www.FireEngineering.com FIRE ENGINEERING March 2015 | 75 Conducting NFPA 1403-Compliant Live Burn Training in Acquired Structures BY GREG FISHER F OR DECADES, THE FIRE service has sanctioned behavior that has endangered the lives of many when it comes to live fire training in acquired struc- tures. I have been involved in live fire training since the late 1970s and, unfortunately, have been party to some of those behaviors, but I have learned from the mistakes. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1403, Standard on Live Fire Training Evolutions, did not exist at the time; and, fortunately, none of those evolutions re- sulted in the injury or death of a firefighter. We read in fire service publications of firefighters being injured or killed while participating in live fire training in buildings that were never designed for burning. Often, these drills lack preparation in being compliant with NFPA standards and are taught by instructors with the “paper” but little experience. Far too early in the evolutions, some- one in charge calls it a good day once the helmet gets dirty while everyone else does the hard work protect- ing the exposures, picking up hose, and cleaning up the mess. On the other hand, we see depart- ments with the training, experience, and resources to perform live burns in an acquired structure, but they choose not to because of the potential push back from “bean counters” and politicians, the required administrative work, the potential liability, and the planning and preparation—or they just bought a DVD that shows how to fight fire. “The purpose of … NFPA 1403, Live Fire Train- ing Evolutions … is to provide a process for conducting live fire training evolutions to ensure they are conducted in safe facilities and that the exposure to health and safety hazards for the fire fighters receiving the training is minimized.” (NFPA 1403, Chapter 1) Regardless of the circumstances, un- less the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) forbids open burning, the time and resources to execute live burn training pay off in immeasurable ways. Situations we have read about where an injury occurred because of a damaged hoseline, a live victim was used for a res- cue scenario, a building deflagrated because of the use of a noncompli- ant fuel, and a room flashed because “gaso- line paneling” was left on the walls would all be distant memories. “Live fire training is intended to provide the safest and best experience possible under both realistic and controlled circumstances.” (NFPA 1403, Chapter 1) This part of the article deals with the “ducks in a row” component of planning a live burn: What do we need to do to facilitate a training prop with limited use but maximum value? Start- ing with the procurement of property, some com- munities have found that their urban renewal or new green space projects can save demolition and solid waste disposal costs by involving the fire department. In the rural areas, demoli- tion by fire of the old family house could gain additional acreage for planting, thus more income and less land tax. Even though this is a “win-win” for the farmer and the fire department, various environ- mental, historical, permitting, or finan- Photos by Bryant Krizik. 1 2
Transcript
www.FireEngineering.com FIRE ENGINEERING March 2015 | 75
Conducting NFPA 1403- Compliant Live Burn Training in Acquired StructuresB Y G R E G F I S H E R
FOR DECADES, THE FIRE
service has sanctioned
behavior that has
endangered the lives of many
when it comes to live fire
training in acquired struc-
tures. I have been involved
in live fire training since the
late 1970s and, unfortunately,
have been party to some of
those behaviors, but I have
learned from the mistakes.
National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) 1403,
Standard on Live Fire Training
Evolutions, did not exist at
the time; and, fortunately,
none of those evolutions re-
sulted in the injury or death
of a firefighter. We read in
fire service publications of
firefighters being injured or
killed while participating in
live fire training in buildings
that were never designed
for burning. Often, these
drills lack preparation in
being compliant with NFPA
standards and are taught by
instructors with the “paper”
but little experience. Far too
early in the evolutions, some-
one in charge calls it a good
day once the helmet gets
dirty while everyone else
does the hard work protect-
ing the exposures, picking up hose, and
cleaning up the mess.
On the other hand, we see depart-
ments with the training, experience, and
resources to perform live burns in an
acquired structure, but they choose not
to because of the potential push back
from “bean counters” and politicians,
the required administrative work, the
potential liability, and the planning and
preparation—or they just bought a DVD
that shows how to fight fire.
“The purpose of … NFPA 1403, Live Fire Train-
ing Evolutions … is to provide a process for
conducting live fire training evolutions to
ensure they are conducted in safe facilities and
that the exposure to health and safety hazards
for the fire fighters receiving the training is
minimized.” (NFPA 1403, Chapter 1)
Regardless of the circumstances, un-
less the authority having
jurisdiction (AHJ) forbids
open burning, the time
and resources to execute
live burn training pay off
in immeasurable ways.
Situations we have read
about where an injury
occurred because of a
damaged hoseline, a live
victim was used for a res-
cue scenario, a building
deflagrated because of
the use of a noncompli-
ant fuel, and a room
flashed because “gaso-
line paneling” was left
on the walls would all be
distant memories.
“Live fire training is intended
to provide the safest and
best experience possible
under both realistic and
controlled circumstances.”
(NFPA 1403, Chapter 1)
This part of the article
deals with the “ducks
in a row” component
of planning a live burn:
What do we need to do
to facilitate a training
prop with limited use but
maximum value? Start-
ing with the procurement
of property, some com-
munities have found that
their urban renewal or new green space
projects can save demolition and solid
waste disposal costs by involving the fire
department. In the rural areas, demoli-
tion by fire of the old family house could
gain additional acreage for planting, thus
more income and less land tax. Even
though this is a “win-win” for the farmer
and the fire department, various environ-
mental, historical, permitting, or finan-
Photos by Bryant Krizik.
1
2
1503FE_75 75 3/3/15 8:20 AM
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Compliant Live Burns
www.FireEngineering.com
cial issues keep property owners from
approaching their fire protection districts
to dispose of these buildings or vice
versa. (Some states prohibit live burns of
any kind, and that is unfortunate.)
The Groundwork
Paperwork. The house is yours to burn.
The contractor has the housing develop-
ment ready to go, but the old place has to
be burned down by the end of the month.
The paperwork required varies with the
AHJ; whether the feds, state, county,
parish, city, or village, it has to get done.
Looking into it well ahead of time will
make the turnaround more rapid when a
property becomes available. For example,
you will need a permit from the state
environmental protection agency. The
permit often is approved if the property
passes an inspection for asbestos or lead
paint. They should not be present; if they
once were present, the situation should
have been remediated.
