Conceptual FrameworksConceptual Frameworksand Models of Teachingand Models of Teaching©©

Understanding Origins of Understanding Origins of Teaching Methods and Teaching Methods and

ApproachesApproaches Britt Tatman Ferguson, Ph. D.Britt Tatman Ferguson, Ph. D.

Minnesota State University MoorheadMinnesota State University Moorhead““Reaching Out To Learners Project”Reaching Out To Learners Project”

2005-20062005-2006

Purpose Of This Purpose Of This PresentationPresentation

Special Education Teachers need to Special Education Teachers need to know know aboutabout and and know how to implementknow how to implement many different many different approaches to teaching. They need to select approaches to teaching. They need to select approaches that fit the needs of their students approaches that fit the needs of their students based on data and IEP goals and objectives. They based on data and IEP goals and objectives. They need to understand the theory behind the need to understand the theory behind the approaches so they can make adjustments to the approaches so they can make adjustments to the approaches when they are not working well. They approaches when they are not working well. They need to learn which approaches can be combined need to learn which approaches can be combined effectively and which approaches cannot be effectively and which approaches cannot be combined because they contradict or interfere with combined because they contradict or interfere with one another. They need to understand approaches one another. They need to understand approaches being used by other teachers so that they can being used by other teachers so that they can analyze and problem solve when those approaches analyze and problem solve when those approaches are not working with students. This presentation are not working with students. This presentation presents an overview of approaches orpresents an overview of approaches or models of models of teaching.teaching.

Conceptual FrameworksConceptual Frameworks

Theories provide a conceptual Theories provide a conceptual framework for understanding.framework for understanding.

Conceptual FrameworksConceptual Frameworks

We can think of the We can think of the conceptual conceptual framework as a set framework as a set of of lenseslenses through through which we see, or which we see, or understand, understand, learning.learning.

Theory influences what we see Theory influences what we see and how we see it.and how we see it.

Analogy: Analogy: If we look If we look at an ice cube at an ice cube through through redred lenses lenses we would tend to we would tend to view the ice as red, view the ice as red, but if we look at an but if we look at an ice cube through ice cube through blue blue lenses we lenses we would tend to view would tend to view the ice as blue!the ice as blue!

Theory influences our Theory influences our perceptions about learning. So perceptions about learning. So what?what?If theory influencesIf theory influences

What we believe about learning,What we believe about learning,

What learning looks like,What learning looks like,

How we believe people learn…How we believe people learn…

Then it should influenceThen it should influence

How we teach so that people learn,How we teach so that people learn,

How we evaluate learning outcomes.How we evaluate learning outcomes.

Models of TeachingModels of Teaching

For a given theory of learning, different For a given theory of learning, different models (styles) of teaching and models (styles) of teaching and evaluation have been developed evaluation have been developed within the conceptual framework.within the conceptual framework.

Select Select models that are useful for models that are useful for identified purposes.identified purposes.UnderstandUnderstand the theory behind the model the theory behind the model in order to make adjustments and increase in order to make adjustments and increase success.success.

Bruce JoyceBruce Joyce

• Bruce Joyce has Bruce Joyce has researched and researched and taught about taught about models of teaching models of teaching for about 30 years…for about 30 years…

• He describes 4 basic He describes 4 basic families of models families of models that we will look at.that we will look at.

Models of Teaching(Joyce, Weil,

and Calhoun, 2004)

I. Information-Processing

FamilyOf

Models

II. Social Family

OfModels

III. Personal

Family Of

Models

IV. Behavioral Systems Family

Of Models

Click on desired family for more information.

