Conference reports Science conference in search of answers Conference on Sustainable Development, Science and Policy, organized by the Norwegian Research Council for Science and the Humanities (NAVF) in liaison with the European Science Foundation and in cooperation with the Regional Conference on the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in the ECE region, Bergen, Nonuay, 8-72 May 1990

The major concern of the Bergen Sci- ence Conference was sustainable de- velopment, science and policy.’ The aim of the conference was to provide an international forum of science dis- course in search of viable answers to the puzzles posed by global environ- mental change. This ambition has been realized, with a focus on five major themes:

(1)

(4

(3)

(4)

(5)

Management of global climate change. Global food supply: sustainable agriculture and the natural re- source base. Economics of sustainable de- velopment. Integrating scientific disciplines to achieve sustainable develop- ment. The interface of science and policy.

The conference attracted 150 scientists and makers of science policy, repre- senting most of the countries in the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) region, as well as several de- veloping countries (altogether 30 countries were represented). The par- ticipants spanned all the major scien- tific disciplines which are in a position to take on the challenges of the Brundtland Commission’s Report, in- cluding the social sciences. The con- ference had an explicit interdisciplin- ary focus.

First, the conference resulted in a series of conclusions about the present stock of cumulative knowledge re- garding the five areas. Second, this knowledge stock-taking was accompa- nied by prognoses on possible future processes which may promote or hin-

der global sustainable development. It should be pointed out, however, that science has no easy and quick solu- tions to the major problems being faced. Third, the conference has re- sulted in the identification of a set of elements for a research agenda, pre- cisely with the aim of enhancing the chances for sustainable development. Finally, the conference offers a set of policy recommendations thought to be conducive for promoting global sus- tainable development.

General observations

The most important feature of the Bergen Science Conference is the fact that it has set in motion a dynamic process forging linkage between knowledge and action. The general observations of the conference deli- berations include the following.

(1) The message conveyed by Our

Common Future is a very powerful one. It is more than interdependence; more than international cooperation; more than technology and resource transfers; more than interdisciplinar- ity; more than intergenerational equi- ty; more than science and policy dia- logues. Our Common Future provides the soul, the ethic and the ethos for our actions. Without this, no sustain- able development is possible. Most of the environmental issues are confron- tational and divisive whether between North-South, rich-poor, or between disciplines. The science community has the obligation to provide the empirical and knowledge-base for the faith we have in Our Common Future.

(2) As in many other areas of un- certainty in policy matters, after tak-

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE December 1990

ing into account the possible consequ- ences for being wrong, it will be better to find out we have been roughly right in due time than to be precisely right too late.

(3) When dealing with uncertainty, it must be realized that global environ- mental change inherently involves sci- entific uncertainty. Moreover, our understanding of these risks changes over time. Because of this, institutions and legal regimes must be developed that can be responsive to changes and scientific knowledge. The natural and social sciences have an important role to play in identifying and clarifying the risks and in relating the risks to costs and benefits of intervention.

Where the enviromnental changes are global in scale, irreversible and transgenerational, anticipatory assess- ments aimed at narrowing uncertain- ties and estimating types and magni- tudes of effects are particularly needed. In such cases, early interven- tion by policy makers may be crucial to prevent costly harms.

(4) A number of recommendations start from the assumption that the present use of environmental re- sources jeopardises the welfare of fu- ture generations. It is therefore neces- sary that the true social cost of present resource use be reflected in prices and regulations and that appropriate ac- tion be taken to rectify market failure or government policy failure.

(5) Equity, notably the effect of policy measures on the existing in- come distribution of the rich and poor, has been a strong concern, especially with regard to the debt burden. This debt burden weighs heavily on less developed countries and Eastern European countries, and is one reason which prevents them from adopting sustainable development practices. Efficient ways to relieve this debt bur- den will therefore have to be found.

(6) Great emphasis has been laid on the necessity of following innova- tive strategies for setting up monitor- ing and data collecting systems involv- ing both the natural and the social sciences. They should be based on improved understanding of how so- cial, physical and biological processes and systems interact.

(7) A crucial question which arose

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repeatedly is related to the expected rapid population growth and its im- pact upon sustainable development. It was felt that research should address this complex question, seeking to understand which would be the best way to help reduce population growth.

(8) Scientists have a responsibility to convey their research in a faithful and intelligible manner, clarifying gaps in knowledge and outlining un- certainties in prediction.

