Conservation BiologyA Primer for NePAl
Richard B. PrimackPrakash K. PaudelBishnu P. Bhattarai
Dreamland Publication Pvt. Ltd.Kathmandu, [email protected]
Defining Conservation Biology 1
Preface xiAcknowledgements xiiA Note for the Nepalese Edition xiii
What is Biodiversity? 21
C h a p t e r 1
C h a p t e r 2
Contents
The New Science of Conservation Biology 2 The philosophical roots of conservation biology 4
Case Study 1.1: Ancient Culture Conserves Wildlife Populations 5Conservation biology’s international scope 8
Case Study 1.2: Conservation trends in Nepal 10The interdisciplinary approach: A case study with sea turtles 12
Conservation Biology’s Ethical Principles 14Achievements and Challenges 16Summary 18
Species Diversity 22What is a species? 23Measuring species diversity 26
Genetic Diversity 27Ecosystem Diversity 29
Species interactions 30Food chains and food webs 34Keystone species and resources 34Ecosystem dynamics 37
Biodiversity Worldwide 38How many species exist? 38Where is the world’s biodiversity found? 42The distribution of species 44
Case Study 2.1: Biodiversity in Nepal 45Summary 50
The Value of Biodiversity 53
Threats to Biodiversity 89
Ecological Economics and Environmental Economics 55Case Study 3.1: Biodiversity in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in Nepal 56Direct Economic Values 59
Consumptive use value 59Case Study 3.2: Traditional use of biodiversity in Nepal 62
Productive use value 63Indirect Economic Values 65Case Study 3.3: Payment for watershed services in Nepal 66
Ecosystem productivity 67Water and soil protection 69Climate regulation 70Species relationships and environmental monitors 70Amenity value 72
Case Study 3.4: Ecotourism in Nepal 75Educational and scientific value 76Multiple uses of a single resource: A case study 77
The Long-Term View: Option Value 78Existence Value 80Environmental Ethics 82
Ethical arguments supporting preservation 83Deep ecology 86
Summary 86
Human Population Growth and Its Impact 90Case Study 4.1: Cost of deforestation in the Churia Range 93Habitat Destruction 94
Threatened rain forests 96Threatened Himalayan biodiversity 99Other threatened habitats 100
Habitat Fragmentation 104Threats posed by fragmentation 105
Case Study 4.2: Himalayan serow, habitat loss and fragmentation 107Edge effects 109
Environmental Degradation and Pollution 111Pesticide pollution 113
C h a p t e r 3
C h a p t e r 4
Water pollution 113Air pollution 115
Global Climate Change 117Case Study 4.3: Climate Change, Biodiversity, Glacial Lake Outbursts, and the Himalayas 121
Warmer waters, acidification, and rising sea levels 123The overall effect of global warming 123
Overexploitation 125International wildlife trade 128
Case Study 4.4: Illicit wildlife trade in Nepal 129Commercial harvesting 131
Case Study 4.5: Himalayan fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) and people’s livelihood 132Invasive Species 134
Invasive species on islands 137Invasive species in aquatic habitats 137The ability of species to become invasive 140Control of invasive species 141Genetically modified organisms 142
Disease 143A Concluding Remark 147Summary 148
Extinction is Forever 151
C h a p t e r 5
The Meaning of “Extinct” 153Rates of Extinction 154
Extinction rates in aquatic environments 157Extinction rates on islands 157Island biogeography and extinction rate predictions 158Local extinctions 160
Vulnerability to Extinction 163Case Study 5.1: Gharial Conservation in the face of global extinction 164Case Study 5. 2: Vanishing vultures and their conservation in Nepal 165Problems of Small Populations 169
Minimum viable population (MVP) 169Loss of genetic variation 172Effective population size 176Demographic and environmental stochasticity 179The extinction vortex 182
Summary 183
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C h a p t e r 6
Applied Population Biology 188Methods for studying populations 189Monitoring populations 190
Case Study 6.1: Monitoring snow leopard in Nepal Himalaya 192Case Study 6.2: The Tale of a Small, but Persisting, Population: Wild Buffalo in Koshi Tappu 196
Population viability analysis 197Metapopulations 198
Case Study 6.3: A metapopulation approach of wild tigers in Nepal’s Terai 201
Conservation Categories 203Legal Protection of Species 207National laws 207Species Action Plan 208
Case Study 6. 4: Species Conservation Action Plan in Nepal 210International agreements 213
Establishing New Populations 216Case Study 6.5: Rhinoceros reintroduction in Nepal 218
Considerations for animal programs 219New plant populations 222The status of new populations 223
Ex Situ Conservation Strategies 224 Zoos 225Aquariums 230Botanical gardens 231Seed banks 232
Summary 234
Conserving Populations and Species 187
Establishment and Classification of Protected Areas 238Marine protected areas 241The effectiveness of protected areas 242Prioritization: What should be protected? 245
Case Study 7.1: Can Important Bird Areas (IBAs) help the con servation of Nepal's birds? 250
Measuring effectiveness: Gap analysis 253
C h a p t e r 7
Protected Areas 237
viii | Contents |
Designing Protected Areas 255Protected area size and characteristics 258Networks of protected areas 261
Case Study 7.2: From managing protected areas to conserving land scapes: Nepal as an example 262Case Study 7.3: The human-elephant conflict in Nepal 264Landscape Ecology 266Managing Protected Areas 268
Managing sites 270Monitoring sites 272Management and people 274