Examining Conceptual Examining Conceptual Frameworks and ModelsFrameworks and Models

In the next frames you will be able to:In the next frames you will be able to:

Read about the Theory and Conceptual Read about the Theory and Conceptual FrameworkFrameworkRead about each of several modelsRead about each of several models

Information-ProcessingFamily Of

Models(applied

Cognitive Psychology)

Concept Formation

(Hilda Taba)

Concept Attainment(Jerome Bruner)

Picture-Word

Inductive Model

Scientific Inquiry / Making

Inferences SynecticsAdvance

Organizers(Ausubel)

Memorization

RETURN

Social Family Of Models

(applied Social

Psychology)

Partners in Learning(Cooperative

Learning)(Johnson & Johnson; DeVries,

Edwards & Slavin, Sharan & Sharan)

Study of Values(Role Plays,

Values Clarification,Jurisprudential Inquiry)

(Shaftel & Shaftel; Simon; Oliver & Shaver)

RETURN

Personal Family OfModels

(applied Humanistic Psychology)

NondirectiveTeaching

(Child Centered Learning)(Rogers)

Developing PositiveSelf Concepts

(Learning Styles, Personality Styles)(Piaget; Maslow)

RETURN

Behavioral Systems Family of

Models(applied Behavioral

Psychology)

Mastery Learning Direct Instruction Simulations

RETURN

Cognitive Theories Of Cognitive Theories Of PsychologyPsychology

In Cognitive Psychology we are interested In Cognitive Psychology we are interested in in howhow a person a person thinksthinks, , remembersremembers and and knowsknows. Applications of this branch . Applications of this branch of psychology help individuals of psychology help individuals understand, remember, and make understand, remember, and make connections among ideas and thoughts.connections among ideas and thoughts.

Information Processing Information Processing Family Of ModelsFamily Of Models

Models in this family Models in this family draw from draw from cognitive psychologycognitive psychology. They focus . They focus on ways we can improve a person’s on ways we can improve a person’s drive to make sense of the world drive to make sense of the world including how they acquire including how they acquire information, organize data, frame information, organize data, frame problems, and generate solutions.problems, and generate solutions.

Concept Formation ModelConcept Formation Model

Some teachers use inductive thinking to Some teachers use inductive thinking to teach. They specially arrange an teach. They specially arrange an environment and give specific tasks to environment and give specific tasks to students so that they form and use students so that they form and use concepts.concepts.

Educational names associated with this Educational names associated with this approach are El-Nemr, and Taba. Taba approach are El-Nemr, and Taba. Taba popularized the term popularized the term teaching strategyteaching strategy..

Concept Attainment ModelConcept Attainment Model

Teachers who use concept attainment Teachers who use concept attainment provide students with positive and provide students with positive and negative examples of an idea but don’t tell negative examples of an idea but don’t tell what it is. Students guess (hypothesize) what it is. Students guess (hypothesize) the idea, based on the examples. They the idea, based on the examples. They test their guesses (hypotheses) against test their guesses (hypotheses) against more examples, confirming or changing more examples, confirming or changing their guesses. This leads to a stated their guesses. This leads to a stated definition, eventually confirmed and definition, eventually confirmed and clarified by the teacher.clarified by the teacher.

Names associated with concept attainment Names associated with concept attainment are Jerome Bruner and Robert Gagne. are Jerome Bruner and Robert Gagne.

Picture-Word Inductive ModelPicture-Word Inductive ModelThe Picture-Word Inductive Model (PWIM) The Picture-Word Inductive Model (PWIM) structures cycles of learning over 2-6 weeks. structures cycles of learning over 2-6 weeks. These begin with a picture. Students identify These begin with a picture. Students identify things they see in the picture. Teacher draws things they see in the picture. Teacher draws lines from the picture to written words lines from the picture to written words outside the picture, restates the word, writes outside the picture, restates the word, writes and spells the word or phrase aloud. Students repeat and spells the word or phrase aloud. Students repeat

the word and its spelling, resulting in a picture-word the word and its spelling, resulting in a picture-word dictionary. Students receive an individual set of word dictionary. Students receive an individual set of word cards, check if they can recognize the words. As they cards, check if they can recognize the words. As they begin to read the words they begin to classify the begin to read the words they begin to classify the words by phonetic, structural or content properties, words by phonetic, structural or content properties, share their categories and their rationale for clustering share their categories and their rationale for clustering the words as they did. This approach is related to the words as they did. This approach is related to psycholinguistics.psycholinguistics.

Scientific Inquiry Model / Scientific Inquiry Model / Making InferencesMaking Inferences

Students are involved in real inquiry Students are involved in real inquiry problems. They are presented an area of problems. They are presented an area of investigation, identify a problem investigation, identify a problem (conceptual or methodological) within that (conceptual or methodological) within that area, and design ways of overcoming the area, and design ways of overcoming the problem.problem.

