MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Conductor and Ensemble Performance Expressivity and State Festival RatingsAuthor(s): Harry E. Price and E. Christina ChangSource: Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 53, No. 1 (Spring, 2005), pp. 66-77Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music EducationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3345607Accessed: 29/10/2009 11:14

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66 JRME 2005, VOLUME 53, NUMBER 1, PAGES 66-77

This study is the second in a series examining the relationship between conducting and ensemble performance. The purpose was to further examine the associations among conductor, ensemble performance expressivity, and festival ratings. Participants were asked to rate the expressivity of video-only conducting and parallel audio-only excerpts from a state-level concert festival. There were significant differ- ences among scores for conducting across festival ratings; however, there were no sig- nificant differences for ensemble performances. There was a significant interaction between festival ratings and video and audio excerpts. The relationship between expressivity of conducting and expressivity of ensemble performances found in some

previous research was not found in this study; indeed, there was not even a relation- ship found in expressivity of ensemble performance to festival ratings. The lack of an apparent relationship of expressive conducting to expressive performance found here replicates, in part, the results of Price and Chang (2001).

Harry E. Price, University of Oregon

E. Christina Chang, Fulton [Georgia] County Schools

Conductor and Ensemble

Performance Expressivity

and State Festival Ratings

In the closing statement of a 1954 radio address, Aaron Copland said, "So long as the human spirit thrives on this planet, music in some living form will accompany and sustain it, and give it expressive meaning" (Copland, 1954, p. 9). Copland is clear in his view of the

centrality of musical expressivity as part of the human experience. Thus, one of the ultimate functions of music and music-making can be said to express something of humanity. Indeed, performing expressively is one factor that is considered to differentiate highly developed performers from those who are less advanced (Gabrielsson, 1988; Woody, 2002).

Furthermore, authors continue to articulate long-held concerns

by taking music education to task for almost eliminating expression in music. Ross (1998) charges that children are often taught in a

Harry E. Price is a professor and the head of music education in the School of Music, 1225 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1225; e-mail: hprice@uore- gon.edu. E. Christina Chang is a band director in the Fulton County Schools, 786 Cleveland Avenue, S.W., Atlanta, GA 30315; e-mail: chang@fulton.kl2.ga.us. Copyright ? 2005 by MENC: The National Association for Music Education.

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manner such that their musical thoughts and feelings are rendered moot. If true, this is problematic if one adheres to the expressivist principle that "musical expression is one of many types of expressive acts that mark out life as being real and worth living" (Finney, 1999, p. 238). While both of these authors are British, we would suggest that the same can be said of many developed music education sys- tems, including that of the United States, as demonstrated by the long-held views of Bruner, Dewey, and Mursell.

The attainment of an expressive performance should be the goal of all performers (Gabrielsson, 1999), and this would seem to be part of the goals conductors have in their multifaceted relationships with their ensembles in making music. One interaction is the nonverbal expressivity that is visually communicated, through conducting, to the musicians in an effort to elicit musically expressive performances. Research on the expressivity of conductors as it pertains to the expressivity of their ensembles' performances is limited. Some emerging areas of exploration do exist (e.g., Byo & Austin, 1994; Mayne, 1992; Sheldon, 2000). For example, it is not clear if the expressivity of conductors, demonstrated during performances, has any relationship to the expressivity of their ensembles' performances (Price & Chang, 2001).

Furthermore, performances at concert festivals are strongly emphasized by the music education profession. Thus, providing more insight into the relationship between judges' expert festival rat- ings and the expressivity of conductors and their respective ensem- bles' performances might lend insights into factors affecting musical accomplishment. Of particular interest in this study is research that explores behaviors, preferences, and perceptions about conducting, performance, and musical expressivity.

Conducting studies have categorized and described nonverbal conducting behaviors (e.g., Byo & Austin, 1994; Roshong, 1978), and measured effectiveness of gestures to communicate specific musical ideas (e.g., Mayne, 1992; Sousa, 1988) and intensity of those gestures (e.g., Byo, 1990). Conductor magnitude served as the impetus for Yarbrough's (1975) hallmark study of the effect of conductor behav- iors on student performances, attentiveness, and attitudes in selected mixed choruses. Magnitude is "what a conductor can do to make a rehearsal more exciting" (p. 135). Conductors rehearsed choruses using regular-, high-, and low-magnitude behaviors, with high-magni- tude behaviors including expressive conducting gestures and facial expressions. Three of the four choruses in the study received their lowest performance scores under the low-magnitude condition; the high-magnitude conductor experienced less student off-task behav- ior than any other condition, and students' surveys indicated a pref- erence for the high-magnitude conductor.

