Directorate General environment, Soil anD coaSt Defence

Concise planning manual for the recovery of aggregate quarries

Concise planning manual for the recovery of aggregate quarries

EditorsC.Marasmi (1), S.Segadelli (1)

AuthorsP.Boggio Tomasaz (2), C.Marasmi (1), F.Ricciardelli (1), A.R.Rizzati (1), M.Romagnoli (1), A.Pelosio (2)

ReviewersZ.Agioutantis (3), F.Chalkiopoulou (4), S.Solar (5)

SARMa CoordinationProject Coordination S.Solar (5)Italian Coordination U.Cibin (1), S.Peri (2)

EditingC.Marasmi (1), S.Segadelli (1)

Layout and graphicC.Marasmi (1)

PrintingPress Centre of Emilia Romagna-Region, Bologna, Italy

1) Directorate General Environment, Soil and Coast Defence, Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy2) Territorial Planning Survey, Parma Province, Italy3) Technical University of Crete, Greece4) Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration, Greece5) Mineral Resource Geologist at Geological Survey of Slovenia

Year of edition 2011This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the South East Europe Programme Managing Authority cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Index

INTRODUCTION 2

OBJECTIVES 4

GENERAL CRITERIA 4

REFERENCE FACT-FINDING OUTLINE 6Physical factors 7 Climate classification 7Macro-and mesoclimate 7Microclimate 7Morphological classification 8Geological and geomorphological classification 8Hydrological and hydrogeological classification 9Pedological classification 10Flora and vegetation classification 10Flora census 10Study of the vegetation 10Landscape classification 11Outline of the anthropic factors 13Real use of the soil 13Territorial planning 13Restrictions and constraints 13Economical aspects 14Methods of exploitation 14Expectations on the use of the site after mine closure 14The handling and analysis of the fact-finding outline (GIS) 15

THE DEFINITION OF THE RECOVERED AREA DESTINATION 16Natural destination (renaturation-renaturalization) 18 Agricultural destination 19

CHECK LISTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RECOVERY MEASURES OF MINING AREAS 19

CONCLUSIONS 22

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 22

GLOSSARY 22

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Mining plays a very important role in the construction, infrastructu-re and industrial fields; yet it is characterized as a high-impact busi-ness due to the extensive modifications it causes to the environment and the landscape and due to the consumption of non-renewable resources that it requires. Therefore, accounting for environmental considerations related to the correct identification and handling of mining operations is a compulsory choice, especially in the case of operations aimed at the natural and vegetation recovery of the quar-ries. This also implies the necessity to clarify early in the planning phases the type of final layout of the quarry, in compliance with the urban and territorial of the area: in this sense, in this manual, under the term recovery from mining operations we refer to both a final layout aiming at the creation of new biological habitats (normally de-fined as “natural recovery”) and to the morphological restoration of the mining area for productive ends (referred to as “restoration” in the following).

INTRODUCTION

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4

OBJECTIVES

This document aims to address the problem of the strong landscape and environmental impact of mining operations. It provides guideli-nes for the planning of quarry recovery during the main operational phases and it defines criteria necessary for the evaluation, project control and testing of the mining operations. The document recom-mendations are based on the summary of the following experiences/outcomes:

• The theoretical – practical manual titled: “The recovery and the environmental requalification of the quarries in Emilia Romagna. Edition 2003”;

• Guidelines for the environmental recovery of the sites involved in the mining operations in the flood plain of the River Po in the Provinces of Piacenza, Parma and Reggio Emilia. Edition (2009);

• From the pilot site “Lanca dei Francesi“ (Municipality of Rocca-bianca, Province of Parma, Italy).

This document is addressed to civil servants and to industry profes-sionals. It represents a training tool that provides useful indicators for quarry planning operations that can be applied to address various environmental issues.

GENERAL CRITERIA

In the past, the “traditional” approach to mining operations focused on the exploitation plan, while the recovery plan came into conside-ration only at the end of the quarry’s lifetime. This practice often led to insurmountable difficulties in the recovery operations. In the pre-vailing approach: “first we mine and then we restore”, the rules were only dictated by production requirements, which often overlooked the issues of minimizing the environmental impact and permitting sustainable recovery of the affected area.To date, an integrated approach is applied: “first we study the reco-very and then we mine”. This approach is based on the following con-ditions (figure 1):1. a sustainable mining operation must be founded on the conti-

nuous interaction between the economical – productivity com-ponent and the environmental component;

2. the planning and design team of the quarry must include profes-sionals specializing in environmental matters;

3. the exploitation plan must be defined in a simultaneous and in-tegrated way with the recovery plan. The goal is to making co-exist the part of the quarry that is exploited with the recovered one. In fact, the recovery should not be considered as the final layout and closing phase of the productive operation, but it must be kept in focus from the early planning and design phases. This