They also have an obligation to share research and knowledge across national borders and with all policy makers. They must be allowed to re- search and publish results, subject to peer review, irrespective of the con- sequences of their predictions and analyses. This obligation should also extend to commissioned research where the results are unambiguously in the public interest.

Scientists should establish interna- tional training programmes for young researchers in the natural and the so- cial sciences to address multidisciplin- ary issues of global environmental change, and to enable a much wider range of people to become skilled in the practice of sustainable develop- ment.

Scientists have a duty to listen to the fears and the expectations of the pub- lic and to incorporate these into their research.

(9) In addressing its recommenda- tions to appropriate audiences, such as governments, industry, the scientific community, research funding agencies and training institutions as well as the general public, the Bergen Science Conference views its recommenda- tions as an independent input to the process leading up to the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.

It is the stated wish and intent of the Bergen Science Conference that the international scientific community car- ry its share of responsibility, arising from the ‘Bergen Process’, to incorpo- rate the principles outlined above into the post-1992 action plans.

(10) The ‘Bergen Process’ identi- fied the importance and urgency of new and extended scientific research to assist the policy making process shift to sustainable development. This

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means that national governments, the international scientific community and other donors must provide sufficient funds for this vital work to be done.

1. Global climate change

Calculations using mathematical mod- els of atmospheric behaviour (General Circulation Models - GCMs) suggest that ‘business as usual’ growth in all the greenhouse gases (GHG) taken together, would produce a warming effect equivalent to a doubling of CO2 by about year 2030 at present trends in emission rates.

There is very widespread (but not universal) agreement among scientists that this doubling of CO, equivalent would give an increase of globally averaged surface temperature (GAST) between 1.5”C and 4.5”C by the year 2030. It is important to realize that any increase within this range is equally likely.

It is useful to note that the onset of an ice-age involved a temperature drop of 45°C and took at least ten times longer to occur than is expected from greenhouse warming.

Much more research needs to be done on the role of clouds when con- structing GCMs. Additionally, it is now very important to include oceanographic data in GCMs.

It is also important to recognize the relatively modest predictive ability of GCMs. Ozone modelling, although much more advanced, still could not predict an anomaly as great as the ozone hole. This comparison may have significance for the state of de- velopment of GCMs.

Recommendations

1.1 Numerous studies have drawn attention to the fact that many actions which would already benefit climate protection are cost-effective and worth doing in their own right for other reasons, eg energy saving and efficiency measures, phasing-out chlorofluorocarbons, slowing de- vegetation, switching to gas as a more carbon-efficient and cleaner fuel. These should be implemented as rapidly as possible. They are a form of ‘insurance policy’ without guaranteed bonuses on the premiums. They also

buy time for subsequent, more costly and ‘difficult’ measures, which is parti- cularly important if costs are logarith- mic or non-linear over time.

1.2 It is now timely and pressing to formulate a meaningful framework convention for GHG-induced climatic change under which protocols for con- trolling emissions of specific gases can be accommodated at the appropriate time. In this regard, it must be empha- sized that stabilization of CO* emis- sions or even a 20% reduction, will not stabilize climate; about three to four times this percentage reduction will be necessary. However, we should move as quickly as possible to as large an emissions reduction as is societally sustainable. This convention should include the design of special measures to assist and facilitate the transfer and co-development of effective technolo- gies for climate protection to develop- ing countries. The feasibility of includ- ing the monitoring proposals as part of the convention should also be consi- dered.

1.3 It is extremely important (in addition to the items for action listed here) to embark on a carefully worked out and comprehensive constellation of contingency planning activities and castings. Should any significant warm- ing signal be detected in future, it will be possible to deploy a comprehensive series of adaptation and GHG- limitation strategies quickly and de- cisively. These contingency planning activities are not expensive and act as another kind of low-cost insurance policy. But they will have very impor- tant institutional implications which will need careful examination.

1.4 It is most important now to develop a carefully designed monitor- ing scheme for oceans, climate and adequately safeguarded habitats, and other related phenomena to obtain and follow up a set of ‘indicators’ which can act as ‘fingerprints’ of climatic change.

2. Global food supply

Chronic hunger - especially seasonal hunger - has not been eliminated for at least 700 million poor people, the overwhelming majority of whom are found in developing countries and pre-

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE December 1990

dominantly in rural areas. Persistent environmental degradation is threat- ening the natural resource base which underpins global agriculture.