Some jurisdictions require environ-
mentally certified contractors; others will
allow the owner-occupants to remove the
materials. In many cases, if the property
is owned by the municipality or other
governmental body, the costs for inspec-
tion, removal, and disposal can climb
dramatically. The better the relationships
built by the fire service with the rural
population and the municipal internal
customers, contractors, and builders, the
greater the cooperation and investment
you’re likely to receive for these buildings
and training opportunities.
In some cases, historical preserva-
tion groups or agencies must sign off on
the permitting processes. The purpose
may be to seek funding for restoring the
property or simply to be able to photo-
graph or archive examples of historically
significant architecture or architectural
features. Occasionally, this may allow
preservation groups to remove window
and door trim, judge’s panels, wainscot-
ings, light fixtures, and built-in cabi-
nets. Be sure to coordinate efforts with
these groups, since more often than not,
removing those items in balloon-frame
homes renders the areas noncompliant
for burns because of openings into void
spaces. If you are given the house under
these conditions, work with the big box
lumber stores or vendors to procure dam-
aged lumber, drywall, and material to
cover up the openings to allow for a safe
and compliant training session.
Obtaining or verifying the environ-
mental paperwork will keep the depart-
ment out of harm’s way as well. Even
though departments are typically not
the building owners, they often share
the liability for cleanup if the lead paint,
asbestos, vinyl siding, and roofing ma-
terials have not been properly disposed
of. Each AHJ is different, but asbestos
removal is universal because of federal
regulations.
Depending on the jurisdiction and
ownership of the property, when the
property owner does the legwork, the
workload for the fire service personnel
planning the exercise is often lightened.
This may not be possible in all AHJs;
however, where it is, the property owner
bears the permitting and inspection
fees. This has been a deal killer for some,
since it involves a cost borne by the
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owner who wants to get this done as cheaply as possible. In
many instances, the property owner has been able to “write
off” these costs as well as a nominal value for the property as a
donation to the local fire department.
Before the fire department ignites the first fire, other docu-
mentation is required. A legal description of the property is
often a part of the permitting process and could be a part of a
document that verifies ownership. Verification through local
or county governmental bodies is recommended; this prevents
the organization from getting in the middle of estate or family
ownership battles. Departments have inadvertently burned
down the object of a family feud or even the wrong building
because ownership was not verified. It is embarrassing for
sure, and it could also be costly to the department.
After obtaining written permission from the owner or
designee, the department should obtain documents releas-
ing the fire department of liability, canceling fire insurance,
and perhaps a rider for liability during the training period.
In addition, if the owner is seeking tax considerations, there
should also be a thank-you letter to the owner on the depart-
ment’s letterhead for donating the property to the department
for training purposes. Word the letter so that the value is
established by the owner. Examples of some of these docu-
ments can be found in sections of NFPA 1403, but it should be
standard practice for the department’s attorney, the owner’s
insurance carrier, and the chief to review these documents.
Transportation, Traffic. Contact the agencies with whom
you normally interact. Regardless of the property’s location,
consult with the law enforcement and emergency dispatch
agencies to determine if there are any issues related to traffic
control or smoke hazards that will affect interstate or busy
highway traffic. Arrange for officers to direct traffic where
needed or to secure the scene so that traffic is limited to those
involved in the training. Consult these agencies also regarding
the scheduling dates: Avoid holiday traffic or sporting event
weekends, for example, and determine the best traffic patterns
for rural water shuttles if they are required.
Public works, fire police, road commissions, and depart-
ments of transportation may need a “heads-up” as well to
assist in traffic control or place barricades. Working with the
transportation folks may reveal that the water supply plan is
slated for roads not constructed to handle large volumes of
heavy fire apparatus. They may also be able to assist with
vehicle staging and parking plans.
Water. Contact water departments, owners of static water
supplies, and departments whose tankers or tenders will be
needed. (Water supply is addressed later in the article. It is
mentioned here so that it is not a last-minute request.)
Other Mutual Aid. Contact other mutual aid-companies early
as well. Although they may not be supplying the second-
ary source of water, smaller departments often need time to
prepare their newer staff members to meet the prerequisite
competencies for participating in a live burn.
Emergency Medical Services (EMS). Plan a detailed EMS
component. We must be proactive in rehabilitating and treat-
ing firefighters who may become injured in a well-controlled
environment.
1503FE_77 77 3/3/15 8:20 AM
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Compliant Live Burns
In previous editions of the NFPA standard, basic life sup-
port services were required to be on site. This left room for
interpretation and a potentially dangerous situation, when the
department’s only two emergency medical technicians-basic
(EMT-Bs) were on the attack and backup crews. It also did not
specify the need for immediate transport capability. NFPA
1584, Standard on the Rehabilitation Process for Members
During Emergency Operations and Training Exercises, 2015
edition; NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Program; and continual research on the
effects of heat stress have cited the need for a more definitive
EMS process at live burns.
Safe live fire training is inherently risky even in the most
controlled environment. In a relatively recent live-subject,
heat-stress research of firefighters of all ages, 100 percent of
the firefighters studied from all over the state were found to
be dehydrated prior to starting the research. Caffeinated or
alcoholic beverages, foods high in sodium, and other factors
contribute to the potential dangerous outcome associated with
fighting fire.
If the host department does not include EMS or EMS trans-
port as a part of its mission, it must arrange for an on-site am-
bulance. Plan ahead with these providers so they can develop
a rapport for being included in future responses and allow for
potential continuing education units for EMS if training objec-
tives are built into the training day. EMS gets to experience
the effects of interior firefighting on members before the real
thing kicks in. They prepare for and operate the rehabilitation
group and are able to do some real-world monitoring of the ef-
fects of the conditions as they affect the firefighting staff.
Notifications. Once the date for the live burn has been
established, notify neighbors directly adjacent to the prop-
erty; nearby airports and heliports; convalescent centers and
healthcare facilities; and railroads of the date and time of the
burn. Take every precaution to minimize the possibility of
hazardous results for the community.
