consciousness and cognition

PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION

CHAPTER

Second EditionSecond Edition

Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White

consciousness and cognition

6


why study consciousness, the nature of thought, and communication?Consciousness, as humans experience it, is the key difference between humans and the lower animals. Waking thought, sleeping, and other forms of conscious awareness make up the better part of the human experience. Many theorists also see language as the major “dividing line” between humans and animals, but that line seems to be blurring—or is it? In a very real sense, to understand consciousness is to understand what it means to be who we are. We need to understand more about the thought processes that occur when we are asleep or awake. Why do we need to sleep at all? What is the difference between dreaming thought and waking thought? How do we organize our thoughts and use them to solve problems? How do we communicate those thoughts to others? How close do animals really come to true language?


Learning Objectives

• LO 6.1Consciousness and levels of consciousness• LO 6.2Why sleep and how sleep works• LO 6.3Stages of sleep and dreaming• LO 6.4Sleep disorders and normal sleep • LO 6.5Mental images and concepts in thinking• LO 6.6Solving problems and make decisions • LO 6.7Failure of problem solving and creative thinking• LO 6.8Language and different elements and structure of language• LO 6.9Language and thinking and are animals able to learn langua

ge• LO 6.10Ways to improve thinking


Consciousness

• Consciousness – Awareness of activity around one at any

given moment– The awareness is used to organize

behavior• Waking consciousness

– Thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear, organized

– Feel alert

LO 6.1 Consciousness and levels of consciousness


Consciousness

• Altered state of consciousness– Shift from waking

consciousness in the qualityor pattern of mental activity

– Can be increased or decreased alertness

– Divided attention– Example: cell phone and driving

Can put the driver at risk

LO 6.1 Consciousness and levels of consciousness


The driver of this car has several competing demands on his attention: working his cell phone, listening to the passenger read from a letter, and driving his car. If he manages to get himself and his passenger safely to their destination, it's possible that he won't even remember the trip—he may be driving in an altered state of consciousness.


Biology of Sleep

• Circadian rhythm – Cycle of body rhythms that occur over a

24-hour period “circa” – about “diem” – day

– Sleep-Wake cycle is controlledby the hypothalamus

LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works


Biology of Sleep

• Circadian rhythm – Suprachiasmatic nucleus

Hypothalamic structure that is light sensitive

Signals to pineal gland to release melatonin



Figure 6.1 Sleep Patterns of Infants and AdultsInfants need far more sleep than older children and adults. Both REM sleep and NREM sleep decrease dramatically in the first 10 years of life, with the greatest decrease in REM sleep. Nearly 50 percent of an infant's sleep is REM, compared to only about 20 percent for a normal, healthy adult (Roffwarg et al, 1966).


Stages of Sleep

• REM sleep– Relatively active type of sleep – Most dreaming takes place in this stage– Voluntary muscle movement is inhibited

• Non-REM sleep– Deeper, more restful kind of sleep– Muscle movement not inhibited– Four stages



Brain Wave Patterns and Sleep

• Electroencephalagram (EEG)– Measures electrical activity in brain– Different patterns during different stages

Beta waves– Awake, mentally active, small and fast EEG

pattern Alpha waves

– Become drowsy, waves slightly larger and slower



Brain Wave Patterns and Sleep

• Electroencephalagram (EEG)– Different patterns during different

stages Theta Waves

– Slower and larger Delta Waves

– Deepest sleep, largest and slowest waves



Non-REM Stages of Sleep

• Non-REM Stage 1: Light Sleep– Theta wave activity increases, alpha

wave activity fades– Hypnogogic images– Hypnic jerk

LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming



• Non-REM Stage 2: Sleep Spindles– Body temperature continues to drop– Heart rate slows, breathing becomes

more shallow and irregular– EEG will show the first signs of sleep

spindles




• Non-REM Stage 3 and Stage 4: Delta Waves– Deepest stage of sleep– Body is at its lowest level of functioning



Figure 6.3 A Typical Night's SleepThe graph shows the typical progression through the night of the different stages of sleep. The four non-REM stages are indicated on the y-axis; REM stages are represented by the green curves on the graph. The REM periods occur about every 90 minutes throughout the night (Dement, 1974).