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CHOISE OF THE FINAL AREA DESTINATION

THE PROJECT

ASSESSMENT OF THE PROJECT AND TESTING OF WORKS

(Check list)

Operations on morphology

Operations on bedrock

Operations on water network

Stabilizing operations

Maintenance and management

Restoring times

Recovery costs

Bedrock improvement operations

Operations on vegetation

Operations for wildlife

GENERAL REFERENCE OUTLINE

General operationdescription

Operation localization

Analysis of envronmental factors

Analysis of anthropic factors

Definition of the desired complexity level

Definiton of the restoriation characteristic

Definition of the objective

Definition of the work intensity

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approach will view the quarry recovery operation as an oppor-tunity to consider in a unified framework various synergetic ac-tions, such as the tracing of raw materials and their subsequent re-usage for the reduction of hydraulic risks (overflow) or for the reduction of water emergencies (reservoir for irrigation and/or drinking);

4. opportunities for the removal of portions of land from farming and productive use and its return to semi-natural conditions should be investigated;

5. opportunities for realizing economic profit, e.g., by construction of a recreational, cultural and educational centre that would at-tract tourists.

Based on these principles, we hereby suggest various actions to de-velop a sustainable, self-supporting and multifunctional recovery ap-proach for mining sites. In this context the recovery and environmen-tal requalification of the quarries must meet the following objectives:1. suggest organizational measures that will enable carry out the

timely, economically affordable and successful environmental recovery of the areas involved in the mining operations;

2. guide the designer in the preliminary evaluation process of the reference scenario and in the definition of the project objectives in order to guarantee realistic, lasting and sustainable environ-mental and landscape recovery;

3. provide reference examples and indicate potential mistakes that should be avoided;

4. propose accurate technical indications for all the operative pha-ses;

5. introduce methodological tests for the assessment of the reco-very project quality and completion.

REFERENCE FACT-FINDING OUTLINE

The planning of a mining recovery operation requires the knowledge of a very precise territorial (environment, landscape etc.) reference outline. First of all, it is necessary to distinguish ecologically the ter-ritorial area in which to operate (environmental factor outline), defi-ning the general conditions of the area and the peculiar characteristi-cs of the station with respect to many environmental factors (climate, microclimate, lithology, pedology, vegetation, etc.), in association with all the information concerning the human aspects (human fac-tor outline), such as soil usage, land planning (urban tools and plan-ning of the mining operations), site exploitation project, economical expectations of the area, geographical restrictions and constraints. In the first phase, it is very important to have all the information even at a large scale. Detailed analysis and specific in-depth studies will only be useful in the following phase, after having defined the ge-neral reference outline and the various landscape areas targeted for recovery. During the definition phase of the project guidelines, it is

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certainly better to assess the problems in general terms. To organi-ze all the information, geographical information systems (GIS) tools could be useful.

Physical factors

Climate Classification Macro- and mesoclimate

Studying the climate requires collecting data over long periods of time, concerning parameters such as temperature, precipitation le-vels, wind intensity, snowfall etc. In addition to global, average, ye-arly or monthly averages data on climate, it is also important to have data concerning the maximum and minimum, both, average and to-tal, that characterize the frequency of extreme events. In fact, the extreme values highlight the limiting factors (excess of or shortage in water, extreme temperatures, etc.), that will need to be conside-red during the planning phase of the recovery. The study of extreme precipitation values is very important, especially for the definition of the critical conditions that the hydraulic system will have to support. At high altitudes, it may also be important to collect information on both the extent and duration of snowfall. From an ecological point of view, the data concerning humidity and the number of days with fog are also very important, although generally difficult to obtain. If such data are not available, it is possible to classify the site according to general climate.

Microclimate

Regarding the general climatic conditions that are typical of a refe-rence area, there is always a degree of local variability, tied to the particular characteristics of the site or the measurement station. Factors such as orography, morphology, hydrology and other can in-fluence the climatic conditions at the station. It is difficult to have de-tailed data for these local conditions even for limited periods, as it is difficult to install a specific meteorological station, even a simplified one, for reasons of costs and management. Generally only important and prolonged quarry operations (big mining poles) can enable an on-site collection of meteorological data. Usually the following approach is used:1. informal direct information: through the in situ collection of use-

ful indicators for identifying particular climatic conditions (e.g. duration of snowfall, periods of fog);

2. indirect information: deducing the influence that the different climate factors can have locally, taking into account:

• the orography (presence of valleys, mass altimetry, particular land configurations that influence the wind statistics and impact

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the occurrence of frost);• the exposure (which determines the natural heating);• the slope inclination (which defines the sun exposition);• the draining capacity of the area (which influences the soil tem-

perature, the wind condition, possible fog etc.);• the vegetation (which can influence the local climate and fur-

thermore give useful indications to classify the climate, e.g. as phyto-climate).