World food supplies, measured in terms of marketable surpluses, may be precarious in the next five years as environmental degradation threatens production potential, and population and income growth increases demand. The prognosis for alleviating poverty and chronic hunger is poor.

At the national level the ability of developing countries to secure sustain- able and equitable agricultural de- velopment and access to adequate food are critically constrained by the debt crisis and the agricultural policies of industrialized countries. At the household level in developing coun- tries, it is recognized that access to sufficient food is fundamentally linked to the problem of ensuring secure and sustainable livelihoods, especially for the rural poor.

The scarcity of arable land, prob- lems of land degradation and erosion, the inappropriate use of land, water shortages and salinization are now universal problems. The prospects of increased harvesting of aquatic resources - marine living resources, inland fisheries and aquaculture - depend critically on our ability to manage these resources sustainably. Biological diversity, which is impor- tant to agriculture at several levels, is seriously threatened.

Recommendations 2.1 Major efforts are now required to:

0

0

0

integrate these equity and sus- tainability concerns with consid- erations of efficiency and pro- fitability in agriculture; secure long-term commitments of development assistance and national resources for the infra- structure and institutional investments required for a more sustainable and equitable agri- culture; revolutionize information sys- tems, data collection and indica- tors for integrating and analys- ing the interactions between biophysical, environmental, economic, social and demo-

graphic trends of rural liveli- hood systems.

2.2 Science and policy need to be concerned with the economic determi- nants affecting food security and agri- culture in developing countries at the national and household level. This should extend to the state of the key natural resources sustaining global agriculture - especially land, water, flora, fauna and aquatic resources - and improvement in monitoring and evaluation. The development of the necessary indicators and analytical methods for assisting policy making is also essential.

2.3 A number of important re- search activities should be strength- ened or developed. For example: sci- entific research should be encouraged to have more inputs into the natural resource management and. policy agenda, particularly with regard to integrating equity and sustainability concerns into agricultural develop- ment; an anticipatory research prog- ramme should be established to assess the impacts on different farming sys- tems of changes in climatic and en- vironmental factors (eg temperature, water availability, COZ, etc) and their interrelationship with social and eco- nomic parameters; extensive analysis should be conducted on the economic incentives for controlling land de- gradation and erosion, especially the impact of agricultural input pricing.

2.4 There should be commitment to a world-wide convention on biological diversity, particularly concerned with conservation of biologically diverse re- gions such as Amazonia and with ex- ploring appropriate financial assist- ance and compensation mechanisms.

Increased investment should be made in scientific research and train- ing in biodiversity, particularly train- ing taxonomists to work in developing countries.

2.5 In education, training and com- munication, advances are needed on the following fronts: policy makers must be increasingly sensitized to the sustainability and equity dimensions of agricultural development; in the long term, formal training and educa- tional initiatives must extend the tech- niques and skills necessary for sustain-

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able agriculture to poor farmers and fishermen, with a complementary commitment to reducing illiteracy; and, in the short term, innovative communication methods (learning-by- doing extension work, audio-visual media, etc) must be used to convey technologies and skills in rural areas.

3. Economics of sustainability

Sustainable development requires that environmental resources be allocated now in such a way that the potential average quality of life of future gen- erations is not endangered. At present the use we make of environmental resources does jeopardise the welfare of future generations, and this is large- ly because those resources are not priced at their true social and environ- mental cost. The undervaluing of en- vironmental resources means that they are overutilized, thus imposing unsus- tainable stress on the environment. In addition, the poverty of individual re- source users in low income countries is closely related both to the degradation of resources and to the rates of population growth in these countries. Both are serious current threats to the sustainability of development.

Recommendations

3.1 It is crucially important to face resource users with the true cost of these resources, and to devise instru- .ments such as resource user fees, emission charges or tradable quotas, which will ‘correct’ the prices for such resources struck in the market. It is recognized that such intervention will require political consent and vigorous regulation, at times involving interna- tional commitments.

3.2 A precondition for the develop- ment of such instruments is an under- standing of how existing prices are set, and how they influence resource use. Government policy and the lack of well-functioning markets are common causes of the distortion of resource prices, and should be monitored for this purpose.

3.3 At present, it cannot be said with confidence that sustainable growth is feasible. A high level of uncertainty exists about the longer- term effects of present levels of activ-

Conference rrporls

ity. Given that some of these effects are potentially irreversible, there is a very strong case for applying the pre- cautionary principle. This principle implies that acts of emission which, on the best evidence available, may lead to irreversible damage, should be avoided.