REM Sleep and Dreaming

• During REM sleep:– Body temperature increases, eyes move

rapidly under eyelids, heart beats faster– Brain waves similar to waking state– 90% of dreams occur in REM sleep

• REM paralysis– Voluntary muscles are paralyzed



REM Sleep and Dreaming

• REM behavior disorder– Brain mechanisms that inhibit the

voluntary muscles fail– Occurs mainly in men over 60



Why Two Types of Sleep?

• NREM sleep increases in response to physical demands on body

• REM sleep increases in response to emotional stress



Why Two Types of Sleep?

• REM rebound– Increase in REM sleep noted after REM

deprivation• Infants spend 50% of sleep in REM

– Not dreaming but forming new neural connections



Sleep Disorders

• Sleepwalking (somnambulism) – Affects 20% of population– Occurs during deep sleep– More common in children

LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep


Sleep Disorders

• Night terror– State of panic experienced while asleep– Relatively rare disorder – Person experiences extreme fear and

screams or runs around without waking– Occurs during stage four

• Nightmares – Bad dreams occurring during REM sleep



Nightmares are common in children and often involve being chased by a monster or similar frightening creature or being lost in a strange place like this young boy.


“Murder While Sleepwalking”

• Refers to REM behavior disorder rather than ordinary sleepwalking

• Use of this defense is sometimes successful

• Past history of sleep disturbance should be present



This woman has insomnia. In insomnia, a person has trouble getting to sleep, staying asleep, or getting enough sleep. How will this woman feel when she gets up in the morning?


Problems During Sleep

• Insomnia – Inability to fall asleep, stay asleep, or

have good quality of sleep• Sleep apnea

– Person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more

– Continuous positive airway pressure device assists with breathing



Problems During Sleep

• Narcolepsy – Falling into REM sleep during the day

without warning– Experience Cataplexy

Sudden loss of muscle tone



Table 6.1 Sleep Disorders


Suggestions for Sleep

• Go to bed only when sleepy • Only use the bed for sleep

– Bed should be a cue for sleeping• Don’t try too hard to get to sleep

– Increases tension, makes it harder to sleep



Suggestions for Sleep

• Keep to a regular bedtime schedule • Don’t take drugs that slow the nervous

system– Can cause REM rebound thus depriving

body of deep sleep



Thinking and Mental Images

• Thinking (cognition)– Mental activity that involves

Organizing and attempting to understand information

Communicating information to others



Thinking and Mental Images

• Mental images – Representations that stand for objects or

events– Have a picture-like quality– Engage mental images in mind much

like would interact with physical object imagined

– In the brain, creating a mental image is reverse of seeing an actual image



Figure 6.4 Kosslyn's Fictional IslandIn Kosslyn's 1978 study, participants were asked to push a button when they had imagined themselves moving from one place on the island to another. As the graph below the picture shows, participants took longer times to complete the task when the locations on the image were farther apart (Kosslyn et al., 1978).


Concepts

• Represent category of objects, events, or activities

• Ability to think in terms of concepts allows communication with others

• Allow identification of new objects and events that fit concept

LO 6.5 Mental images and concepts in thinking


Concepts

• Can represent different levels of objects or events– Superordinate concept

Most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit”

– Basic level type Concept around which other similar

concepts are organized, such as “dog,” “cat,” or “pear”



Concepts

• Subordinate concept – The most specific category of a concept– Such as "Granny Smith apple”

• Formal concepts – Defined by specific rules or features– Science and mathematics use many

formal concepts



Concepts

• Natural concepts – Concepts formed as a result of

experiences– Not defined by rigid rules



Concepts

• Prototype– A concept that closely matches the

original concept– Personal knowledge about a type of

object affect the nature of a given prototype for the category

– Greater differences and variations in prototypes exist between cultures that are dissimilar



Concepts

• Concepts are one way people deal with the variety of information bombarding the senses

• Organize by schemes and scripts– Schemes

Mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people

– Scripts Schema with a familiar sequence of

activities



Table 6.2 From prototypes to Atypical Examples (Most Typical to Least Typical)


Problem-Solving

• Problem-solving – Cognition that occurs when a goal must

be reached – Thinking and behaving in certain ways

• Trial and error (mechanical solution) – One possible solution after another is

tried until a successful one is found

LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions


Problem-Solving

• Algorithms – Specific, step-by-step procedures for

solving a problem type



These children try one possible sequence of moves after another until finding just the right combination. This is an example of trial-and-error learning.