Morphological Classification

It is necessary to have detailed maps at different scales, to find in-formation on the morphology of the site and the surrounding area. Generally we work with different scales :• during the designing phase: scale 1:10.000-1:5.000, or higher for

sections and project details;• during the planning phase: scale 1:25.000, 1:10.000;Geomorphological maps are also particularly useful since depending on the reduction scale, they represent all the geomorphological sha-pes present at the study site, thus defining different aspects, such as the morphographic and morphometric characteristics (sizes, shape, inclination etc.), the natural processes that are or were involved, and the mutual relations and space distribution of these processes.

Geological and geomorphological classification

It is necessary to have at one’s disposal a thorough description of all the litho-geological features that characterize the site and the sur-rounding area, both on the surface and in the subsurface, and in par-ticular:1. static surface elements: these are represented by a “Surface ge-

ological map” integrated with a land survey. From this map we can define the local detrital covers, the faults, the position of the layers etc;

2. dynamic superficial elements: these defined by the “geomor-phological map”, which enables the identification of all geologi-cal phenomena, with particular attention to landslides and to the changes in the surface hydrography;

3. deep static elements (stratigraphy): these are established by means of the “Stratigraphic – lithologic map”, which identifies the existing stratigraphy and its position. This enables defining different types of materials involved in the remodelling; the li-thological and mechanical characteristics of these materials are necessary for planning both the mining operations and the safe removal of land and raw materials. All of this information is generally available, as the required steps are essential for the accomplishment of the mining exploitation project of the site.

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Hydrological and hydrogeological classification

It is very important for the stability of the recovery works to know exactly the layout of the surface hydrological network of the area and its hydraulic characteristics. It is therefore necessary to carefully stu-dy the possible interactions between the hydrological network and the site to be laid out in order to define the hydraulic connections, the drainage system, and to minimize the impact of possible criti-cal events (floods, overflows, localized erosions, etc.) on the mining operations.Another important aspect, especially in plains, is a detailed hydro-geological characterization of the area, identifying the main charac-teristics of underground water, its dynamic and piezometric charac-teristics, and the potential presence of interference with the surface hydrographic regime, in order to safeguard the water resources. Mo-reover, these data allow us to define the most suitable recovery mo-del (i.e., the creation of wetland or lake habitats, phytoremediation, etc.)

Quarry recovered as wetland (Modena). Source: “Guidelines for the environmental recove-ry“, ER, Italy.

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Pedological classification

The combination of operations that involve the substratum requi-res knowledge of the site’s pedological parameters. First of all, it is necessary to start with an overall analysis of the area through ge-neral pedological analysis of the site in order to determine the type or types of soil found and characterize them by the most important chemical-physical descriptive parameters. In addition, a careful pe-dological analysis of the site should enable the correct definition of homogeneous sub-areas, characterized by sub-layers and uniform ecological conditions.For every identified sub-area, an in-depth analysis has to be carried out (Pedological analysis of the homogeneous areas) to define more precisely the environmental conditions and parameters that charac-terize the various highlighted layers. These two analysis levels should be realised during the process of drafting a map at the scale 1:5.000-10.000.

Flora and vegetation classification

It will be necessary to proceed with a preliminary field study in order to define the flora and vegetation characteristics, both of the area to be recovered and of the surrounding land. It is obvious, yet often overlooked, that these studies can only be carried out during the ve-getative period (spring-summer) and not during other seasons. Ho-wever, when possible, it’s better to do a bibliographic research.

Flora census

In an ideal situation, this study should be carried out at least for two years, with collections of samples on the field, repeated passages along the same paths, etc. In the end, a flora list is compiled that sy-stematically lists names and orders, based on the most recent flo-ristic knowledge. If carried out correctly, the flora census allows to “photograph” the environmental quality aspects of the site; in fact, many species can be considered (based on the knowledge acquired during many years of studies) as good ecological indicators. There-fore, besides characterizing the current condition of the site, the list suggests suitable species for the subsequent recovery operations. In fact, we will try to use, as much as possible, species that grow locally and in particular those with special “bio-technical qualities”, such as resistance to mechanical stress, high speed of propagation, coloni-zing ability also by vegetation, ability to improve the soil (e.g. legu-minous plant), market availability, etc.