Although this segment on preparing for a live burn con-
cludes here, it is by no way all-inclusive. Some agencies, orga-
nizations, and personnel were not referenced. Take inventory
of your own AHJ, find out who needs to know and be a part of
the event, and determine whom you would like to participate.
Preparing the Staff
A crucial component of the live-burn evolution—the staff—
must be fully prepared before members can take part in a live
fire evolution. Acquired structures aren’t as readily available
as they once were. In the early 1980s, prior to NFPA 1403 and
the need for permits from the EPA, burning 20 to 25 houses a
year with the state fire academy was not uncommon. Taking
advantage of the time the volunteer or paid-on call firefighter
committed to the day, it was customary to do some mask
familiarization and place students in the “fire behavior demo”
simply to get the new student some exposure. The “exposure”
is now a legal consideration for the instructors. Tort immunity
for the fire service is being whittled away in most states. The
student should have more than a 15-minute introduction to
donning and doffing a self-contained breathing apparatus
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ready made the mistakes and, hopefully,
learned from them. Their experience and
institutional knowledge are invaluable.
The “certified vs. qualified” debate is
of concern also for local and mutual-aid
company responders. The standard re-
quires that the students provide written
documentation for the aforementioned
job performance requirements if they did
not receive their minimum prerequisite
training from the AHJ providing the live
burn training. Not being an attorney, I
cannot speak to the efficacy of a student
providing a document stating he has re-
ceived the requisite training. Even when
the student provides the document or the
auditors find the requisite documenta-
tion, we will never be able to verify that
the job performance requirements were
not “pencil whipped.”
Certainly, we ensure the members of
our own departments attending the live
fire training have the requisite skills to
participate in training we are hosting.
One way to attempt due diligence for the
mutual-aid companies whose training
we are unsure of is to provide a num-
ber of sessions prior to burn day if the
property owner grants access. You can
offer a few evening or weekend train-
ing sessions at the property reviewing
the essential job skills. Or, the drills
could be dedicated to practicing the
SCBA, hose handling, ladder, forcible
entry, and search and rescue skills, for
example. The student’s ability to roll a
single 50-foot section of three-inch fire
hose in a “double donut with shoulder
loops” or demonstrating the operation of
a 30-pound dry chemical, cartridge-oper-
ated fire extinguisher can probably take
a back seat to climbing a ladder with
hand tools to enter a window or venti-
late the roof after refreshing the skills
needed to throw a ladder for rescue vs.
placing one for roof access. Make these
the requirements for participation in the
interior training.
Another lead-by-example behavior on
live burns is the proper use of protective
equipment. For training institutions with
tightly controlled Class A burn build-
ings and who continue to use long coats
and three-quarter boots or fire resistant
pants and leather boots because of re-
peated heat stress concerns, that debate
is set aside for the acquired structure
evolutions, and NFPA compliant turnout
clothing is used. Although my career
started in three-quarter boots, long
coats, and no hoods, riding tailboard on
open cab engines, the incidence of fires
for most has diminished since the 1970s,
and “on-the-job training” has been
reduced to false alarms and EMS. The
list of PPE requirements and associated
standards is the same for training as it
is for responding. Training more often in
live fire conditions with appropriate staff-
ing and rehabilitation efforts is the key to
safe response instead of using body parts
such as ears and the back of an ungloved
hand as temperature gauges.
Fuel Load
The fuel load is a big part of the
standard. Even if we use straw and pal-
lets, common combustibles with easily
predictable fire behavior, the smoke is
not “clean.” Instructors are often seen
entering without masks in place to set
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and ignite the fire. Equally disturbing is
their coming out after extinguishment
with smoky conditions prevailing without
masks on. The younger staff members
may be impressed, but we all know doing
this is bad practice.
When live burn training goes wrong, it
is often for the same reasons that actual
alarms become newsworthy—the lack
of command and control. If the instruc-
tor in charge allows other instructors
to freelance by adding to the fuel load
that originally was agreed on, changing
the objective of the drill after entering
the building, or allowing an untrained
individual to shadow during an evolu-
tion, students get the message that this
is acceptable. Standard incident com-
mand training aside, NFPA 1403 requires
the instructor in charge to ensure correct
levels of safety, maintain a manage-
able span of control, provide rehabilita-
tion and communication, and conduct
personal accountability reports (PARs).
When our instructional staff maintains
the incident command system discipline,
recognizes and corrects the training
anomalies, keeps the machismo or egos
in check, and maintains the discipline
explained in each drill preplan and
pre-drill briefing, the drills typically go
extremely well.
NFPA 1403, Section 4.12, “Fuel Materi-
als,” states: “Fuels that are utilized in
live fire training evolutions shall only be
wood products.” And the express prohi-
bition of pressure-treated wood, rubber,
plastic, polyurethane, foam, upholstered
furniture—basically ALL the materials
we used to leave in place or throw on
the burn pile when we were too hot and
tired to go out and get additional pallets
or straw. Using chemically treated or
pesticide-treated straw or hay is also for-
bidden in the standard. If you’re not sure
of the burn characteristics of material
found in or around the property, do not
use them for fuel.
Although NFPA 1403, Section 4.12.3.1,
states flammable or combustible liquids
as defined in NFPA 30, Flammable and
Combustible Liquids Code, shall not be
used in live fire training evolutions, it
does allow combustible liquid with a
flash point under 100˚F for engineered
fire training props. Rational thought
might say when the training is over
and the objective now is to burn the
property down, this liquid might be an
acceptable accelerant. Don’t use it! Why
run the risk of inadvertent use of the liq-
uid fuel during training? Instead, order
enough dry straw to get the remaining
wooden fuel load going at the end of
the day. Know the difference among
hay, straw, and silage. While providing
a class at a well-known western safety
symposium, I found the baled material
provided was extremely dry but was
cut in such small pieces that it would
not stay in place in the burn sets long
enough to ignite the pallets.
NFPA 1403, Section 4.12.5, addresses
ignition and the acceptable methods for
igniting the proper fuel load. The meth-
ods include “propane lighters, butane
lighters, fusees (safety flares), kitchen
type matches, and similar devices … if
… removed immediately after ignition of
the training fire.” My choice is five-min-
ute-rated safety flares; they can be used
1503FE_81 81 3/3/15 8:20 AM
82 | March 2015 FIRE ENGINEERING www.FireEngineering.com
Compliant Live Burns
one time and can be extinguished by
grinding them out on the floor or ground.
