The Role of CultureConflict Across Cultures

Augsburger, David W., Conflict Mediation Across Cultures: Pathways and Patterns (London: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992), pp. 18-25, 28-35, 84-94, 137-142, 244-258, and 279-283.

Mark McKennaBUS 162, International and Comparative ManagementSan Jose State University

Conflict and CultureWhat is conflict?

◦ A situation in which two or more interdependent people or groups perceive an incompatibility in the needs or interests they seek to achieve

Conflict is inevitable and universalConflict is also shaped by culture

◦ What constitutes a conflict varies across cultures

◦ Responses to conflict are culturally determined

◦ How conflicts are resolved, including the role of third parties, in any, also depends on culture

Conflict Across Cultures“Conflict in all cultures is characterized by multilevel communication, alternate movement between subtle cues and visible behaviors, intricate combinations of convert responses and overt reactions, ambivalent feelings and polarized perspectives, defensive strategies of concealment and offensive attempts to provoke crisis, and so on. All these multifactorial, multilevel, multiple-meaning signals, cues, and behaviors leave the knowledgeable participant confused and the outsider confounded.

- David Augsburger Conflict Mediation Across Cultures (p.

24)

The “Where” of ConflictIn individualistic, low-context cultures

◦ Shaped by the individual◦ Perceived linearly, as a one-to-one

difference◦ Addressed explicitly (“I can’t accept this

proposal as submitted”)In collectivistic, high-context cultures

◦ Determined by culture and social norms/controls

◦ Perceived holistically, with mutually reinforcing causes and consequences

◦ Approached indirectly (“I am not completely satisfied with this proposal”)

The “Why” of ConflictIn individualistic, low-context cultures

◦ More likely to perceive conflict as instrumental

◦ Triggered by violation of individual expectations

◦ Individual is responsible, others need permission to interfere

In collectivistic, high-context cultures◦ More likely to perceive conflict as

expressive◦ Triggered by violation of group norms or

ethos◦ Individual inconvenience is ignored, but

behavior that conflicts with group values must be addressed

The “What” of ConflictIn individualistic, low-context cultures

◦ Confrontational, one-on-one negotiating style

◦ Resolved by the two parties, preferably without a mediator

◦ Capacity to directly address difficulties and differences sign of personal maturity

In collectivistic, high-context cultures◦ Non-confrontational, triangular resolution

style◦ Third-party approaches widely used◦ Provide objectivity, emotional distance,

face-saving and consideration of contextual issues

The “Which” of ConflictFactual-inductive

◦ Visible data, selection of important facts, linear reasoning based on logical inferences

◦ Common in Western cultures, scientific method

Axiomatic-deductive◦ Determination of relevant general

principles or values and their application to specific situations

Affective-intuitive◦ Based application of relational, emotional

and personal perceptions of the situation◦ More common in high-context cultures

Conflict and Facework

Saving FaceMembers of all cultures negotiate over

the concept of faceIndividualistic, low-context cultures

emphasize◦ self-positive face (expressing need for

inclusion)◦ self-negative face (defending self from

infringement)Collectivistic, low-context cultures

emphasize◦ other-positive face (ensuring the other feels

included)◦ other-negative face (by signaling respect and

mutuality)

Case: The Hit-and Run DriverAs you listen, consider each parties

◦ Communication style Direct, indirect Elaborate, exacting succinct

◦ Reasoning process Are they linear and rational or affective? Are they inductive, deductive or intuitive?

◦ Face-saving strategy Emphasis on self or other-positive and -negative

face?

◦ Worldview Is it a matter of fate or personal responsibility?

Conflict Cycles

Working Through Conflict

Lederach, 1988 Fisher and Ury, 1981

Negotiation Across CulturesWho negotiates?

◦ Seniority vs. expertise◦ Directly, with third-parties, or through go-

betweensHow does one negotiate?

◦ Work through the issues in order◦ Agree on general principles first◦ Adopt extreme positions and compromise

How is agreement achieved?◦ Through consensus (what can each party

live with)◦ By splitting the difference (win-lose

competition)◦ By creating new value (win-win outcomes)

ForgivenessThree forms of forgiveness

◦ Punitive – repayment of harm done◦ Inclusive – acceptance of harm done◦ Reconciliatory – transformation of

relationshipFour related concepts

◦ Confession – recognition of responsibility◦ Contrition – appropriate sorrow or regret◦ Restitution – reestablishment of mutual

justice◦ Reconciliation – releasing the past,

restructuring the present, reopening the future

Homework for WednesdayRead entries in ExecutivePlanet.com

◦ Japan (http://www.executiveplanet.com/index.php?title=Japan) Japan: About Japan About Japan Japan: Appointment Alert! Making Appointments Japan: Business Dress Guidelines for business dress Japan: Conversation Welcome topics of conversation Japan: First Name or Title? Addressing others with respect Japan: Gift Giving Selecting and presenting an appropriate business gift Japan: Let's Make a Deal! What you should know before negotiating Japan: Prosperous Entertaining Entertaining for business success Japan: Public Behaviour Acceptable public conduct

◦ US (http://www.executiveplanet.com/index.php?title=United_States) United States: First Name or Title? Addressing others with respect United States: Let's Make a Deal! - Part 1 What you should know before

negotiating United States: Let's Make a Deal! - Part 2 What you should know before

negotiating