Study of the vegetation

The vegetation of the area, if present, and that of the surrounding

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areas should be studied by means of field surveys to be carried out with suitable methods. The phytosociological survey is particularly useful. This survey enables us to compare the collected data with ta-bles from the scientific literature, thus obtaining useful information on the phytosociological vegetation types found in the area. Further-more, from this survey it is possible to obtain other indications on the dynamic tendencies of the vegetation, and in particular on the types of vegetation that can be expected to grow locally. In fact, the phytosociological analysis allows us to classify a different phytocoe-noses within a given hierarchical system of units syntaxonomy. This result is important in the planning of environmental recovery opera-tions. For a certain station, knowledge of the local vegetation (real and potential) and of the stages of the local vegetation series, from the occasional pioneering formations to the “definitive” climax ve-getation, allows us to identify the typical species of that stage in the sequence that adapt better to the environmental conditions (in parti-cular edaphic) of the place. Furthermore, the vegetation study allows us to also identify the quantitative relations among the species to be used; the phytosociological survey also expresses the covering of the individual species present. In this way, it will be possible to recreate in the specific site vegetation situations that, starting from the pioneer stages, are already directed towards the riper stages and possess a higher natural value. To this aim, we will modulate the choice of the species to be introduced according to the possibilities offered by the local environmental conditions. For this it’s better to associate both pioneer species, less demanding, and species with the characteristic of the more advanced stages of the vegetation sequence, in order to accelerate the evolutionary process.

Landscape classification

The study of the landscape is mainly based on “subjective” and “objective” approaches. The subjective approach for studying the landscape is based on visual patterns; it is above all aimed at iden-tifying the “scenic qualities” and uses the visual-perceptive analysis. This method is mainly used for areas of undisputed value (parks, re-serve, anthropic landscapes of high quality) or for areas under study with no quantifiable parameters or bio-indicators. In contrast, the objective analysis examines the biotic and abiotic characteristics that make up the structure of the landscape; each analysis plan refers to distinct scientific fields, such as geology, pedology, botany, silvicul-ture and so on. Both approaches, however, consider humans as an integral part of the natural system.The landscape study aimed at assessing environmental impacts does not focus entirely on landscape ecology, but it also introduces con-cepts connected to the anthropic system, such as environmental sa-fety, salubrity and protection of historical, cultural, ritual values etc.

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When studying the landscape, the selection of the optimal map scale is important for both the analysis and the constructive-project pha-ses, as well as for setting the hierarchy that allows identifying the scale at which individual characteristics interfere. The most effective tool to this end is the identification of the landscape units within the studied area. The “landscape units” (UDP – unità di paesaggio) are landscape sub-systems, characterized by a certain uniformity, within which the ecosystems distribute themselves in characteristic and recognizable modalities. The process leading to the identification of the UDP involves the following phases:

1. basic map-making, at the optimal scale, and (if available) aerial photography;

2. mapping of the data for the biotic and abiotic components in-volved;

3. collection of theme maps and elaboration of specific themes;4. superposition of theme maps;5. identification of UDP.

If the study area has land level surface, networks and matrices can be used. Networks consist of grids which (superimposed on the basic map) subdivide the land into “small blocks”, i.e., elementary areas whose size typically is a few hectares; these blocks are given quanti-

tative and qualitative values (themes), and their combination using a data base enables the land subdivision into UDP.In contrast, the matrix is a tool used to identify the relation between the landscape and the planned type of activity.

Oak trees, after 4 years from revegetation on sandy ground (Bologna). Source: “Guidelines for the environmental recove-ry“, ER, Italy.

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Outline of the anthropic factors

In addition to the physical characteristics, a reference outline concer-ning all the anthropic variables is also necessary.

Real use of the soil

It is important to know the normal usage of the site area and its sur-roundings. From this information we can obtain very strong indica-tions or restrictions for the restoration process, in particular for rein-tegrating the site to the surrounding land during the recovery phase. As for the vegetation, lithology and soil, in this case it is also neces-sary to support the analysis with appropriate thematic maps, using the existing information (territorial and urban, vegetation plans etc.) obtained from specific in situ surveys.

Territorial planning

Mining operations are normally defined following an administrati-ve procedure (at the municipal, provincial and regional level), which identifies sites that are potentially available: this represents an exclu-sive restriction for the startup of the entire mining operation. Upon conclusion of the mining activity, knowledge of the legal framework is important for the planning future uses of the area. Restrictions, or potential requirements, arise in the first place by the targets set by the planning norms specific for that area, or by the land use targets of the neighbouring areas. They could also arise from a specific norm (for example the presence of a park or a reserve in the area).Further restrictions may also derive from the need to protect and sa-feguard the landscape (landscape plan, norms on the use of vegetal species etc.), as well as from the need for health control (the use of organic fertilizers, restrictions for the spreading of particular plants that carry diseases such as fire blight, blights, etc. it is therefore ne-cessary to possess all the norm information and if possible a specific map at the suitable working scale.