The following is one of the most in-
triguing sections in NFPA 1403, Chapter
4: “Fuel materials shall be used only in
the amounts necessary to create the
desired fire size ....” We hear the students
keep calling for “bigger and hotter.” The
instructors keep flashing back to the
good old days before “rules” and the
stories the old guys tell of being lucky
enough to come out without injury to
themselves or their students.
Be careful. What we consider a fire
of desirable size may be far more than
the student considers a desirable size.
The student’s sudden discomfort may
turn to hoseline abandonment and a
scramble to extinguish and account for
retreating troops.
Another unacceptable tradition from
the “how much fuel” debate is that many
of us have purposefully “seasoned”
our department-supplied PPE to give
the appearance of a grizzled veteran
by remaining in the room too long or
standing up adding fuel to the pile. The
disfiguration of the reflective trim on the
coats, the deformed flip-down shields,
and the completely melted and inoper-
able flashlight banded to the helmet
SCREAM of experience as we exit the
fire behavior lesson that went just a little
too long—right? Seriously? Demonstrate
that experience with safe behavior and
proper care of your gear.
The key lies in NFPA 1403, Section
4.12.7: “The fuel load shall be limited to
avoid conditions that could cause an un-
controlled flashover or backdraft.” Noth-
ing says a flashover demonstration is
prohibited. It needs to be set up in such a
manner that students are observing from
an exterior vantage point.
Since dry, untreated straw, hay, and
pallets constitute the accepted fuel in an
acquired structure, the key to realistic
fires is in the method in which the fuel is
configured. Too often, the fuel is stacked
in the center of the room with the fuel
load entirely within three feet of the floor.
You must consider certain factors regard-
less of where the fire set is placed. Creat-
ing a platform in the corner of a room
with the majority of fuel stacked above
the three-foot level will produce a rolling
fire throughout the room. Having the fuel
set higher also minimizes the damage
to the room. When the pallets are simply
stacked or arranged on the floor in the
middle, it takes a longer preburn phase
to generate conditions of a flameover
or rollover. This extended period from
ignition to rollover tends to preheat other
areas of the room such as the linoleum (if
left in place), window, and door trim and
often compromises the ceiling and intact
windows. The premature failure of the
ceiling or heat-driven window ventilation
changes the fire dynamics and, often, the
desired fire effect for training.
Pallets and straw set higher in the
room allow the fuel to ignite more rapidly
after the straw flashes and produce a vol-
ume of fire similar to a typical room-and-
contents fire, without the uncontrollable
contents. If set properly, the fuel left after
extinguishment can often be used again
after a short period of drying and the ad-
dition of more dry straw (photo 3).
When locating the fuel set, consider
the following: the anticipated path of
travel in the room and out; the proximity
to windows, doors, and other preengi-
neered openings; and the integrity of the
wall and ceiling surfaces. Avoid placing
a fire set next to the openings with deco-
rative trim that essentially hide a rough
opening where fire can travel. If the room
configuration makes that fire set location
unavoidable, when writing the objectives
for a drill in that room, account for the
necessary overhaul, the use of a thermal
imaging camera, and extinguishment
when the spaces are breached.
Exterior Preparations
Firefighters have died because build-
ings were inappropriately prepared.
The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health and Federal Emergen-
cy Management Agency reports remind
us that two firefighters perished in a
flashover because fuel was in the exit
path and wall coverings were left intact.
Three died as a result of a partial build-
ing collapse when improper fuel was
ignited after vapors spread into voids in a
balloon-frame, two-story home.
I was once trapped in a room above
the training fire. Fast-moving heated
gases caused the door to slam shut.
The doorknob came off as I attempted
egress. I escaped by kicking out the
bottom panels of an old “Christian”
door. For me, this clearly identified and
reinforced the need to ensure secondary
exit from upper floors as well as to “as-
sess the selected fire room environment
for factors that can affect the growth,
development, and spread of fire.” (NFPA
1403, Section 4.12.8)
Some trainers consider NFPA 1403
standard requirements for preparation
too daunting to undertake. Since, as
noted previously, bread-and-butter fires
are few and far between in many areas
of the country, acquired structure live
burn training has become very impor-
tant. Dividing the process tasks into
manageable categories makes them
more easily handled.
Structure Condition. Begin with the
condition of the structure. Consider
factors such as structural instability, the
presence of asbestos or other envi-
ronmentally questionable materials,
exposures that are too close, or the
potential of a political or social hotbed
of controversy for the department when
evaluating an offer to use a property for
training. Consider specifically the suit-
ability of the house for live fire training.
It must be able to support the load of
firefighters, hoselines, fuel loads (which
must be compliant), and accumulated
water (photo 4).
All forms of utilities must be discon-
nected or removed. The property owner
should cover the related costs. Verify this
before the day of training. In some cases,
power back-fed from on-site generators
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or illegally hooked up to other properties
was discovered after training began.
Electrical power may be underground
or overhead. If the line is overhead,
cut it at the pole well away from the
building. If overhead power lines are
too close, it may be possible to work
with the utility company to reroute the
power and shut off the line. You would
then be able to protect it as any other
exposure. If the service is underground,
it may still have to be rendered safe
somewhere away from the property.
Regardless of the location of
the feed, deal with it well in
advance of the training day.
Shut off or remove incoming
gas or propane. Even if the rural
setting has a propane tank at
a safe distance, ask that it be
removed if it is not supplying
other “on farm” requirements.
Shutting the meter down for
either fuel source won’t work:
As the house burns down, it
may damage or destroy the me-
ter and cause an uncontrolled
flame once the house is “in the ground.”
Fuel and fuel tanks are another matter,
as they can be found inside and out. Re-
moval is necessary unless the tank can
be emptied and rendered safe so that the
potential of a boiling-liquid, expanding-
vapor explosion (BLEVE) is eliminated.
Remove all trace of oil in a basement if
any was spilled in the process.