3.4 Since there is no international authority to enforce international rules on the management of environ- mental resources, it is necessary to rely on voluntary agreements. To be mutually beneficial such agreement may well involve transfers from one country to another. The high level of indebtedness of many of the East European and low income countries in particular, mean that they may simply be unable to meet the conditions of any international agreement. It is im- portant to recognize that this limita- tion will require increases in the flow of aid and environmentally sound technologies in such countries.

4. Integrating disciplines

The scale of global climate change which dominates the political agenda of today exposes more clearly than ever before the critical shortcomings of discrete scientific disciplines. In- deed, the single-minded pursuit of dis- ciplinary research could well prove counterproductive to scientific excel- lence. These questions can be answered only, if at all, through in- novative and collaborative research efforts. utilizing. integrating, and perhaps reinterpreting the best pieces of knowledge and understanding that existing disciplines have to offer.

There is a growing need for interdis- ciplinary research, particularly hc- tween the natural and social sciences. There is a danger that events will move too fast for the quality control of this research to be developed in time. The scientific community needs to give itself guidance as to what would be criteria of excellence, how to main- tain best practice and how this re- search should most effectively bc man- aged.

At least three sets of concepts may help bridge the gap between social and natural sciences: uncertainty, discon- tinuity and surprise, including the no-

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tions of chaos and catastrophe; carry- ing capacity, adaptive flexibility and evolutionary adjustment; organiza- tion, entropy and in-built correction.

Rrcommrndutions

4.1 New techniques of visual repre- sentation of future environmental change should be developed and ap- plied. This could be computer based, depicting science-led forecasts of possible environmental states based on climate change or other human driven processes. This would provide a stimulating learning experience. in- volving the public in a user-friendly way in all the sciences and the creative arts. This work should be developed in all countries, internationally.

4.2 Steps should also be taken in advance of the 1992 Brazil conference to connect centres throughout the globe to carry out research on the general theme of poverty, population growth and environmental vulnerabil- ity. Both natural hazards and resource scarcity are connected to a failure of understanding of the links between destitution and degradation.

5. Science/policy interface

The model which relates science to policy is triangular, involving scien- tists, governments and the public. All three groups affect and arc affected by the actions of the others. While in some cases scientists present options directly to policy makers, from which they reach a decision, an important path in open societies is through the public. which serve as the medium for translating scientific research results into political pressures upon decision makers. This means that increased attention must be given to finding ways of translating scientific know- ledge to the public effectively, includ- ing expanded use of scientific journals oriented toward policy-important re- sults, training programmes for those in the media, scientific briefing for policy makers (including political parties) and training programmes with natural and social sciences on the pragmatics of policy making.

Recommendations

5. I The scientific community should

realize that both the public and policy makers will increasingly call upon sci- entists to take part in political debates which include scientific issues. This can lead to politically determined sci- ence agendas and to ‘negiotiated’ sci- entific advice and consensus. The in- ternational scientific community must find ways to respond to the requests of both the public and the policy makers, while at the same time keeping their independent methods of scientific assessment.

5.2 To improve the linkages be- tween the scientific community and policy making, national environmen- tal assessments are needed that profile problems in ways that are geared to decision-making needs. So far as possible such assessments should be developed independently of national governments and should be subject to high standards of broad, international, peer review.

Such assessments should make use of national expertise and institutions and be related to the country report process for 1992.

5.3 It is important to ensure that multilateral development banks in- clude social and environmental impact assessments in all investment deci- sions. This is particularly essential for the proposed European Bank for Re- construction and Development. The assessment process must be: included as early as possible in the investment cycle; designed to include local scien- tific actors and institutions; transpa- rent to the affected communities; and organized to encourage disciplinary interaction and consensus.

Follow-up towards 1992

In order to ensure that the science community is actively and broadly in- volved in the process leading up to the Brazil conference, it is strongly recom- mended that a major science confer- ence be held about six months in advance. This should take the form of a Global Science Summit and should underscore the need for a comprehen- sive, yet focused, scientific approach which is required to face the chal- lenges put to the UN Conference in 1992. Beyond EC0 1992 the aim is to produce an enduring global research

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE December 1990

and action agenda in the field of sus- tainable development.