Restrictions and constraints

In addition to territorial constraints, there are specific constraints that could affect the post-mining organization; such restrictions are not linked to the programming, but to the presence of particular and precise requirements, e.g., the passing of long-distance power lines, pipelines, roads, railways and airports, i.e.. It is important to identify such constraints in order to adapt the subsequent reuse and layout to their presence.

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Economical aspects

In addition to external constraints (customs, planning etc.) it is im-portant to also define the constraints that arise from the investment plan and the actions foreseen for the mining operations and the sub-sequent expectations. This information defines the requirements of the mining operations that will restrict the entire subsequent reco-very operation. Only on the basis of the cultivation plan and the final layout, can one define the recovery times and modes, thus promptly quantifying all the actions to be implemented, including the subse-quent maintenance and management of the area. In addition, having from the very beginning an economic outline is very important for planning the final layout of the quarry areas in the best possible way.In the past we have always tried to keep this expense as minimal as possible: the final layouts, especially those not aimed at productive goals, have always been considered as unjustified or unnecessary ex-pense, a gift to the local governments. This facilitated the reuse of the abandoned sites as “agricultural destinations” also in unsuitable areas that lack management structures (farms), and thus favour low-efficiency solutions, from both the economical and environmental standpoints.

Methods of exploitation

The recovery plan comes into action at the end of a mining operation. Therefore, the design of the deposit exploitation represents essential information. It enables us to define the surfaces (mining lots) and the final substratum upon which to operate and thus defines precisely the final morphological and geotechnical conditions of the site.Furthermore, from knowledge of the mining methods we can define ways and times of possible recovery phases.

Expectations on site use after mine closure

Often, decisions concerning final recovery of the site are not based on planning or ecological or landscape restrictions nor but on econo-mical or legal expectations tied to the ownership and management of the area. Therefore all the juridical relations between the owner and the quarry operator as well as the restrictions caused thereby should be carefully defined. In order to precisely verify the feasibility of the proposed choices, it is necessary to specify who will carry out the restoration operations as well as who will use the site and for how long. It is necessary to precisely define the ownership regulations of the soils involved in the mining operations and of all the neighbouring areas. Everything has to be defined by means of cadastral maps, usually on a scale of 1:2000. This enables identifying the owners and defining the present and future expectations that will determine the

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final destination of the area. It is also important to define the party that will manage the area at the end of the mining operation. This party may or may not coincide with the owners: this is an essential piece of information, as the objectives and operations for the area will be defined on the basis of this party’s expectations. Reuse of the land for agricultural activities, in the absence of an efficient company is an opportunistic approach most likely destined to fail.

Handling and analysis of the fact-finding outline (GIS)

The enormous amount of collected data regarding the characteristi-cs of the operation area could be managed and supplied by a GIS. Geographic information, in order to be used inside a GIS, has to be interpreted according to models that focus only on certain aspects of the reality, and organized in structures. GIS works with two main structures: a vector system and a raster system. The vector data are represented by basic elementary entities, called geometric primiti-ves, each one of which is encoder by means of one or more copies of coordinates referred to a system of Cartesian axes. Geometric primi-tives are the points which require only one copy of x, y coordinates: arches (or lines) are defined by the x, y coordinates of the starting point (from node), of the arrival point (to node) and of the vertexes where the direction of the line changes; polygons are defined as a closed sequence of one or more arches. The extreme vertexes of an arch (“from node” and “to node”) allow defining a travel direction which helps to determine if a polygon is on the right or on the left (right/left polygon), compared to the arches that define it.

These and other spatial relations among the various entities are cal-led topological relations. They are essential for carrying out a series of spatial and statistical analysis operations that constitute one of

mesophilic forest planted on the surrounding zone of an exhausted quarry (Piacenza). Source: “Guidelines for the environmental recovery“, ER, Italy

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the most important aspects of GIS. To the geographical elements, one can associate symbols that are managed by a database and which can be either numerical or descriptive. The ability to associate descriptive symbols to every element, (stored in a record of fields), is one of the biggest advantages of Geographic Information Systems. The vector structure is extremely useful for describing discreet phe-nomena, e.g., the layout of various cadastral parcels of a land area. In contrast, the raster data are filed away in a series of cells or pixels, which are laid out according to a regular grid. Each cell represents a portion of the land area and is assigned a symbol based on the theme that we want to represent. The raster structure is suitable for descri-bing continuous variables, such as temperature, altitude, inclination, i.e., variables that represent only one magnitude varying continuou-sly in space. An example of raster data is the “Digital Terrain Model” (DTM), which is a digital representation of the continuous variation of the Earth’s relief in space. This is very useful for land management, because it enables visibility analyses, the generation of longitudinal profiles and level curves, as well as carrying out inclination and expo-sure analyses. Both of these structures for the storage of geographi-cal data have advantages and disadvantages. Finally, the functions that GIS can perform, understandable from its own definition, invol-ve the acquisition, the analysis and the output (visualization) of data. The GIS technology shows all of its potential when it is used for the analysis of geographical data. The main operations that GIS can per-form are proximity analyses, such as buffering (creation of observan-ce areas around the geographical areas) and overlay analyses.

