing number of concepts semantically represented by a canonical expression. One database: Intellectual, not physical. Could be in Linked Data
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man -female +mature
woman +female +mature
boy -female -mature
girl +female -mature
child +/-female -mature
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beat earn gain win
an opponent x
money x x
a reputation x
a football match x
somebody in a competition x
a living x
weight x
experience x
a victory x x
an advantage x
time x
??
3. To help students distinguish between'beat', 'earn', 'gain' & 'win'
Air pollution laws
LCSH term
Air – Pollution – Laws and regulations
[isa] Legal rule [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable}
NALT terms
Air pollution
[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [prop.] Undesirable
Laws and regulations
[isa] Legal rule
Mapping LCSH ▬► NALT
Air – Pollution – Laws and regulations ▬► Air pollution AND
Laws and regulations
Interpretation for indexing and searching in both directions 48
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This project will achieve the followingInteroperability between any two participating Knowledge Organization Systems (KOS) (to the extent the two schemes allow)Facet-based search
for any collection indexed by a participating KOSfor free-text search
Assistance in cataloging (metadata creation) by catalogers or users (social tagging)Long-range goal: Web service where a KOS can be uploaded and mappings to specified target KOS are returned
MeansCreate a comprehensive knowledge base relating many classification schemes and subject heading lists used in libraries and in other contexts (LCC, DDC, DMOZ directory, LCSH, European schemes).Use combinations of atomic concepts taken from a well-structured underlying faceted classification to represent the meaning of classes and subject headings.
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Why might this work
• Principled, powerful, concept-based intellectual technology.Long-established ideas revived using modern linguistic and AI methods
• Large scale creates synergy• As more KOS participate in the system, processing a new
KOS requires less effort• Unified access to mapping data from many projects
Need to talk to MACS, CrissCross, Stitch, OAEI (Ontology Alignment Evaluation Initiative), etc. about importing their mapping data
• Configured as a Semantic Web Resource
52
L
• We will seed the faceted classification from many sources that have well-developed facets such as the AOD thesaurus, the Harvard Business Thesaurus (if it is made available), Art and Architecture thesaurus (some facets have mainly elemental concepts), various ontologies to be identified.Will consult CIDOC-CRM for structure
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L
• The internal data format will be rich to deal with any kind of information on concepts and terms that will be useful
• Will keep very detailed track of sources
• Will keep track of access rights
• Will import and export to any format required, especially to SKOS and OWLNote: Many of these formats are limited and will not preserve all information available in the proposed system
Koeln 20090706• Themen• Role indicators for building themes• arrangement of themes for exploration under user control• carry-over from citation order• Practical problem of connection to the participating systems – should use IDs for
combinations in Hub. Make sure that hub stays consistent with participating systems.
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E-HowNet ontology 廣義知識知識本體
• Building | 建築物
Facilities |設施
Chinese Word: 廟
English: Temple
Conceptual expression: {facilities |設施 : domain = {religion |宗教 }}
Chinese Word: 禪寺
English: Buddhist temple
Conceptual expression: {facilities |設施 : domain = {Buddhist |佛教 }}
Chinese Word: 道觀
English: Taoist temple/ Taoist quan
Conceptual expression: {facilities |設施 : domain = {Taoism |道教 }}55
5656
Mapping Issues- 1Mapping Issues- 1 Terms related to Chinese religious concept
The word “temples” is frequently considered as an equivalent term “ 廟 miao” in Chinese. However, due to different purposes of the building and the spirit that it worships, names of religious buildings in Taiwan are varied.
Temples (buildings) (religious buildings, <religious structures>, ... Built Environment (Hierarchy Name))
Note: Buildings housing places devoted to the worship of a deity or deities. In the strictest sense, it refers to the dwelling place of a deity, and thus often houses a cult image. In modern usage a temple is generally a structure, but it was originally derived from the Latin "templum" and historically has referred to an uncovered place affording a view of the surrounding region. For Christian or Islamic religious buildings the terms "churches" or "mosques" are generally used, but an exception is that "temples" is used for Protestant, as opposed to Roman Catholic, places of worship in France and some French-speaking regions.
Q1. The mapping team has found that “temple” in AAT is broader than the concept in Chinese. Therefore it is necessary to distinguish the differences in each Chinese terms before mapping.
5757
Mapping Issues- Mapping Issues- 1Terms related to Chinese religious concept
Despite the similar appearance, each of them has slight difference from the others.
Miao( 廟 ): In the past, it was a place to worship ancestors. Since Han dynasty, it had been used as a place both worship ancestor and the spirits.
•ci ( 祠 ): It is built for the purpose to worship/ commemorate saints, or some famous scholars, poets, people with great achievement. Sometimes also refers to those places that worship ancestors.
• si ( 寺 ): Generally refers to a place that worship the Buddhist spirits. Sometimes it also refers to the place where Buddhist monk live.
• an ( 庵 ): used to refers to scholars’ study place ( 書齋 ). Nowadays it refers to where Buddhist nuns live.
• guan( 觀 ): only refers to Taoist building
• yan( 巖 ): refers to those miaos( 廟 ) established nearby or at mountain.