Byo and Austin (1994) documented novice and expert nonverbal rehearsal behaviors and found that expert conductors used "sub- stantially greater" (p. 23)-although not significant-time conduct- ing expressively, significantly less time in neutral patterns, main-

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tained eye contact for significantly longer periods, and made signifi- cantly more expressive use of their bodies and faces. Their expert conductors exhibited many characteristics that Yarbrough (1975) defined as attributes of a high-magnitude conductor. Also, of several visual attributes (e.g., expressiveness, posture, clothing), expressive- ness has been the best single predictor of ratings of overall conduc- tor visual effect (Silkebakken, 1988).

Fifty-five nonverbal gestures were established by Sousa (1988) and then demonstrated to junior high, high school, and college musicians to examine the effectiveness of those gestures to communicate spe- cific musical ideas. All three groups of musicians successfully identi- fied 19 gestures, and older students correctly identified significantly more gestures. Mayne (1992) also found that participants' experi- ence levels influenced their ability to correctly identify conducting gestures with and without facial expressions. Facial expression did not significantly increase ability to interpret conducting gestures. It is

interesting that in a recent study, Byo and Lethco (2001) found that ensemble members' eye contact with the conductor did not seem to be influenced by the conductors' eye contact, but it was affected by the pace of the music, with slower-paced music eliciting more eye contact on the part of the ensemble. In another study of conductor attributes, Byo (1990) found that high school band and choir stu- dents, undergraduate nonmusic majors, and undergraduate and

graduate music majors were able to identify intensity of conducting gestures.

Relationships among nonverbal and verbal behaviors, band per- formances, and attitudes have been examined. Even the manner in which a conductor approaches a podium in rehearsal affects the ensemble's perception of conductor competence (Fredrickson, Johnson, & Robinson, 1998), and the conductor's disposition can influence feelings about the music (Sheldon, 2000). Grechesky (1985) analyzed the relationship of verbal and nonverbal conducting behaviors to performances and found that conductors of more musi- cal bands used more expressive gestures, such as significantly more

body movement, and demonstrated more use of left-hand cues and left- and right-hand coordination. It also seemed that emblems- movements that can be communicative substitutes for words-were strongly related to musical evaluations.

Specific work in expressive conducting has revealed that such con- ducting might exert a demonstrable influence on performance and attitude. Sidoti (1990) found individual performances by high school instrumentalists under expressive conducting to be significantly more accurate than performances with strict conducting. A study in which researchers examined possible effects of strict versus expres- sive conducting on performances and opinions of eighth-grade band students yielded different results (Price & Winter, 1991). No signifi- cant difference was found between ratings of group performances under strict and expressive conductors; however, student opinions did reflect a significantly more positive reaction to expressive con-

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ducting. In a related study, Laib (1993) worked with college and high school bands to examine the impact of strict versus expressive con- ducting. Again, students reacted more positively to expressive con- ducting in their opinions of the music, conductor, and conducting; however, in this instance judges significantly preferred the expres- sively conducted band performances of these more advanced instru- mentalists, replicating Sidoti's performance results with individual high school instrumentalists.

House (2000) explored the effects of expressive and nonexpres- sive conducting on the expressive performances and attitudes of advanced instrumentalists. The effects of presentation and any inter- actions were also investigated. Senior class level or above trumpet players (N= 60) performed a newly composed etude under both con- ditions while following a videotaped conductor on a television mon- itor. Judges assigned a single expressive score to each audiotaped per- formance with a high level of agreement (r = .91) among judges' scores. Results with these advanced instrumentalists indicated that expressive conducting contributed to performances that were more expressive, and both the judges and performers preferred the expressive conducting to the strict conducting. It might be that more-experienced musicians are more attuned to, and thus more sensitive to, expressive gestures.

Ensemble expressiveness might also influence ratings of band fes- tival performances. Burnsed and King (1987) found that musical effect and overall effect significantly influenced the final rating of concert bands' performances. In this instance, musical effect was defined as the expressiveness of the performance by the ensemble and the quality of the music selected.