THE DEFINITION OF THE RECOVERED AREA DESTI-NATION

The definition of the final destination of a quarry area, after mining operations have been concluded, represents the first and most im-portant choice for the design phase. This choice conditions the entire execution of the project, and it influences the evolution (at least on a short and medium term), of the re-layout area. It is also important because there are no rules to establish “rationally” the optimal choi-ces. In fact, these choices can be based on:- intrinsic expectations of the site and the surrounding area: these are tied to the characteristics of the site and its surrounding area (geolo-gical, morphological, biological, landscape, economical, social, legal aspects etc.);- extrinsic expectations: these are unrelated to the characteristics of the site (e.g., owner’s, designer’s expectations etc.).The choices made must always take into account the effects of the mining operations (forms of extraction, inclinations, fields, ecologi-cal conditions etc.).The definition of the objectives should be decided at the same time

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as the design of the work and exploitation plan of the deposit. Usual-ly, the recovery requirements are considered as secondary, both in terms of importance and of time spent on it, compared to the ex-ploitation project and the economical investments. This leads to the drawing up of unsuitable, if not impossible to carry out, layout plans, as they are prepared according to a morphological system devised only in mining terms that avoids any in-depth analysis or interaction among the various planning stages. The recovery requirements should be treated on an equal footing when all the relevant decisions are made. In the past this procedure caused serious environmental and landscape damage and a general distrust of both local governments and citizens of mining operations, with a consequent significant increase in the expectations of the re-covery and the payouts that the operating companies must pay in order to work. A closer relation between the requirements of imme-diate use and future reuse would enable us to optimize the decisions and the projects, with a consequent price control of the recovery costs, while at the same time increasing the effectiveness of the ope-rations. The possible objectives should be considered in different ways: in ecological terms, they can be classified depending on their relation with the natural processes as:• “Cosmetic” objectives: these comprise disguising and cleaning

of the area; they are considered as pure and simple engineering operations, also with strong initial morphological and ecological layout investments (superficial fill of “top soil”), yet with a speci-fied time, considered as a temporary stage of final recovery de-stination that it’s not yet been defined.

• Sustainable-objectives: these refer to containment and control related to the destruction of natural systems through purely technical operations that are self-referential, focus on the engi-neering aspects and do not involve -except perhaps at a minimal level- natural processes (re-naturation). This kind of recovery can be effective and have a medium to long duration, but they are always require a periodic reworking operation.

• Self-sustainable objectives: these refer to measures that are mainly ecological, and aim to activate the natural processes ne-cessary for stabilizing and enriching the restored area. In addi-tion to the containment and control of the limiting factors, these measures aims to restore the natural dynamics, to go beyond to the impacts determined by the restoring works. This definite-ly represents an optimal option in the long term, which allows with the same number of resources used, achieving a highly sta-ble and balanced condition. The possible final use destinations are as different as the conditions and constraints that have to be considered. The possible destinations are further elaborated below.

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Natural destination (renaturation-renaturalization)

The objective is to favour the settlement and development of a sta-ble and self-supporting natural and semi-natural vegetation cover, in order to enable a complete renaturation of the area, through the recovery or the re-initiation of the biological cycles that control soil fertility. This final reuse mainly involves two constraints:1. the necessity to recreate defined and stable local ecological con-

ditions in which the biological activities can be sustained;2. the necessity to resort to autochthonous vegetal species, throu-

gh specific collection techniques of the relevant material (top-soil, local propagation material, natural regeneration etc.).

The quality and the result of the recovery process depend on varying conditions, at least in the short and medium term. Natural recovery is an ambitious objective, which is difficult to accomplish, requires a good knowledge of the area and the ecological relations present, as well as long implementation times. A good working organization is required both during the phases of topsoil removal and of the site recovery, as well as careful handling of the pedological and biologi-

Quarry recovered as geolo-gical park (Ravenna). Source: “Guidelines for the environ-mental recovery“, ER, Italy.

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cal material present. For soil management it is very important, besi-des having good quality material at one’s disposal, to reconstruct a succession of layers that do not slow down or impede the evolution processes foreseen for the specific type of landscape unit.These quarry layouts are suitable for all the locations where natural areas are disappearing due to the economical development.