Remove or repair unsafe exterior build-
ing hazards such as dilapidated porches,
roofs, carports, or structural components
that may hinder entry and exit for drills
or emergency egress. Identify, secure, or
cordon off below-grade windows or stair-
wells, sumps or cisterns, well houses, air
raid shelters, swimming pools, or other
areas that present fall or other hazards
for firefighters (photo 5).
Depending on the jurisdiction,
environmental protection statutes may
require the removal of exterior vinyl,
steel or aluminum siding, and soffit and
fascia. You may have to remove asbestos,
fiberglass, or asphalt shingles as well. If
you must do this, have a contingency in
place to cover the entire roof
with tarps or rolled plastic to
maintain the integrity of the
ceilings if inclement weather
should occur between prepara-
tion days and the training.
Check the structural
integrity of chimneys. Some
departments have felt comfort-
able pushing loose bricks, if
present, into the flue; others
have maintained clear drop
zones and pushed them off the
roof. Ensure that the debris
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does not become an additional hazard, and check to see where
the chimney goes. In many old rural midwest and northwest
homes, some chimneys terminate on a platform secured to a
stud wall and are plastered over five to six feet off the floor.
The chimneys were used for pot belly or Franklin stoves. The
chimney platforms may no longer support the chimney once
fire training has damaged the building.
Check attic spaces for chimneys that are no longer in
service. When installing modern heating, ventilation, and
air-conditioning (HVAC) systems, often chimneys were taken
off at the roof line and roofed over. This may cause extension
in the attic, a concern when attic extension is not a planned
objective of the training. It may also pose a load or weight
problem, depending on its condition, as areas of the building
may become weakened during the burns.
Other exterior hazards needing attention include the land-
scaping, the landscape, and nature itself. Trees, bushes, and
shrubs outside windows, doors, and porch roofs may pose a
hazard or an impediment to rapid escape from a room or an
area designated as a secondary means of egress. The items
must be removed adequately so that holes with roots, rock,
and debris do not create slip, trip, and fall hazards for respond-
ers. Cover or fill in with dirt or gravel, or barricade those areas
so no one can enter them.
Additionally, the structure may have become a shelter for
various types of wildlife. Some of the “lessons” I have learned
include the need to develop a fire stream class on how far
to “lead” a squirrel or a raccoon with its tail on fire with a
1¾-inch smooth bore nozzle in rapidly exiting a void in a
porch roof. The animal ended up out of reach in a hay loft in a
wooden barn that was not considered an exposure because of
the wind direction and its distance from the acquired struc-
ture. Also, it was not one of the buildings the owner wanted to
have demolished by fire or any other means. OOPS! Over-
growth around the barn contained poison ivy, which eventu-
ally was watered down to keep it from burning. Obviously,
direct contact with the ivy during the preparation phase could
have caused injury. Inhalation of the smoke from the burning
poisonous plant could have produced tragic results.
One exterior workday for an FDIC class found us prepar-
ing on a very cold day. On the second day of preparation, the
5
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weather warmed up significantly, and
an occasional yellow jacket or bee was
noticed flying in and out of the soffit.
After slowly and carefully removing the
exterior siding, we found the bee hive in
the wall. It covered an area spanning six
full stud spaces and was seven feet tall
at its highest.
A practice that has become habit
for some is to create a resettable roof
ventilation cap over holes cut in the
roof. You can open a vent hole from the
ground with rope, wire, or cable and
lower the rope to reset when the smoke
has lifted. The NFPA 1403 standard calls
for a provision to be in place that would
make it possible to vertically ventilate all
roof spaces in the training environment
to rapidly improve interior conditions
should the need arise. The ventilation
method may be as simple as a single
adequately sized hole cut in the middle
of a 2,000-square-foot ranch with a 4/12
pitch, or it could be multiple holes over
each finished room in a walk-up attic not
originally designed for multiple rooms
(photo 6).
When working with acquired struc-
tures, it is important to understand the
concept of nonintervention, the same
strategic option used in fire and hazmat
responses: “Buildings that cannot be
made safe as required … shall not be
used for interior live fire training evolu-
tions.” Unless the objectives for train-
ing are the skills needed to perform a
surround-and-drown scenario, you must
walk away from some buildings of-
fered for training. As one who has fallen
through a floor and was stopped by my
armpits from dropping into the room
filled with fire below, I believe staying
away from questionable structures is a
great strategy.
Inside Work
“All hazardous environmental condi-
tions shall be removed before live fire
training evolutions are conducted in the
structure.” (NFPA 1403, 5.2.5)
Starting from the ground up, you must
address numerous items.
Basement or crawl space. If a base-
ment or crawl space is accessible from
the proposed training area, inspect and
remove any hazards. This could include
fuel tanks. Render safe water heaters or
other vessels, such as pressure tanks,
that could BLEVE. Remove paints,
solvents, or other consumer packaged
hazardous materials.
Since these properties are often left
unattended for extended time periods,
often without electricity, basements can
fill with water. If the area has more than
one way out, you might use it for train-
ing after you remove the water, cover
sump holes, and drywall exposed floor
joists. If the exposed floor joists are in
the basement ceiling and you decide not
to cover the ceiling with drywall, do not
permit burning even if there is a second-
ary way out. Placing a burn barrel in the
basement can be a bad practice. With
the underside of the first floor exposed,
there is the possibility of extension of
fire through radiators, the HVAC vent,
a clothing chute, a dumbwaiter, or a
plumbing chase. Igniting the floor sys-
tem is another. These conditions make it
difficult to have a safe training session.
Conversely, cover the floor surface above
to prevent downward extension when
building a fire set in a room with a floor
vent or opening. The same openings
would pose a hazard to those crawling
over them in smoky conditions.
Often, unusable areas of basements
and crawl spaces become collection
spots for items that cannot be used
in the live fire training. Typically, the
items are personal effects the owners or
occupants have determined to be of no
value to them. If these areas are used
for disposing of noncompliant materials,
ensure that they are inaccessible during
a training evolution. Keep in mind that
you must have access to the basement
during live fire evolutions to check for
fire extension. You must ensure that all
fire is extinguished before you start the
next drill.