Crist (2000) investigated listeners' identification of changes in tempo and dynamics as well as perception of expressiveness of solo trombone excerpts. Participants (college music majors) used a Continuous Response Digital Interface to identify the changes in tempo and dynamics under four conditions: no change in tempo and dynamics, change in tempo only, change in dynamics only, and change in both tempo and dynamics. Respondents then rated the perceived level of expressiveness using a survey form based on a Likert scale of 1 to 5. Participants rated performances with no changes in tempo and dynamics significantly lower and those with changes in tempo and dynamics significantly higher than they did other conditions, thus providing some empirical insights into factors that contribute to musical expressivity.

Effects of presentation modes on identification of musical expres- siveness have been examined. In one study in which solo perfor- mances were presented in a series of pairs, with and without expres- sion, the investigator found that the method of presentation had no significant effect on music majors' identification of expression (Crist, 1996). Lucas and Teachout (1998) examined whether different modes (audio-only, video-only, and audio/video combined) of small- ensemble performances influenced ratings of expressiveness by

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music and nonmusic majors. They found significant main effects for presentation modes, expressiveness, and major; however, they also found significant interactions between each pair of variables. These interactions make interpretation of the data somewhat problematic, but all participants had a propensity to rate expressive performances higher, and musicians tended to make a greater discrimination between their ratings of nonexpressive and expressive performances. Audio and audio/video-combined presentation modes elicited simi- lar responses between majors and nonmajors, and the greatest dis- parity was for the video-only mode.

Different presentation modes have also been examined to deter- mine their effect on musical perception of performance expressivity. Lucas, Hamann, and Teachout (1996) had graduate and undergrad- uate music majors evaluate expressiveness of expressive and nonex- pressive performances in different presentation modes-aural-only, visual-only, and aural/visual-combined. The visual aspect of the tape was a frontal view of conductors. There were significant differences between ratings of expressive and nonexpressive performance con- ditions and among presentation modes, as well as a significant inter- action between performance conditions and presentation modes. The greatest differences occurred between ratings of expressive and nonexpressive performances in visual-only and aural-only modes.

Research in which investigators have examined the influence of physical attractiveness of soloists on evaluations of their perfor- mances might be relevant to evaluations of conductors' conducting. In one study, participants rated vocal performances presented in visual-only, audio-only, and audiovisual modes (Wapnick, Darrow, Kovacs, & Dalrymple, 1997). Results revealed that audiovisual per- formances were rated significantly higher than audio-only, women rated performances higher than men did, female performers were rated higher than were men, and more-attractive male singers were rated higher than were less-attractive ones. Attractiveness has also been found to cause a bias in performance ratings of violinists (Darrow, Mazza, & Wapnick, 1998) and children pianists (Darrow, Mazza, & Wapnick, 2000; Ryan & Costa-Giomi, 2004). Given these and previous findings about the impact of visual cues on evaluations of musical performance, it is apparent that continued research on the effect of modes (visual, aural, audio-visual) of presentation on perception and evaluation, as well as controlling their content, is war- ranted.

Much of the previous literature led to the first study of this series (Price & Chang, 2001), of which the present study is the second. In the first study, we sought to examine music education students' rat- ings of conductors' expressivity and that of their respective ensem- bles' performances, and to determine if the scores were related. Upperclassman music education majors at two different universities rated the expressivity of conductors on videotape with no sound and parallel excerpts of audiotaped performances of middle and high school bands playing different levels of music, conducted by black

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and white men and women, performing at a district band festival. Videotapes displayed a frontal shot of the conductors during the first 60 seconds of the B section of their second piece. There was no sig- nificant relationship between expressiveness ratings of conductors and their respective ensembles' performances. Furthermore, no sig- nificant differences were found between overall ratings of expressivi- ty of conductors (video only) and ensembles (audio only). Also, there was no significant difference between participants from the two universities, and there were no significant interactions.

Correlation analyses revealed that participants' ratings were inter- nally consistent, as evidenced by the high level of reliability and con- cordance, suggesting that it was feasible to ask participants to evalu- ate expressivity aurally and visually in this manner.

We constructed the present research using similar procedures to those used in our 2001 study. Participants were asked to rate con- ductor and ensemble expressivity on tapes of live performances. Greater control was attempted by limiting the gender and race of the conductors to white males and using the same difficulty level of music and the same classification of ensemble, band, and school size. We also included a wider range ofjudges' ratings. Therefore, the pur- pose of this study was to further examine the relationship between scores for conductor and ensemble expressivity using a more homo- geneous sample of stimuli. Their relationships to festival ratings were of additional interest.