Agricultural destination

In this case, we assume that an agricultural type of productive de-velopment (both extensive and intensive) is favourable. This must establish itself stably both in biological and economical terms and the area, in order to be returned to its original use, must not have particular limits for agricultural production, such as the following:a) Natural constraints: they represent an ensemble of micro–environ-mental factors that impede the agricultural production and include:• chemical restrictions: presence of microelements that are toxic

for both plants and animals;• high presence of salts;• presence of extreme pH, both low and high;• physical constraints;• high inclinations;• abnormal stoniness and texture;• limited layer thickness;• limited ability for water supply accumulation.

b) Economical–social constraints: these include the group of econo-mical and social factors that limit the vitality of farms, such as:• ownership: a stable agricultural business is favoured by the pos-

session of the land;• management: the agricultural business can be established only

in the presence of a farm that guarantees good management qualities;

• productive infrastructures: the agricultural business can be esta-blished only in the presence of a network of services and infra-structures for the company, that will help to make it competitive from an economical point of view;

• social infrastructures: presence of services, roads, etc. at the ser-vice of the company and owners.

CHECK LISTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RECOVERY MEASURES IN MINING AREAS

The execution of an environmental recovery project at an exhausted mining area entails very different technical aspects and ecological issues, ranging from geomorphology to botany. All of this requires highly targeted and specialized knowledge and expertise that are

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not always available within the technical offices of the various gover-nment institutions.Therefore, the necessity arises to facilitate the analysis and control over both the initial planning of the operations and their implemen-tation (work tests). For this reason, two check-list has been develo-ped to assist in these activities.The check-list takes into account the different types of operations that follow sequentially on the decision path that leads to the de-sign and implementation of the project (starting from the choice of objectives and attending with the choice of vegetation and its ma-nagement). The check-list also include a list of points in which more important quality-quantity information is required for a correct as-sessment of the work. The check-list is organized into two distinct analysis plans:• A concise plan: this underlines the overall aspects necessary for

the analysis of every project phase. This plan must always be completed;

• An analytical plan: in this plan detailed information is requested on the technical aspects of the current assessment phase: this represents all the additional information.

Furthermore, the check-list for the individual types of intervention can be used as general summary documents of the site and can also be associated to the various landscape units that are present.Upon completion of every type of activity the check-list requires, after the analysis phase, an assessment of the project phase, which involves:1. Qualitative part: this concerns the presence or absence of acti-

vities works considered necessary and/or planned and in case omitted. This assessment provides for three different opinions: suitability (the phase is in accordance with the technical requi-rements), modification (when additions or changes that are not fundamental are necessary), total restructuring (when it is necessary to rethink that intervention phase). To this end, the check-list directs the assessment providing technical choices (R for reworking, I for integration) to be adopted when there are lacks or omissions. Based on the total of these individual concise assessments, an overall opinion can be formulated. This should be an assessment directed towards the tools used in the imple-mentation of the project;

2. Quantitative part: expressed on a scale between 0 – 100, this concerns the chosen intervention – objective relation. As a mat-ter of fact, a project phase may appear to be technically correct, yet at the same time unsuitable for the proposed aims. This is an opinion that is mainly directed towards the goals of the project and the possibility to achieve them.

The assessment phase of the interventions can be divided in two dif-ferent investigations:1) During the assessment phase of the project, the assessment may

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be based on:• information taken directly from the printouts: in all the project

phases the crucial aspects fundamental for the successful out-come of the operation are defined; the check-list requires this information (presence, absence, entity) which enables an easier opinion;

• technical considerations: based on the experience the quantity-quality suitability of the technical choices must be assessed by comparing them with the supplied instructions and/or require-ments, providing for the Reworking (R) or the Integration (I) in order to adapt the project choices to the necessities.

2) During the testing phase of the operations the assessment may be based on: • A direct comparison between the operations carried out and the

approved project: the check-list requires the verification of the interventions carried out and their compliance with the project (RAP: “rispetto al progetto” “in respect to the project”) providing for three possible options: overlayed, slightly different (requiring integration -I), different (requiring reworking -R).

• A comparison between the operations carried out and the tech-nical requirements: besides the administrative aspect, it is also necessary to assess compliance with the quality of the inter-ventions according to the planned purposes. Interventions that are insufficient for the purpose of the work may jeopardize or nullify the entire recovery operations. This comparison must be carried out during inspection by observing the effects of the in-terventions and subsequently highlighting the pre-set spaces (appropriate – not suitable), and quantified in the RET box: (RET: “rispetto alle esigenze tecniche” “in respect of the technical re-quirements), each time providing for either the integration (I) or the reworking (R) of that aspect.