5858
Mapping Issues- 2Mapping Issues- 2A Chinese set term stands for broader meaning
文玩 (Wenwan)
• A word combined with two words “ 文物 cultural object” and “ 古玩 antique curio”. ( 文玩兼有文物與古玩的特點 )
• It specifically refers to those objects used in the educated people’s reading room, including those writing equipments, small tools and decorations. ( 特指文人書齋中的書寫設備、小工具和擺飾 )
• It represents the culture of reading room, by combining the practical function of educated people’s study equipments and art crafts for people’s appreciation. ( 文玩是種書齋文化,結合了文人書生的實用器物與具觀賞價值的藝術品 )
• Common objects including: ink stones, seals, washing vessels, fine sculptured decoration…etc. “Elegant” and “exquisite” are its essential characters. ( 文玩為以下器物的泛稱 : 古硯、印章、洗器、牙雕…等,“雅” 與“巧”是其基本特徵 )
• It is produced in a highly artistic manner. Nowadays it has become popular collection that values more as an artifact than equipment. ( 以高藝術性的方式製造,現今多為賞而勿用的文房珍玩 )
5959
Mapping Issues- 2Mapping Issues- 2A Chinese set term stands for broader meaning
• lotus pod shaped vessel for injecting water 雙蓮房水注
• banana leaf shaped wooden plate 癭木蕉葉盤
• olive stone boat sculpture 果核小舟
• blue snuff bottle 藍地金星套料鼻煙壺
• lotus leaf shaped washing vessel 白玉荷葉式洗
• seal 鴛錦雲章循連環田黃石印
• ivory desk tidy 象牙雕山水人物筆筒
6060
Mapping Issues- 2Mapping Issues- 2 A Chinese set term stands for broader meaning
Q2. The mapping team has found the meaning of Wenwan is boarder than the term “desk sets”, while some part of them are equal. Therefore, the 2 terms are inexact equivalent relations. Is it more suitable to create a new term “Wenwan” in the structure, or it should be referred as desk sets?
desk sets (sets (groups), <object groupings by general context>, ... Object Groupings and Systems)
Note: Sets of matching articles intended to be used on a desk including such articles as inkstands, pen trays, and stamp boxes.
When English terms have broader meanings (1/2)EX1:
• ID: 300053660 Record Type: concept
stitching (<processes and techniques by specific type>, <processes and techniques>, Processes and Techniques)
Note: Refers to the process of fastening, joining, closing, uniting, mending, or creating ornamentation by stitches, which are the portions of thread left in fabric or another material by the in and out movement of a threaded needle through the thickness or surface of the material, or the loops of thread created on a needle in knitting or other needlework. In the context of textiles and needleworking, its meaning overlaps with "sewing." In the context of bookbinding, it refers to the fastening together a number of leaves or gatherings by passing the thread or wire through all of the sheets at once; it is distinct from "sewing," which, in the context of bookbinding, is used for the joining of leaves or gatherings together one by one by drawing thread or wire backwards and forwards through the back fold of each sheet to attach it to the cords.
縫綴 / 縫訂 (< 依特定種類區分之過程與技術 >, < 過程與技術 >, 過程與技術 )
範圍註:意指藉由針線進出穿過材料或其表面的動作,將針腳留在布料或其他材料上,或是在編織或針織時形成針目,以固定、結合、閉合、合併、修補或製作裝飾的過程。若指涉的是紡織品與手工繡品方面,則其意義與「縫紉 (sewing) 」一詞重疊。若指涉的是書籍裝幀方面,則意指將若干頁面或疊層,用線或金屬線一次穿過所有紙張固定在一起。而「線訂( sewing )」在書籍裝幀方面,是指用針線或金屬線,在一疊書頁的摺縫處上下穿梭,使其與裝訂線固定的方法。
In different contexts (bookbinding vs. needleworking), the meaning of stitching may change accordingly. In AAT, two kinds of meanings are explained in the same record, but when translating the term into Chinese, there will be two ways of translation, 縫合 (feng he) for needleworking and 縫訂 (feng ding) for bookbinding. The same problem occurs in the record of sewing (ID: 300053658).
Stiching in needleworking
Stiching in bookbinding
When English terms have broader meanings (2/2)
EX2:300004184 Record Type: concept
patios (<uncovered spaces>, <rooms and spaces by form>, ... Components (Hierarchy Name))
Note: Paved recreation areas adjoining contemporary houses and the paved interior courts of Spanish or Spanish-style buildings.
The term refers to two types of open spaces, so the translations could be 屋外休憩區 or ( 西班牙 ) 內院 .
Spanish patioPatio adjoining a house
When English terms have broader meanings (2/2)
EX3:
• 300266238
Record Type: concept
maculatures (<prints by process or technique>, prints (visual works), ... Visual and Verbal Communication)
Note: Prints made by taking a second impression without reinking the plate, often used for cleaning the plate. May also refer to blotting paper. Also used for scrap paper that can reinforce fabric in Medieval embroidery.
The term maculatures could be used in three different contexts (prints, blotting paper, and scrap paper) , and there are three kinds of translations ( 吸墨紙版畫、吸墨紙、固定刺繡布料的紙片 ).
Q3: In this case, since the record contains multiple meanings, it’s not a problem of which one being the preferred term, so how should the Chinese translations be displayed?
64
beat earn gain win
an opponent x
money x x
a reputation x
a football match x
somebody in a competition x
a living x
weight x
experience x
a victory x x
an advantage x
time x
??
3. To help students distinguish between'beat', 'earn', 'gain' & 'win'