““Biological Sciences Curriculum Study” Biological Sciences Curriculum Study”

(Schwab) and “Invitation to Inquiry” (Schwab) and “Invitation to Inquiry”

(Schwab) are part of this approach.(Schwab) are part of this approach.

Memorization ModelsMemorization Models

All students need information to be available to them All students need information to be available to them readily so they can learn effectively and efficiently. readily so they can learn effectively and efficiently. This improves “…learning power, saves time, and This improves “…learning power, saves time, and leads to a better storehouse of information” (Joyce, leads to a better storehouse of information” (Joyce, Weil and Calhoun, 2004, p. 138). While Weil and Calhoun, 2004, p. 138). While memorization may be considered trivial it is very memorization may be considered trivial it is very important. Pressly and Levin developed a model of important. Pressly and Levin developed a model of teaching for memorizing that includes 4 phases: teaching for memorizing that includes 4 phases: attending to the material, developing connections, attending to the material, developing connections, expanding sensory images, and practicing recall. expanding sensory images, and practicing recall.

Mnemonics and link-word approaches are examples. Mnemonics and link-word approaches are examples.

Synectics ModelSynectics Model

Synectics comes to education from industry. Synectics comes to education from industry. It was designed to help people with It was designed to help people with problem-solving and writing activities, to problem-solving and writing activities, to gain perspectives on topics. Best results gain perspectives on topics. Best results occur when synectics is used over time. It occur when synectics is used over time. It is designed to stimulate thinking but also is designed to stimulate thinking but also promotes collaborative work and study promotes collaborative work and study skills as well as a sense of camaraderie.skills as well as a sense of camaraderie.

Gordon and Poze have developed a wide Gordon and Poze have developed a wide assortment of materials for use in schools.assortment of materials for use in schools.

Advance OrganizersAdvance Organizers

Advance Organizers help students focus on content Advance Organizers help students focus on content and organize information and ideas they are and organize information and ideas they are learning. learning.

David Ausubel’s theory of meaningful verbal learning David Ausubel’s theory of meaningful verbal learning deals with 3 concerns:deals with 3 concerns:How knowledge (curriculum content) is organized,How knowledge (curriculum content) is organized,How the mind works to process new information How the mind works to process new information (learning), and(learning), andHow teachers can apply these ideas about How teachers can apply these ideas about curriculum and learning when they present new curriculum and learning when they present new materials to students (instruction.)materials to students (instruction.)

(Joyce, Weil and Calhoun, 2004, p. 189.)(Joyce, Weil and Calhoun, 2004, p. 189.)

Theories of Social Theories of Social PsychologyPsychology

Theories of social psychology help us Theories of social psychology help us understand interaction patterns understand interaction patterns among people. Large-group among people. Large-group dynamics and small-group dynamics dynamics and small-group dynamics are two areas that are important. are two areas that are important.

Social Family of ModelsSocial Family of Models

The Social Family of Models apply social The Social Family of Models apply social psychological principles in the classroom. psychological principles in the classroom. Teacher Teacher Student Student and and Student Student StudentStudent Interaction patterns have Interaction patterns have implications for learning. The teacher implications for learning. The teacher structures interactions to maximize learning structures interactions to maximize learning and other desired educational outcomes. and other desired educational outcomes. We see applied social psychology in the We see applied social psychology in the classroom when we see true Cooperative classroom when we see true Cooperative Learning. Johnson and Johnson have Learning. Johnson and Johnson have contributed greatly to this field.contributed greatly to this field.

Partners In Learning Partners In Learning ModelsModels Several theorists have Several theorists have

developed models for using developed models for using positive interdependence to positive interdependence to carefully structure small carefully structure small learning groups so that learning groups so that promotive interaction takes promotive interaction takes place. This promotive place. This promotive interaction leads to improved interaction leads to improved academics, attitudes, and academics, attitudes, and self concepts. Cooperative self concepts. Cooperative Learning, Group Learning, Group Investigation, and Teams-Investigation, and Teams-Games-Tournaments are a Games-Tournaments are a few of the ways of structuring few of the ways of structuring student-student interaction.student-student interaction.