~ntrodu~t5ry overview The World Commission on Environ- ment and Development (WCED) has brought to the global political agenda a series of major challenges facing humankind. The main message of the WCED Report is that sustainable de- velopment can only be achieved through fundamental change in scien- tific prognoses, economic analysis, in- stitutional response and public values.

The Bergen Science Conference - ‘Sustainable development, science and policy’ - recognizes that the interna- tional scientific community has both a professional and a moral obligation to contribute to the enhancement of more sustainable and equitable de- velopment on a global scale.

For the common endeavours to- wards sustainable development to be successful, political action is needed both nationally and internationally. Science has a vital role to play in providing decision makers with faith- ful and intelligible scientific know- ledge embracing the methods and in- terpretations of the natural and social sciences acting in unison.

Scientists recognize their responsi- bility to publicize any scientific know- ledge relevant to the formulation of policies for sustainable development.

Unless integrated scientific methods and principles are followed, the credi- bility and value of science will be greatly reduced. Therefore, scientists have the obligation to express uncer- tainties inherent in the phenomena being studied as well as in the methods used.

Furthermore, scientists should play a vital role in providing independent analysis and offering the most in- formed advice to all policy makers, irrespective of national boundaries.

However, conventional scientific re- quirements based on the burden of proof should not act as a constraint in presenting scientifically significant trends and probabilities that indicate potentially serious threats to the achievement of the sustainable de- velopment objective.

As in many other areas of uncer- tainty in the policy arena, it will be

better to find we have been roughly right in due time to be precisely right too late.

The Science Conference expresses deep concern over the growing dispar- ity between the rich and the poor in the world, because this disparity makes it more and more difficult to achieve peace, fraternity and sustain- able development. Yet a desperate drive for growth without full regard to the maintenance of ecological and biogeochemical life-support proces- ses, as well as providing for the basic living needs of all peoples, could well result in fearful false economy.

Within an action programme to eli- minate Third World debt in exchange for sustainable development invest- ments, and reform of trade barriers to support similar aims, we need better understanding of the mechanisms that determine internatjonal economic re- lationships. This will involve research to examine and analyse how trading conventions can be adjusted gradually to close the opportunity gap between developed and developing countries.

The effect on resource use and the physical environment within develop- ing countries caused by aid, trade and economic and technological develop- ments in industrialized countries should be taken up as a priority re- search area for cooperation between scientists in the North and in the South.

Governments and scientific institu- tions share a major responsibility with regard to supporting the build-up of scientific competence on environmen- tal issues in the developing world. This should be done through transfer of funds to support specific Third World environmental change research cen- tres (eg on regional levels), as well as through extensive scientific exchange programmes between North and South.

Part of this effort must be directed at research training to improve the skills and the competence of scientists literate in the natural and social scien- ces, to perform research and give advice. This training should include a capacity to learn from the environ- mental management knowledge of local cultures.

The Science Conference also

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appeals for strengthened cooperation between appropriate scientific institu- tions in North America and Western Europe and similar institutions in Eastern Europe.

The most threatening environmental changes affecting the global commons must be tackled through international cooperation, It is of vital importance that Nort~South and East/West scien- tific cooperation is promoted with a view to ensuring appropriate action.

Global environmental change re- quires an integrated approach. For science this implies that different disci- plines should come together in a joint effort through interdisciplinary col- laboration to search for new and in- novative methodologies in order to handle the challenges posed by global environmental change.

Research disciplines and institutions are often characterized by inefficient compartmentalization and frustrating fragmentation. The structure and management of science and technol- ogy institutions should be assessed to enable these institutions to improve their responsiveness and ability to deal with the wide range of approaches required to understand global change, and determine considered response.

The scientific community has a ma- jor role in developing appropriate educational schemes at all levels to advance general awareness and know- ledge about environmental issues and challenges. In particular there is a need for improved educational curri- cula and practical case study analysis designed to integrate knowledge and insights from the different disciplines.

Defining and approaching sustain- able development presents major challenges for research both within traditional disciplines and for a fully interdisciplinary science.