Floors. Cover any holes in the floor
regardless of their size to mitigate fire
travel from below or brands dropping
from above. Since firefighters with
associated PPE, hoselines, tools, and
rescue dummies weigh a great deal, the
floor should be sound. In abandoned
houses, you may find broken windows,
missing doors, and leaking roofs, which
will compromise the support for floors
and ceilings in a relatively short time,
especially if the homes have engineered
lumber for subfloors, roof decks, or stair
treads. During energy-challenged days
in the past, brick or concrete may have
been set down to support aftermar-
ket wood or pellet stoves on floors not
designed for the additional weight. If
the floor is spongy—even over a shallow
crawl space—make sure it’s supported,
and remove excessive weight.
Moving to the first floor, debate is pos-
sible regarding flooring material. Some
trainers have trained with the carpet
intact. They wet it down prior to ignition.
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If the debris can’t be used for fuel,
what do you do with it during training?
“Any debris creating or contributing to
unsafe conditions shall be removed.”
(NFPA 1403, 5.2.6, “Hazards”) Too often,
a great number of personal effects are
left behind. Rooms deemed to be unsafe
for training could be used to stage the
material, provided it does not add to
the fuel load, does not cause excessive
weight over a training area, and can be
rendered inaccessible during the evolu-
tions. Basements and attics have been
known to be receptacles for the waste
also. This has been problematic when,
early in the training session, fire drops
to the cellar or breaches a ceiling and
ignites the contents in the basement or
attic space.
Shingles, siding, soffit, and fascia can
create debris on the exterior that can
create slip, trip, puncture, cut, and fall
hazards. If the owner chooses to recycle
material, move it from the site or store
it well away from the training area and
water supply. Leftover brick, stone, or
block from the unstable chimney may be
allowed in the foundation, crawl space,
or cellar in some jurisdictions to be left
when the foundation is filled in. Other
AHJs require total removal to approved
landfills with other materials left over
from the burn.
Depending on the location and condi-
tion of trees and landscaping, you may
have to remove some portions to allow
a safe egress from windows, doors,
porches, or landings; they must not present
an obstacle to the training crews. You
can cut the foliage and move it well
away from the building for disposal later,
or you can place it in or around “out”
buildings slated for demolition by fire.
Keep in mind that while this is common
practice in some places, some jurisdic-
tions limit, prohibit, or require additional
permits for burning what amounts to
yard waste. Some landowners with the
appropriate equipment have moved the
material away for the training session
and then pushed it in or around the
house for consumption when the house is
completely consumed by fire. Sometimes
the landowner asks that a tree or an
exposure be saved. You can accomplish
this by directly applying water or Class A
foam. Foam or not, verify and adhere to
1503FE_93 93 3/3/15 8:20 AM
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any AHJ/EPA runoff requirements.
If the tractor or backhoe is on site during the burn-down and
you can do so safely, have a qualified operator punch in areas
of the roof, side walls, or attic areas, which often allows for a
cleaner burn. Maintain exposure protection lines and scene
control. The weather or circumstances will dictate whether
this is an option. We’ve all experienced a great deal of smoke
affecting property downwind in training and in real life.
Occasionally, the precut ventilation holes do not produce a
clean burn. Widening the opening with heavy equipment or
opening up the lower areas so there is more combustion air on
the windward side often will get the desired and natural result
of a more rapid, clean burn. Note: The instructor in charge and
safety officer have the final word. If this method of opening
up the building or pushing in the walls with heavy equipment
cannot be done in a safe manner, don’t allow it to happen.
The potential for more embers downwind must be account-
ed for and addressed by companies assisting in the training.
Just because the interior training may have concluded doesn’t
mean the session is over. Reinforce with departments and
mutual-aid companies that they must assist in breaking down
and returning to service after the scene is left safe.
Training Day: Not Quite
Although some factions in the fire service today would have
us train in theater smoke, with computer simulators, and with
videos, NFPA 1403 states in Section 1.2.2: “Live fire training
is intended to provide the safest and best experience possible
under both realistic and controlled circumstances.”
Fighting fire is inherently dangerous. As mentioned earlier,
for training personnel to act safely when doing dangerous
tasks requires fundamental knowledge of the skill sets noted
in NFPA 1403, Section 4.3.1 (1) – (11) and Appendix A – A 4.3.1.
referencing NFPA 1001 (1) 5.2.3 to (16) 5.5.4, which includes
most topics noted in 4.3.1 as well as radio use, search and
rescue, structural firefighting, scene illumination, and tool and
fire hose care and maintenance.
Once you’ve handled the training issues prior to live burns,
you need to have a plan for the evolutions for the burn day.
The days of lighting off an acquired structure and making a
911 call to see how folks respond are over. Documented close
calls and line-of-duty deaths have occurred when responders
en route did not know they were traveling to a training call.
A suburban department destroyed multiple sets of PPE and
injured a firefighter because the responders thought they were
going after real victims—risking a life to save a life.
Preburn planning and briefings are vital parts of the day’s
training. The briefings must spell out the objectives of each
evolution—describing all the features of the area to be burned,
discussing all facets of the evolution, and verifying instructor
and company assignments. All students must walk through
the entire structure to be familiar with the layout and potential
secondary exits. A large map or footprint of the building is
a tremendous help in presenting the documented objectives
for each drill by pointing out the path of hose travel, areas to
be searched, location of the fire, and so on. This can be done
freehand on white boards, drawn on a leftover piece of drywall
1503FE_94 94 3/3/15 8:20 AM
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from the building prep, or by having the
site map and building footprint (required
in some AHJ’s permit applications)
enlarged.
Note: As I traveled for the state fire
academy for more than three decades
assisting with or directing live burns,
I observed far too many wasted op-
portunities. The desire to run realistic
fire evolutions with responding engine,
truck, and squad companies performing
initial attacks, primary searches, and
immediate destructive ventilation or
overhaul operations often resulted in no
more than three or four students actually
seeing live fire from the inside. The rest,
sometimes as many as an additional 50
or 60 students, “humped” hose, moved
ladders, or patiently watched from the
outside seeing only smoke and the “high
fives” the instructors gave the three
students who actually got to apply water
to a fire throughout the day.