Study of ValuesStudy of Values (Role Plays, Values (Role Plays, Values Clarification, Jurisprudential Inquiry)Clarification, Jurisprudential Inquiry)

These various models are These various models are concerned with the concerned with the consideration and consideration and development of personal development of personal values, character, justice and values, character, justice and equality, and democratic equality, and democratic principles. Role plays help principles. Role plays help students develop “voice” and students develop “voice” and learn interpersonal skills. learn interpersonal skills. Study of values helps students Study of values helps students identify and clarify their identify and clarify their values, and consider if they values, and consider if they are living by their identified are living by their identified values. Jurisprudential Inquiry values. Jurisprudential Inquiry (for secondary students) (for secondary students) identify public policy and identify public policy and examine underlying values.examine underlying values.

Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology

Humanistic Psychology is Humanistic Psychology is concerned with fostering the ability concerned with fostering the ability of each person to find and express of each person to find and express their maximum potential as human their maximum potential as human beings. It emphasizes beings. It emphasizes consciousness, human dignity, and consciousness, human dignity, and the capacity to direct our own the capacity to direct our own destiniesdestinies..

The Personal Family of The Personal Family of ModelsModels

Models from the Personal Family draw Models from the Personal Family draw on principles from Humanistic on principles from Humanistic Psychology. They focus on the Psychology. They focus on the individual and emphasize the self. individual and emphasize the self. Helping the student feel good about Helping the student feel good about herself and empowering the student to herself and empowering the student to maximize her potential and have power maximize her potential and have power over her own life are important over her own life are important focuses.focuses.

Non-Directive Teaching Non-Directive Teaching ModelModel The teacher’s role in this model The teacher’s role in this model

is more that of a coach. He is more that of a coach. He develops a partnership with the develops a partnership with the student. Rather than telling student. Rather than telling students what to learn how and students what to learn how and how to learn it the teacher how to learn it the teacher encourages the students to encourages the students to play an important role in play an important role in directing their own education. directing their own education. He provides feedback He provides feedback regarding the progress the regarding the progress the students are making, and helps students are making, and helps the students solve problems. the students solve problems. Conferences with the teacher Conferences with the teacher in Writers’ Workshops would in Writers’ Workshops would be an example of the teacher be an example of the teacher working in partnership with the working in partnership with the studentstudent..

Developing Positive Developing Positive Self Concepts ModelsSelf Concepts Models Students who have negative self esteem tend to Students who have negative self esteem tend to

be discouraged and unwilling to apply themselves be discouraged and unwilling to apply themselves in school. Their lack of motivation stems from a in school. Their lack of motivation stems from a belief that they are not capable of learning and belief that they are not capable of learning and progressing. Underlying this model is the belief progressing. Underlying this model is the belief that all students can learn academic content and that all students can learn academic content and social skills, and also how to become integrated social skills, and also how to become integrated selves. Within this model good teachers will want selves. Within this model good teachers will want to know about and use ideas from the learning to know about and use ideas from the learning styles literature (Dunn & Dunn), personality typing styles literature (Dunn & Dunn), personality typing - styles of thinking (e.g. Myers), and perhaps - styles of thinking (e.g. Myers), and perhaps differences between adult and children as learners differences between adult and children as learners (Knowles.) (Knowles.)

Behavioral PsychologyBehavioral Psychology

The premise of Behavioral Psychology is that The premise of Behavioral Psychology is that behavior is lawful and subject to variables in the behavior is lawful and subject to variables in the environment. Behavioral Psychology is only environment. Behavioral Psychology is only concerned with measurable behavior, behavior that concerned with measurable behavior, behavior that can be operationalized. Basic principles of can be operationalized. Basic principles of Behavioral Psychology are as follows: Given a Behavioral Psychology are as follows: Given a stimulus and an ensuing response, the response will stimulus and an ensuing response, the response will more likely recur if reinforced and less likely to recur more likely recur if reinforced and less likely to recur if punished. if punished.

REINFORCER =REINFORCER = increased likelihood of recurringincreased likelihood of recurring

STIMULUS RESPONSE STIMULUS RESPONSE

PUNISHER = decreased likelihood of recurringPUNISHER = decreased likelihood of recurring

In Behavioral Psychology we are not concerned with In Behavioral Psychology we are not concerned with inner functions such as thought, feelings, or beliefs.inner functions such as thought, feelings, or beliefs.