METHOD

Participants were 89 university students enrolled in conducting, band repertoire, and instrumental techniques courses at three major state universities in three different regions of the United States, none of which was in the one where the performances occurred. Four response-form scores were incomplete, yielding a sample of 85 stu- dent scores used in analyses. Not all students responded to all demo- graphic questions, so the total responses that follow do not all include a sample of 89. Eighty-six of 88 respondents indicated that their majors were music education. Their areas of emphases were band, orchestra, chorus, piano, and other (N = 70, 5, 8, 4, and 2, respectively). All students were either currently enrolled in or previ- ously had taken conducting classes, with 50 of the 88 participants cur- rently enrolled and 58 of 87 already having completed at least one conducting course. The mean years in college for those who had not and had completed a conducting course (N= 29 and 56, respective- ly) were 2.3 and 4.2, respectively.

The participants rated nine public high school conductors and their respective ensemble performances at a state-level concert band festival. Permission was secured from band directors to audiotape and videotape record their state-level concert festival performances. A Panasonic commercial VHS video camcorder, model AG-195, was used to record the conductors. The camera was set up behind the

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bands in an organ balcony directly in front of and focused on the conductors. At a minimum, the torso, arms, and head of each con- ductor were on the recording. Band performances were recorded on digital audiotape (DAT) using the concert hall microphone system.

High school band performances of Grade IV (on a 6-level scale) music constituted the largest number of ensembles with the widest range of judges' ratings. Use of a single grade of repertoire helped control for music difficulty. The Virginia Band and Orchestra Directors' Association Concert Music List was used to categorize the grade of music performed at the festival and includes more than 850 Grade IV works, including compositions such as "Toccata for Band" (Erickson), "Drammatico" (McBeth), and "Overture for Winds" (Carter). The grade of the music is designated by a committee of experts and is based on musical criteria, including key, range, tessi- tura, rhythmic difficulty, duration, independence of parts, density, and expressive demands of the individual player. Judges' ratings were secured at the festival site. The performance rating forms the judges used included categories of tone, intonation, technique, interpreta- tion, balance, and musical effect.

Sixty-second excerpts, the duration of which was previously found adequate (Price & Chang, 2001), of nine different compositions per- formed by nine bands were used. Three of nine performances each received an overall festival rating of Superior (I), Excellent (II), or Good (III). The beginning of the B section of each band's second piece was used for the conductor video and band audio stimuli. These pieces all followed the overture style in which the B section could be characterized as more lyrical and allowing opportunities to focus more on expressivity than technique. The video and audio- tapes were digitally excerpted and recorded onto digital videotape and compact disk to serve as master recordings. The audio excerpts were normalized in an effort to ensure equivalence of excerpts' peak loudness. Videotape excerpts contained visual-only examples with no audio track. Videotapes and audio CDs sent to each university con- sisted of identical excerpts in different random orders with identical instructions.

Participants were asked to judge the expressivity of conductors via videotape on a scale from 1 = "least expressivity" to 100 = "most expressivity." Then each participant evaluated audio CD excerpts of bands using the same scoring scale. A practice example of a middle school band playing Grade II music was included on both the video- tapes and audio CDs to familiarize the respondents with the evalua- tion procedure.

RESULTS

A correlational analysis between the overall ratings of the nine audio and video excerpts yielded a nonsignificant (p = .20) and inverse, low (R = -.48) relationship. A multifactorial repeated-mea- sures ANOVA was used to examine the evaluations of the videotape

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and audio CD rating of the excerpts. The factors were audio versus video scores and festival ratings. This analysis yielded significant differ- ences among festival ratings [F (2, 170) = 25.59, p < .0001, Lambda = 45.17], and a significant interaction [F (2, 166) = 35.85, p < .0001, Lambda = 71.70] between video versus audio presentations and festi- val ratings. No significant difference [F (1, 85) = 19.90, p = .77, Lambda = 0.85] was found for video versus audio presentations.

Separate post hoc means tests were made among festival ratings of the videotapes of conductors and audiotapes of ensemble perfor- mances using the Bonferroni/Dunn procedure with an alpha level of .0167 for each comparison. On the videotapes, there was a significant difference between conductors' expressivity scores whose bands received a festival rating of I and those who received either a II or III, with the conductors of the I-rated bands receiving the lowest scores (M = 50.1, 63.4, and 59.9 for I, II, and III, respectively). The audio- tape ensemble expressivity scores (M = 57.9, 55.6, and 58.7 for I, II, and III, respectively) yielded no significant differences among festi- val ratings.