Even worse, unrealistic or overstaff-
ing of hose crews or search and rescue
teams caused overcrowding in tight
stairways or the overloading of the upper
floors of structurally questionable build-
ings. Five- or six-staffed hose or search
crews are well beyond the staffing levels
of most departments I know. Discussion
on acceptable staffing levels is a topic
for another time. If the majority of the
departments involved in the training
exercise are able to staff only two people
on a hoseline during the normal business
week, train to that.
Remember, too, the fire is just a prop.
It takes cognitive and psychomotor skills
to know how to get the hose to the fire,
recognize what’s going on, and provide
the safest outcome for a very dangerous
situation. Enhance the hose-handling
skills, search and rescue techniques,
and ladder proficiency to the drill ground
before live burn day without fire in the
mix. Capitalize on the fact that you can
produce realistic live fire conditions
and expose as many to that area of the
drill as you can on the day of the burn
when you have the luxury of an acquired
structure.
Understanding the dynamics of fire
and planning for the eventuality are
musts as you put your objectives togeth-
er. Taking into account the weather, the
layout of the building, and the relative
skill level of your students is part of the
mix. Three to five simple objectives for
each evolution allow rapid but safe turn-
around between drills and will ensure
that you will get as much value out of the
structure as possible.
Understanding your staff of instruc-
tors is just as important. Though well-
meaning and knowledgeable, their desire
to provide students with value-added
training at times will cause instructors to
add just a little more to the drill than was
planned. More often than not, they’re
making a great point, but, nevertheless,
it is freelancing and has no place in live
fire training. Having a matrix or rota-
tion established with clearly defined
roles for the instructor to accomplish the
documented objectives and the preen-
try briefing provides a vehicle to “nip in
the bud” any drive to have instructors
set their own objectives. As trainers,
command, and company officers, we
understand that “stuff happens” and
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the planned objectives to that point are
the roadmap for the evolutions. When
the ceiling comes down prematurely or
an undiscovered camp stove propane
cylinder or water pressure tank hidden in
a wall violently decomposes, it’s time to
take a detour, and the planned objec-
tives are now moot. If, to that point, the
instructors were executing the planned
objectives, getting back on track or
organizing a tactical withdrawal and ac-
countability report, things will go much
more smoothly.
Include an emergency or evacuation
plan in the preentry briefing, and estab-
lish and demonstrate an audible evacu-
ation signal. My recommendation is to
include sirens with the air horns. The fol-
lowing experience led me to demonstrate
the need for the sirens:
I was working in a small community.
We decided that three long blasts of
the air horns on the engine used for the
primary attack lines would be the evacu-
ation signal. Actively working our way to
a well-involved fire in a walk-up attic in
a large Victorian home, we left the struc-
ture without question when we heard
three long blasts of the air horn with a
longer than anticipated delay before we
heard the blasts again. Thinking that
the situation was serious, we continued
to exit. Although it was not a part of
the standard at the time, being a fairly
progressive group of instructors, we re-
ported to the “predetermined location for
a roll call” since the evacuation had been
signaled. When we appeared at the spot
(as fire continued unabated in the attic),
we were asked what we were doing. We
asked why the evacuation signal was
sounded and if everyone had gotten out
safely. At that moment, the Illinois Cen-
tral Gulf freight approaching the third
railroad crossing in town initiated its
federally required three blasts of the air
horn. The remainder of that training day
was spent chasing a single fire instead of
providing multiple evolutions for a well-
trained and motivated department.
It goes without saying that adequate
water is needed for live burn train-
ing. Although NFPA 1142, Standard on
Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural
Firefighting, is the benchmark, common
sense will get you most of the way there.
Section 4.11.1 states: “The instructor
in charge and safety officer will de-
termine the rate and duration of water
flow necessary for each individual live
fire training evolution… to extinguish
the training fire … backup lines…and
protect exposures.”
Once you’ve figured the required
fire flow for the aforementioned items,
an additional 50 percent of that supply
needs to be on hand for “unforeseen”
circumstances.
Common sense and the standards
dictate the need for backup hoselines
in addition to the backup volume for the
water supply to protect life and property.
Whether because of the geographical
layout of the site or the inability to see
the “big picture,” having attack, backup,
and ignition hoselines originating off the
same engine has been commonplace. If
the engine supplying both lines suddenly
stops running, lives are in danger. Make
sure the backup line is pumped from a
separate source or engine to minimize
1503FE_96 96 3/3/15 8:20 AM
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the potential for the loss of fire attack
water. If the secondary water supply is a
quarter of a mile down the farmer’s lane
because of vehicle access obstacles—
well, you have to do what you have to do.
Anticipation of weather conditions
may be a part of the water supply prepa-
ration. Consider prevailing winds, lay of
the land for runoff, and leaking portable
water tanks to keep pump operators out
of the smoke and prevent “sticking” the
engine or tenders/tankers up to their
frames in soft ground. Makeshift hose
bridges may be needed to channel water
away from traffic routes designated for
the water shuttle, replacement appara-
tus, or ambulances.
The instructor in charge must be con-
cerned about the capabilities of his fellow
instructors and the training background
of the students. Determine beforehand
if the pump operator knows what “net
engine pressure” is and what the friction
loss is in the hose laid out for the drill.
Hydraulics classes should be a minimum
if the department doesn’t have the luxury
of having a pump operator certified by the
appropriate training agency or according
to the NFPA standard.
You must account for site control and
security. Consider minimizing nonessen-
tial vehicles and their parking, providing
adequate staging areas for essential
traffic and parking for EMS or rehab
resources, and appropriate ingress and
egress from the site. When law enforce-
ment and the press have been a part of
the planning, designated areas for their
vehicles should be a part of the plan.
These same areas we consider for
parking and traffic also produce our
biggest headaches for safety and site
control. Keep from harm’s way visitors to
the site such as press, law enforcement,
relatives of the property owner, inter-
ested neighbors, and those who spotted
the “header” miles away. Trained local
fire police auxiliary members, fire or law
enforcement Explorer or Cadet groups, or
off-duty deputies may be great resources
for this task.