Behavioral Systems Family Behavioral Systems Family of Modelsof Models Behavioral Systems Family of Models apply the Behavioral Systems Family of Models apply the

principles of behaviorism in the classroom to both principles of behaviorism in the classroom to both academic content and student behavior. The academic content and student behavior. The belief is that learning is a measurable change in belief is that learning is a measurable change in behavior. By manipulating (controlling) select behavior. By manipulating (controlling) select variables we can elicit certain behaviors (decoding variables we can elicit certain behaviors (decoding words, comparing ideas, performing math words, comparing ideas, performing math computations, using good social skills, etc.) that computations, using good social skills, etc.) that define learning. By reinforcing these behaviors define learning. By reinforcing these behaviors (providing salient praise, grades, etc.,) the (providing salient praise, grades, etc.,) the behaviors will become strengthened and endure. behaviors will become strengthened and endure. Names associated with this model are John Carroll Names associated with this model are John Carroll and Benjamin Bloom (Mastery Learning,) Madeline and Benjamin Bloom (Mastery Learning,) Madeline Hunter (7 Step Lesson Plan), Ethna Reid Hunter (7 Step Lesson Plan), Ethna Reid (Exemplary Center For Reading Instruction.) (Exemplary Center For Reading Instruction.)

Mastery Learning ModelMastery Learning Model

In Mastery Learning we In Mastery Learning we believe ones aptitude is believe ones aptitude is related to the amount of related to the amount of time it takes to learn given time it takes to learn given material. An individual with material. An individual with less aptitude will need more less aptitude will need more time to learn. The time to learn. The instructional system is instructional system is generally:generally:Define GoalsDefine GoalsDevelop ObjectivesDevelop ObjectivesIdentify materials & strategiesIdentify materials & strategiesEngage in formative evaluation Engage in formative evaluation and reinforcementand reinforcementUse evaluation data to provide Use evaluation data to provide supplementary instruction to supplementary instruction to overcome problemsovercome problems

 

(Found on web page of Glen Hammond, B. A., B. Ed., M. Ed. [School Admin.], Adv. Cert. Ed. [Curriculum Studies] http://xnet.rrc.mb.ca/glenh/)

Direct Instruction ModelDirect Instruction Model In Direct Instruction the teacher In Direct Instruction the teacher

designs a plan to generate and designs a plan to generate and sustain motivation, through sustain motivation, through pacing and reinforcement. In pacing and reinforcement. In general the Direct Instruction general the Direct Instruction Model involves:Model involves:OrientationOrientationPresentationPresentationStructured Practice (immediate Structured Practice (immediate feedback / reinforcement)feedback / reinforcement)Guided Practice (intermittent Guided Practice (intermittent feedback / reinforcement)feedback / reinforcement)Independent Practice (delayed Independent Practice (delayed feedback / reinforcement)feedback / reinforcement)

Learning From Simulations Learning From Simulations ModelModel

Cybenetics (a kind of behavior shaping through Cybenetics (a kind of behavior shaping through self feedback / correction) influences learning self feedback / correction) influences learning through simulations, like using a remote control to through simulations, like using a remote control to guide a toy car. With practice you learn how to guide a toy car. With practice you learn how to manipulate the controls for the desired effect and manipulate the controls for the desired effect and direction. direction.

A simulator is a device that resembles reality A simulator is a device that resembles reality but lets us control the complexity of the events. If but lets us control the complexity of the events. If we learn a concept or skill in a simulator theoretically we learn a concept or skill in a simulator theoretically we can generalize that learning to a reality situation. we can generalize that learning to a reality situation. Nesbit studied simulation games for social studies.Nesbit studied simulation games for social studies.