DISCUSSION

This study produced mixed results for audio and video evalua- tions. Frankly, we find the results for both disconcerting. The direc- tion of the significant differences in the videotape scores, with the conductors of bands receiving festival ratings of I being scored low- est, and the lack of significant differences in the audio scores and their interactions with festival ratings would seem to indicate no rela- tionship among video excerpts, audio excerpts, and festival ratings. These data are not consistent with previous research suggesting rela- tionships between conductor nonverbal behaviors and performances (Grechesky, 1985; House, 2000; Laib, 1993; Sidoti, 1990; Yarbrough, 1975). Our study also does not replicate the findings by Burnsed and King (1987), who reported that musical affect, which includes expressiveness of ensemble, significantly influenced scores of concert band performances; however, their study was an examination of adju- dicators' assessments, whereas our scores were given by music educa- tion students. The lack of relationships of our audio expressivity scores with festival ratings is particularly disturbing, given that the methodology was quite similar to a previous study where the scoring system was found reliable, with poorer performances and fewer con- trols (Price & Chang, 2001).

This study, an extension of an exploratory study (Price & Chang, 2001), replicates, in part, those results of a lack of a relationship between conductor and ensemble expressivity scores. Strikingly, in our present study, the video excerpts of the conductors whose bands received a I at festival were rated significantly less expressive than were the bands rated II and III. These results were so disconcerting that the data entry, manipulation, and analyses were checked several times to exclude human errors. While it is widely accepted that

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ensemble conducting and ensemble performances are related, it might be that this is the case in some settings and not others. Indeed, a lack of a relationship between conductor gesture and students' per- formance has been reported by Skadsem (1996, 1997), who found that choristers performed dynamic changes, an integral part of expressivity, best when given verbal instructions as compared to con- ducting gestures, written instructions, or singing with a choir as heard through headphones. Skadsem suggests that "more focus should be placed on the expressive markings in the music when the piece is first introduced" (p. 518), followed by a shift to the related expressive conducting after a few rehearsals, in order to teach musi- cians to be attuned to expressivity and its related gestures. It might be that preparation for festivals in school settings, which can occur over a period of months, might be so reliant on verbal communica- tion that conducting becomes moot.

There could be several explanations for the finding that the scores given the conductors do not follow the direction of the festival rat- ings. Some of these are that this result is a statistical artifact of the conductor selection or the sample size. Also, given the amount of rehearsal time likely spent in preparation in the high school setting, the bulk of musical information might be transmitted during the rehearsals, not the performances. It is also possible that the expres- sivity of conducting at this level (Grade IV music) bears little rela- tionship to the expressivity of the ensemble performance, although, we hasten to add that we believe that conducting at all levels, begin- ning through professional, should be fully expressive and musical at all times.

The lack of any significant differences among the expressivity scores of festival ratings of ensemble audiotapes is perplexing, given the previous literature. Perhaps other factors, such as ensemble or conductor appearance, rhythmic and pitch accuracy, balance, and other musical factors, far outweigh expressivity, although some of these factors should be considered necessary for acceptably expres- sive performances.

Nevertheless, the focus of this study was to investigate the rela- tionship between the expressivity of conducting and ensembles per- formances. Thus far, in our two studies, there has been none shown. This and the previous work involved secondary school performances where considerable time is spent in rehearsal and verbal communi- cation that might outweigh the nonverbal aspects of conducting in one performance at a festival. Also, it might be that by focusing on expressivity rather than other factors, such as performance quality, there are relationships between conducting and ensembles' perfor- mances that exist that are not being revealed. The next step in this series will likely focus on quality of conducting and ensemble per- formance, and possibly the factors raters give for their assessments.

Clearly, this is a complex subject, and settings and levels might have an impact on effects of conducting behaviors. In this study, we were dealing with high school students in a live, pressure-filled per-

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formance. Much research on the impact of conducting has examined rehearsals or reactions to videotaped conductors. While there is a loss of control when live performances are examined, the possible enhancement of generalizability might outweigh this drawback in control. Larger samples and examinations of more varied settings and conductor and performance factors could help us better under- stand the conductor-ensemble performance interactions that occur daily in thousands of rehearsals.

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House, R. E. (2000, March). Effects of expressive and nonexpressive conducting on advanced instrumentalists. Paper presented at the MENC National Biennial In-Service Conference, Washington, DC.

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Woody, R. H. (2002). The relationship between musicians' expectations and their perception of expressive features in an aural model. Research Studies in Music Education, 18, 53-61.

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Submitted September 10, 2004; accepted February 2, 2005.