If certain visitors are allowed near the
burn building, they should be provided
with, or required to wear, PPE appropri-
ate to their involvement, and they should
be escorted at all times.
Prior to the first drill, the instructor
in charge and the safety officer should
document a list of objectives for the
day’s training. Number each drill in the
preferred order, and develop a few more
than you think there will be time for. As
the objectives and drill order are being
compiled, consider the potential weather,
number of floors, building condition, and
relative experience of the trainees.
Under present NFPA 1403 require-
ments, if the condition of the ceiling is
degraded by the water running through
the floor above, you may have to repair
or reinforce a ceiling. By alternating the
drills in such a way, you can work the
first-floor room initially and then proceed
to the room directly above.
Another option is to work in a room
until there’s nothing left. Having trained
in properties more than a hundred years
old where a true craftsman installed the
horse hair plaster, burning in a room
three or four times before the space was
compromised was not uncommon. Yet,
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in houses less than 10 years old, ceilings
failed before the fire ever reached the
door. Some AHJs will reassess a room,
provide some minor repair, and come
back to the room to drill again. Other
jurisdictions will burn in a room once,
completely “gut” the room, and then
secure it so no additional training can
be directed to that space. Both policies
can be justified under the 2012 edi-
tion of NFPA 1403. A smaller class size
would facilitate the intent of one policy
while a larger number of students could
safely be trained under the other. As you
create the objectives for each drill, keep
these things in mind and be prepared to
shuffle the order of the drills as the day
progresses to facilitate room repair or
securing areas to keep crews out of the
heat and smoke.
You can easily establish three to five
measurable objectives using a bullet-
point list, such as the following:
• The attack crew will advance a line to
the second floor and suppress the fire
in room marked #4.
• The backup line will stage at the bot-
tom of the stairs and await an order to
advance.
• The search crew will provide a primary
search on the fire floor and overhaul if
requested.
• The vent crew will await orders and
open up the window from a ground
ladder.
• The vent crew will provide a primary
search on the first floor.
The Training Begins
Accountability. A manageable span of
control is important, and you may choose
to begin the day with assigning crews
to instructors or officers. Documenting
their positions in a preconceived matrix of
drills, rotating students and staff in meth-
ods to minimize heat stress and exposure
to the elements is expected. A prepack-
aged, purchased personal accountability
system is one method; however, when
students travel from areas outside the
mutual-aid boundaries, differing “store
bought” systems may not be compatible.
Numbered cattle tags from rural supply
houses on shower curtain rings are an
affordable option and are almost firefight-
erproof. Items are easily and inexpensively
replaced when damaged or lost and can be
made on scene with a permanent marker.
Some may provide live fire training in ven-
ues drawing students from multiple cities,
states, or countries. The legal intent of the
standard can be met by using a legal pad
and a pen to list the crews’ names and
columns for checking them “in” or “out.”
Student skill levels. After instructors
have been assigned, crews ascertain
the skill level of the students by having
them demonstrate SCBA skill even if
they handed the lead instructor a copy
of their state certification. If last-minute
preparations require ladder or tool work,
direct them to the task, and observe their
abilities. Have them move charged hose-
lines to prepare for a drill. If they have
difficulty on the outside without full gear
and SCBA, take that into account as you
lead them into the fire. Better yet, require
any students who sign up for “burn day”
to participate in the preburn training
held days or weeks before.
Student walk-around and walk-through.
1503FE_98 98 3/3/15 8:20 AM
Compliant Live Burns
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Prior to briefing for the evolutions, each student must complete a
walk-through of the acquired structure. This helps them achieve
familiarity with the building should an evacuation become
necessary. Operating doors and windows, ascending and
descending stairways, and noting escape routes to lower roof
sections are a few considerations. An exterior walk-around en-
ables them to identify hazards such as slip, trip, and fall hazards
and cisterns or wells; the location of the rehabilitation section,
air fill station, and EMS; and the rally points for an evacuation
not already written into a drill or an evolution. These should be
identified and included before training begins.
Student briefing. Every live fire training session should
begin with a briefing. The students should be told how to
deal with a Mayday, to stay low in the smoke and heat, to
account for a partner, and where to stand by if an emergency
evacuation is sounded. You can do this with the total group of
students or include it in each drill’s brief.
The instructor in charge and safety officer should brief the
students on all aspects of the evolution. If a footprint of the
house is available, draw out or point to the areas of the attack
and where the backup and ignition lines will be deployed.
They should give clear direction from the documented objec-
tives prepared ahead of time, map out the route of the search
crews, and point out any ventilation assignments or other
objectives covered in the drill. The briefing should include also
projected emergency egress locations or safe havens for crews
to find relief in an uncontrolled fire.
The briefing commonly includes the rescue objectives of
the live burn. The location of the rescue mannequin does
not have to be divulged. If the evolution includes a rescue
scenario, a human may not be used for that purpose, whether
properly equipped or not. The standard states that the rescue
mannequin shall not be dressed in firefighting personal pro-
tective clothing.
Sign off on the drill. The instructor in charge and the safety
officer are required to sign off on the drill. According to NFPA
1403, 4.9 “Communications”: “A method of fire ground com-
munications shall be established” among all functional crews
“to enable coordination and external requests for assistance.”
Work out radio issues such as the number of portable radios,
proper usage, and appropriate frequencies as a part of the
plan, not the day you burn.
The safety officer has the authority to intervene and control
any aspect of the operation, regardless of rank, to prevent un-
safe acts or eliminate unsafe conditions. Safety should be this
individual’s only responsibility on site. A common practice for
the safety officer might be a walk-around and a walk-through
before each evolution.
The instructor in charge has the following responsibilities:
• To communicate with all crews, water supply, rehab, and
EMS, indicating their readiness to begin before requesting
the safety officer’s approval to ignite.
• Be responsible for the overall fireground activities including
rest and rehab, medical treatment, food and fluid replen-
ishment, and relief from the weather. This may include
additional instructional staff to provide relief from the cold,
heat, or precipitation.
1503FE_99 99 3/3/15 8:20 AM
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