• A comparison between the operations performed and the legal requirements: from the analysis conducted there may emerge omissions regarding the legal obligations that remained unre-solved during the project and the executive phase. Having omit-ted certain techniques or certain works may, for example, arise vulnerability of the area, thus jeopardizing not only the design but also the stability of the site or the surrounding areas. These inadequacies must be underlined and solved during this phase by requesting either integration (I) or reworking (R).

A detailed analysis of the various project phases and individual in-terventions to be carried out, especially during the testing, definitely creates a heavier workload for the tester. However, this activity re-presents a very important step in the decision process: in fact, it ena-bles the constant control and verification of the choices made, the assessment of their validity and the identification of possible faults. Thus the check-list requires a series of data that can go beyond the contingent needs of the test (RET) but which enable this type of con-

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trol to always remain active.

CONCLUSIONS

This manual aims at assisting the operators in this field to transform problems and difficulties into opportunities, based on the awareness that an effective quarry recovery plan must not aim to restore the original conditions, which are often impossible to recover, but rather to reach a new condition of aesthetic and ecological balance.In extreme cases, the recovery can lead to landscaping that is socially useful albeit unknown in the original natural form of the area. Reco-very is therefore a complex operation that requires multidisciplinary skills together with a remarkable dose of flexibility and creativity. This manual aims to ensure that all the operations carried out in a mining field are conducted in a way that in the long term will be eco-logically compatible and self-sustainable.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

Regione Emilia Romagna (Assessorato Difesa del Suolo e della Costa, Protezione Civile, Servizio Pianificazione di Bacino e della Costa) – Il recupero e la riqualificazione ambientale delle cave in Emilia-Roma-gna. Manuale teorico pratico. Edition 2003, 492pp.Regione Emilia Romagna (Assessorato Sicurezza Territoriale, Difesa del Suolo e della Costa, Protezione Civile) - Linee guida per il recupe-ro ambientale dei siti interessati dalle attività estrattive in ambiente golenale di Po nel tratto che interessa le Province di Piacenza, Parma e Reggio Emilia. Edition 2009, 119pp.For more information: http://www.ermesambiente.it/wcm/difesa-suolo/index.htmPilot site “Lanca dei Francesi“ (Municipality of Roccabianca, Provin-ce of Parma, Italy). From the web site http://www.sarmaproject.eu/index.php?id=1792Concerning the flora in Italy: http://www.ermesambiente.it/wcm/fo-reste/index.htm

GLOSSARY

Best practices: methods and techniques that have consistently shown results superior to those achieved with other means, and which are used as benchmarks to strive for. Nevertheless, there is no practice that is best for everyone or in every situation, and no best practice remains best for very long as better methods and technolo-gies are constantly being discovered.Biotic: relating, produced or caused by life, or living organisms; it re-fers to the living components of the biosphere or of an ecosystem; compare with “abiotic”.

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Climax: the final and stable community resulting from a series of development stages. In theory, the climax community is self-perpe-tuating, because it is in equilibrium with itself and with the natural environment.Ecological corridor: landscape element with natural or semi-natural vegetation (hedges, thickets, lakes, rivers) found in areas with high human presence; it is considered of particular ecological importance as it enables the exchange of flora and fauna among distant geogra-phical areas (e.g. hills and plains).Ecosystem: a group that includes all organisms living together (biotic community) in a certain area, interacting with the physical environ-ment, so that the energy flow leads to a well defined biotic structure and to materials recycling between living and non-living components of the system (biosystem); thus, the ecosystem includes the organi-sms and physical environment (abiotic) whose properties influence each other.Edaphic: pertaining to the soil or influenced by the soil.Land use planning: an activity, generally conducted by a local gover-nment that provides public and private land use recommendations in agreement with community policies. In general, it is used to guide zoning decisions.Phytosociology: the branch of that studies all the characteristics of the vegetal community, i.e. their physiognomy, floristic composition, morphology, structure, changes over time, as well as relations of spe-cies between themselves and the environment.Plant community: it is a grouping of plants that is more or less sta-ble and in equilibrium with the environment; it is characterized by a particular floristic composition, in which certain almost exclusive elements (characteristic species) reveal with their presence a special and autonomous ecology”.Rehabilitation: the creation of landforms, land productivity and land uses that are compatible with existing land uses in the surrounding area.Re-use: the use of unwanted materials in other applications without significant additional processing. It also applies to the reuse of the water used in the quarry plant operation.Revegetation: the re-establishment of a self-sustaining plant cover over a disturbed site.The glossary was compiled after changing/adopting terms from fol-lowing glossaries:

1. glossary: http://www.businessdictionary.com/2. glossary:http://www.allbusiness.com/4967379-1.

html?spi=profb&query=management3. glossary:http://www.goodquarry.com/glossary.

aspx?mode=showaz&az_id=19

Concise planning manual for the recovery of aggregate quarries

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