Problem-Solving

• Heuristic – “Rule of thumb” – Simple rule intended to apply to many

situations– Representative heuristic

Categorize by shared characteristics Can lead to stereotypes



Problem-Solving

• Heuristic – Means–end analysis

Difference between starting situation and goal assessed

Steps taken to reduce difference• Insight

– Sudden perception of a solution to a problem



Problem-Solving Barriers

• Functional fixedness – Block to problem solving – Comes from thinking about objects in

terms of only their typical functions• Mental set

– Persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked in the past

– Hesitate in trying new solution

LO 6.7 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking


Problem-Solving Barriers

• Confirmation bias – Search for evidence that fits one’s

beliefs– Ignore evidence that does not fit those

beliefs



Creativity

• Process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways

• Convergent thinking – Problem is seen as having only one

answer– All lines of thinking lead to single answer – Uses previous knowledge and logic



Creativity

• Divergent thinking – Starts from one point – Develop different ideas or possibilities

based on that point



Figure 7.2 The String ProblemHow do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time?


Figure 6.5 Solution to the String ProblemThe solution to the string problem is to use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you.


The Dot ProblemCan you draw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the page and without touching any dot more than once?


Figure 6.6 Solution to the Dot ProblemWhen people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is to draw the lines so they extend out of the box of dots—literally “thinking outside the box.”


Table 6.3 Stimulating Divergent Thinking


Language

• System for combining symbols (such as words)

• Unlimited number of meaningful statements

• Statements made for the purpose of communicating with others

• Represents internal mental activity

LO 6.8 Language and different elements and structure of language


Elements and Structure of Language

• Grammar – System of rules governing the structure

and use of a language• Syntax

– Rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences




• Morphemes – Smallest unit of meaning within

language• Semantics

– Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences




• Phonemes – Basic units of sound in language

• Pragmatics – Aspects of language involving the

practical ways of communicating with others

– The social “niceties” of language



Pragmatics involves the practical aspects of communicating. This young mother is talking and then pausing for the infant's response. In this way, the infant is learning about taking turns, an important aspect of language development. What kinds of games do adults play with infants that also aid the development of language?


Relationship Between Language and Thought

• Piaget– Concepts preceded and aid the

development of language– Concepts become the “pegs” on which

words are “hung”

LO 6.9 Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language


Relationship Between Language and Thought

• Vygotsky – Believed almost the opposite– Language helps develop concepts

language– Could also help the child learn to control

behavior Including social behavior



Language and Cognition

• Linguistic relativity hypothesis– Thought processes and concepts are

controlled by language• Cognitive universalism

– Concepts are universal and influence the development of language



Animal Language

• Animals communicate with sound and physical movement

• Attempts made to teach sign language– Many of these studies are not “good

science”• Linguists debate if animals are truly

learning language if they are not also learning how to use syntax



Dr. Irene Pepperberg, a research scientist at MIT, is shown with her star pupil, Alex the gray parrot, who was the main subject of her research into animal language until his death in September 2007.


Mental and Physical Exercise forBetter Cognitive Health

• Aerobic fitness has been associated with improved cognitive function across the life span– Better executive control and memory

processes in preadolescent children– Better educational outcomes later in life– Improved affect and visuospatial

memory in young adults

LO 6.10 Ways to improve thinking


Mental and Physical Exercise forBetter Cognitive Health

• Aerobic fitness has been associated with improved cognitive function across the life span– Increased hippocampal volume in older

adults– Promotes functional connectivity among

key brain areas of frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes Result of increased oxygen and blood flow

to brain

LO 6.10 Ways to improve thinking

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