For an example of simulation ware, go to the following web site, find product demonstration area and click to view (takes a few minutes) http://goventure.net/home.cfm

A Beginning…A Beginning…This presentation provides a brief This presentation provides a brief

venture intoventure intoTheory Theory Models relationship Models relationshipExamining modelsExamining models

To be effective we still need…To be effective we still need…In Depth UnderstandingIn Depth UnderstandingSelection CriteriaSelection CriteriaAnalysis And Consideration For Combining Analysis And Consideration For Combining Models Or Elements Of ModelsModels Or Elements Of ModelsEvaluationEvaluation

The Special Education The Special Education Teacher’s JobTeacher’s Job

Know (not just know about) theories Know (not just know about) theories and models in depth.and models in depth.

Only with knowledge and understanding Only with knowledge and understanding immediately available to you will you be able to immediately available to you will you be able to effectively and efficiently use theory and models effectively and efficiently use theory and models of teaching.of teaching.

The Special The Special EducationEducation Teacher’s Teacher’s Job, cont.Job, cont.

Assess. Know strengths, needs, Assess. Know strengths, needs, interests and ways of learning of the interests and ways of learning of the student.student.

Remembering to use the learning-teaching cycle Remembering to use the learning-teaching cycle will maximize your effectiveness with the student. You will maximize your effectiveness with the student. You will be able to make informed decisions through the will be able to make informed decisions through the use of data, tailor education to the individual student use of data, tailor education to the individual student as required by the IEP and by law, engage and as required by the IEP and by law, engage and motivate your students, and document growth or lack motivate your students, and document growth or lack thereof.thereof.

The Special Education The Special Education Teacher’s Job, cont.Teacher’s Job, cont.

Study and understand the IEP, Study and understand the IEP, especially goals and objectives.especially goals and objectives.

By studying and understanding the IEP you By studying and understanding the IEP you will be able to closely align instruction with the will be able to closely align instruction with the plan, provide for the identified needs of the plan, provide for the identified needs of the student, and use the data – information and student, and use the data – information and insight– from a multi-disciplinary team to inform insight– from a multi-disciplinary team to inform and assist you in pulling together an and assist you in pulling together an individualized program for the student.individualized program for the student.

The Special Education The Special Education Teacher’s Job, cont.Teacher’s Job, cont.

Given what you know about the student, the Given what you know about the student, the learning goals, and objectives, determine learning goals, and objectives, determine models that will be effective with the models that will be effective with the student and select materials and styles.student and select materials and styles.

It is the data that you review and collect from a It is the data that you review and collect from a variety of sources that provides the information that variety of sources that provides the information that leads to leads to informed decisionsinformed decisions about what to teach, how to about what to teach, how to teach, how to assess, what materials to use, how to teach, how to assess, what materials to use, how to group students, and so on. With a solid knowledge of group students, and so on. With a solid knowledge of theory, models of teaching and instructional approaches theory, models of teaching and instructional approaches you have given yourself a large menu to select from – you have given yourself a large menu to select from – given the strengths, needs, interests, and ways of given the strengths, needs, interests, and ways of learning of the student.learning of the student.

The Special Education The Special Education Teacher’s Job, cont.Teacher’s Job, cont.

Provide support to the student and to any Provide support to the student and to any other professionals who will provide other professionals who will provide instruction, and to family, and use the instruction, and to family, and use the materials and approaches.materials and approaches.

Many people impact the student’s life daily, in Many people impact the student’s life daily, in addition to the SPED teacher. Each must be informed and addition to the SPED teacher. Each must be informed and trained regarding an understanding of the student, the trained regarding an understanding of the student, the resultant program you designed, and the rationale for the resultant program you designed, and the rationale for the program. Those who do not know about the program or program. Those who do not know about the program or know how to implement it, won’t be able to truly use it. know how to implement it, won’t be able to truly use it. Benefits to the student will be limited.Benefits to the student will be limited.

The Special Education The Special Education Teacher’s Job, cont.Teacher’s Job, cont.

Continuously evaluate, analyze data, Continuously evaluate, analyze data, and modifyand modify

But a good program is not enough. It must But a good program is not enough. It must be updated and changed as the student changes. be updated and changed as the student changes. If the student learns and grows, new challenges If the student learns and grows, new challenges should be introduced, new approaches should be introduced, new approaches considered. If the student fails to progress, considered. If the student fails to progress, modifications must be made until we find a modifications must be made until we find a program that leads to success. Learning is a life program that leads to success. Learning is a life long process.long process.

The EndThe End