Important general topics for re- search, inter a&z, are: to clarify, am- plify and obtain better insight into the concepts of sustainable development, as practiced in the past, and as cur- rently interpreted in various countries and cultures; to monitor environment conditions in order to expose trends that are not likely to result in sustain- able environmental well-being; to de- fine critical environmental loads for various regimes and resource zones,

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namely what can be endured on a sustainable basis; to identify national and international measures required in different policy sectors to achieve sustainable development; to assess and evaluate the political, economic and social consequences arising from possible pathways to achieve sustain- able development; to identify and ex- plain the conceptual limitations and institutional impediments of choosing particular sustainable development routes. These constraints may be set in both a national and an international context; to examine the relationship between scientific prognoses, econo- mic evaluation of consequences, and ethical imperatives so as to identify suitable processes and decision

weights for evaluating critical courses of action to ensure the well-being of future generations.

This edited version of The Executive Sum- mary and the Introductory Overview of the Bergen Science Conference on Sustain- able Development, Science and Policy are reproduced here by permission of Dr Joseph Mykletun, Conference Secretary General and Director of the Norwegian Research Council for Science and the Humanities (NAVF).

‘The Bergen Science Conference was stimulated by the report of the World Com- mission on Environment and Develop- ment, chaired by Prime Minister Gro Har- lem Brundtland of Norway and published as Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 1987.

Global change and polar science

International Conference on the Role of Polar Regions in Global Change, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA, 1 l-15 June 7990

Although details of the scenarios proposed by various research groups differ, virtually all are in agreement that the effects of climate change will be amplified in the polar regions. The fact that the circumarctic region is undergoing rapid development, the existence of large volumes of ice-rich permafrost and the vast hydrological resources in high latitudes all dictate that the polar regions should be of central concern for those involved in planning for global change. The Inter- national Conference on the Role of the Polar Regions in Global Change was designed to bring together polar specialists from many different areas of science. With international and loc- al organizing committees composed of leading scientists, and an impressive list of corporate and institutional sponsors, the conference seemed des- tined to be a landmark event from the time of its first announcement. These expectations were confirmed; more than 400 participants from at least 15 countries attended the meeting.

Alaska Governor Steve Cowper opened the conference by stressing a theme that was to be repeated often during the next four days and with

which readers of this journal are likely to agree: the lines of communication between scientists and policy makers are currently flawed, a situation that must be addressed if the political pro- cess is to be brought to bear on the important issues involved in global change. Other plenary speakers stres- sed the unprecedented rate of en- vironmental change now occurring, the need for an interdisciplinary, earth-systems approach to science, and the fact that scientists must view global change in social and economic, as well as scientific, terms. The need for accessible archives, fastidious documentation of data-collection acti- vities and better area1 coverage also received strong advocacy in the plen- ary sessions.

The main body of the conference was divided into seven broadly de- fined topical areas, each consisting of invited papers, contributed papers and posters. The large number of papers (211) necessitated that three concur- rent sessions be held at most times. Given this restriction, papers pre- sented as posters probably received the widest exposure.

Section A, ‘Detection and monitoring

of change’, was dominated by papers on remote sensing but also included several on managing and accessing data derived from sensors. Monitoring of sea ice was also a major concern in this section. ‘Climate variability and climate forcing’ formed the basis for Section B, many papers of which fo- cused on synoptic-scale climatology. A certain amount of overlap occurred between several of the various sec- tions and is apparent from the title of Section C, ‘Ocean-sea ice- atmospheric interactions and proces- ses’, which contained many model re- sults. Section D, ‘Effects on biota and biological feedbacks’, was a potpourri of material on atmosphere-biological relations, ranging from benthic to alpine environments and from fichen- ology to topics in human medicine. Traditional cryospheric topics were handled in ‘Ice sheet, glacier and per- mafrost responses and feedbacks’ (Section E). Many of these papers focused on the critical question of sea level fluctuation, and the proceedings of the conference should prove to be a valuable source of material on this question. Other papers in this section touched on a variety of geocryological topics and glacier fluctuations in va- rious parts of the world.

Proxy information

The search for climatic analogues in the geological past constitutes an im- portant component in studies of global change, and Section F, ‘Paleoenviron- mental studies’, treated a wide variety of the proxy information available in the polar regions. The conference pro- vided an ideal forum for interaction between workers from the various dis- ciplines concerned with paleoecology.

In recent years the importance of trace gases as a source of greenhouse enhancement has become apparent. The arctic region holds a vast quantity of methane, a much more effective greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, in the form of gas hydrates and in the region’s peatlands. This topic was treated in Section G, ‘Aerosols/trace gases’, along with the question of ozone depletion and a variety of pollution-related topics.

The final day was devoted to one of

82 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE December 1990