Case Study 7.4: Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Nepal 274Case Study 7.5: Kanchenjunga Conservation Area: an example of community based conservation 276
Zoning as a solution to conflicting demands 278Case Study 7.6: Buffer zone: managing protected areas in the hu man dominated landscape 278Challenges to Park Management 283Summary 284
Unprotected Public and Private Lands 288Case Study 8.1: Fish in Himalayan waters 289
Human-dominated landscapes 291Ecosystem Management 294Working with Local People 296
In situ agricultural conservation 299Extractive reserves 300Community-based initiatives 301
Case Study 8.2: Biodiversity impact of the community forestry in Nepal 302Case Study 8.3: Dalla homestay: benefiting both conservation and communities 304
Payments for ecosystem services 305Evaluating conservation initiatives 306
Restoring Damaged Ecosystems 306Approaches to ecosystem restoration 309Targets of major restoration efforts 310The future of restoration ecology 314
Summary 314
C h a p t e r 8
Conservation Outside Protected Areas 287
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Sustainable Development at the Local Level 319Case Study 9.1: Local knowledge as a resource for conservation in Nepal 320
Local and regional conservation regulations 321 Land trusts 322
Case Study 9.2: Biogas and carbon trade in Nepal 325Enforcement and public benefits 326
Case Study 9.3: Environmental issues and public interest litigation in Nepal 326Conservation at the National Level 328International Approaches to Sustainable Development 330
International conservation agreements 330International summits 334
Funding for Conservation 336The World Bank and international NGOs 336Environmental trust funds 338Debt-for-nature swaps 338How effective is conservation funding? 339
Conservation Education 341The Role of Conservation Biologists 343Case Study 9.4: How a conservation biologist can make a difference 346Summary 347
C h a p t e r 9
The Challenge of Sustainable Development 317
Appendix: Selected Environmentla Organizationsand Sources of Information
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
About the Author
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A Note for the Nepalese Edition
The Nepalese people have faced striking changes over the last few decades, including population expansion, urbanization and global environmental change. More than 50% of the forest area has been destroyed in Nepal during the last 50 years. Human population in the same period has increased more than 3 times, and urban areas have greatly expanded. Yet, about 75% of the Nepalese people still rely on agriculture for subsistence living. Much of Nepal’s natural resources are being used in unsustainable ways but the majority of the Nepalese people have no alternatives to support their livelihoods. Therefore, the challenge for conservation biologists is to develop appropriate strategies that benefit both communities and conservation. The truth is that conservation cannot be sustainable in Nepal unless the local people see the benefits of conservation.
Over 34% of Nepal's land area is currently preserved in some way, with 23% in the protected area system and 11% in community forests. This impressive figure indicates the substantial conservation commitment of the government and people of Nepal. However, past negligence in conservation planning, mainly due to limited scientific knowledge, has already caused a worrying situation in Nepal. Three representative examples illustrate the conservation challenges faced by Nepal: deforestation in Churia causes regular flash flooding in the lowland region (Case Study 3.4), no space is available to establish a large protected area in the biodiversity rich midhill region (Case Study 4.2) and many species are locally extinct from some regions of the midhill and Terai regions (chapter 5). It is now important to ask: what should be the future strategy for Nepal? One of the most important strategies is conservation and environmental education at all levels and for all people. Well-trained and motivated conservation biologists, working with an informed public and government officials can help in solving these real conservation problems of Nepal (Case Study 9.2).
Many individuals and organizations, both from within Nepal and outside of Nepal, kindly contributed their recommendations for readings, ideas, photographs and expert essays for the successful completion of this book. This type of wonderful cooperation in Nepal is crucial for educating future conservation biologists. We still do not completely understand Nepal's biodiversity and conservation problems, mainly because of limited scientific research (chapter 2). Conservation education is more than an awareness campaign; it is a philosophy for taking actions that contribute to the sustainable and wise use of biological resources. It is up to all stakeholders, including Nepalese conservation organizations, international conservation groups and researchers, universities, government agencies, and conservation biologists, to develop a vision and solutions for the protection and sustainable use of Nepal’s rich biodiversity.
Last but not least, I invite you to contact me for any helpful suggestions for improvement of future edition of this adaption. Please email your suggestions at [email protected].
Prakash K. PaudelKathmandu, Nepal
September, 2013
NotePlease e-mail your suggestions to Prakash K. Paudel at [email protected]
