its economy in such a way as to negatively impact these natural resources and compromise the ecologi-cal stability of much of the nation. These natural resources are threatened and in most cases destroyed to maximize gains in the short term, which might pro-hibit their future use. The lack of knowledge about the disappearance of natural resources might also affect human welfare. Soils, water, and biodiversity and its many ecological services are jeopardized by the increasing spread of agricultural production. Para-guay epitomizes many developing countries: it is trying to adopt democracy to allow the participation and free speech of its citizens while also supporting sound legal environmental frameworks, but com-pletely lacks effective law enforcement. Paraguay also lacks the national capacity needed to address the envi-ronmental matters that are addressed by various international conventions.
UNIQUENESS OF PARAGUAY
Paraguay is ecologically unique, being located at the con-fl uence of six ecoregions: the Atlantic Forest, the Humid Chaco, the Chaco Woodland or Dry Chaco, the Pantanal,
SUMMARY
Since the 1970s, the immigration of Brazilian com-mercial farmers producing soybeans for export has led to the massive deforestation of the Atlantic forest in the eastern region of Paraguay. By the start of the new millennium, this change in land use had caused major ecological damage and had also exacerbated the problem of landlessness and rural poverty as small farm holdings were increasingly wiped out by large-scale commercial agribusiness. By contrast, until recently the semi-arid western Chaco region, compris-ing 60% of the national territory but only 2% of the national population, had been largely protected due to its relative isolation. I have been one of the leading campaigners seeking to protect the rich biodiversity of the Chaco region. This region is now also under serious threat from an escalation in deforestation by Brazilian cattle companies.
INTRODUCTION
Paraguay holds rich natural resource assets but, like many other developing countries, is rapidly expanding
people should be part of developing conservation plans for the areas where they live.
DEFORESTATION AND PROTECTED AREAS IN PARAGUAY
Rapid native forest loss is a major threat to Paraguay ’ s rich biodiversity. Paraguay has experienced a massive reduction in forest cover over the last several decades. High rates of forest loss have been reported by interna-tional organizations such as the UN Food and Agricul-ture Organization (FAO). In 1973, 73.4% of the Atlantic Forest region was covered by forest, which was reduced to 40.7% by 1989 and further to 24.9% by 2000 ( Huang et al ., 2007 ). By 2010, only around 10% of it remained, according to the non-governmental organi-zations (NGOs) Guyra Paraguay and WWF-Paraguay.
Two concomitant deforestation processes have con-tributed to the rapid forest loss, the fi rst driven by set-tlers and the second driven by large private landowners. Between 1989 and 2000, 80% of the areas deforested were cleared by large private landowners and 20% by settlers. Protected areas (PAs) helped to reduce forest loss within their own boundaries. The average percent-age of forest loss in the areas within 5 km of the bound-ary of Paraguay ’ s major forest PAs was 39% during the 1989–2000 period ( Huang et al ., 2007 ). This high rate of forest loss in the areas surrounding PAs has isolated the PAs as ecological “islands” and has also spurred deforestation within the PAs themselves. These PAs are critical to the conservation of the many species endemic to the Atlantic Forest region and surrounding areas. However, in Paraguay as with many other developing countries, the boundaries of the PAs are often ill-defi ned, and enforcement of the rules for preservation within them non-existent. Further, land tenure in PAs is often unclear. Clearly, there is an urgent need to genuinely “protect” the PAs because they represent the only life-line for a large proportion of the region ’ s biodiversity. PAs in Paraguay are claimed to cover 14% of the land area, but this represents an exaggeration. In fact, PAs only cover less than 2% of the land area, with the surround-ing buffer zones receiving no support for protection. The fl agship PA in the Chaco is Defensores del Chaco National Park of around 780,000 hectares (ha), which together with other national parks comprise a complex of more than 1,500,000 ha. For this vast region, only a single ranger is assigned, and there is a complete lack of logistical and fi nancial support for that ranger.
the Southern Grasslands, and the Cerrado. This gives the country a rich biodiversity in a relatively small territory (406,752 km 2 ), but also the need to have diverse land-use policies that encompass the produc-tion of livestock in the semi-arid Chaco and the humid Atlantic Forest, two extremely different environments that require very different agricultural practices. Applying the practices that work well in areas with rich forest soils to dry forest areas could cause serious damage to both the natural habitats and the species that inhabit them. Clearly, diverse agricultural policies are crucial for the country to develop in an environ-mentally friendly fashion. The projected growth of the national population from 6.7 to 10.3 million people by the middle of the century ( Population Reference Bureau, 2012 ), coupled with the desire for increased standards of living, will make the development and implementation of carefully considered plans that couple development with conservation obviously necessary.
The Paraguay River, fl owing through the middle of the country from north to south, divides the country into two distinct biomes. To the east of the river are the remnants of the Alto Paraná Atlantic Forest, an eco-logical region containing many endemic subtropical tree species as well as some tropical and some Cerrado and Pampas species. To the west of the river are vast alluvial plains supporting the Chaco Woodland, a habitat for many tree species rarely seen elsewhere in South America and home to many endangered animal species. For instance, the reportedly extinct Chacoan peccary ( Catagonus wagneri ) was discovered in the Dry Chaco of western Paraguay in 1975 ( Wetzel et al , 1975 ). In fact, the Chaco is perhaps one of the little known wildernesses on our planet in which one of the last remaining groups of uncontacted human beings lives. In the Chaco, scientifi c activity in areas of high value for biodiversity and of crucial importance for indigenous communities, such as the Ayoreo, Ishir, Ñandeva, should also balance the needs of these cul-tures, which need to be consulted about activities in the territories where they live. Undoubtedly, in this region there are “corridors” or areas that are not only impor-tant for biodiversity but also for cultural and social aspects of human use of the land. These biocultural-corridors, which have been identifi ed by academics, have rarely been taken into account for land-use plan-ning by the government either at a national or a local level. Clearly, both the biodiversity and the cultural diversity of Paraguay need preserving: indigenous
Americas: Paraguay’s Challenge of Conserving Habitats and Biodiversity 115
The massive deforestation and accompanying loss of biological diversity in eastern Paraguay are mainly caused by government policies, such as the promotion of land invasions when the properties are not under production and a legal system that provides incentives for deforestation. Measures to counter increased land clearing for logging, livestock production, and large-scale mechanized soybean farming are almost com-pletely lacking. Undoubtedly some people benefi t in the short run from the clearing and development, though there is evidence that, once the forest is gone, the land is soon abandoned. These trends have been exacer-bated by weak enforcement of existing laws, a lack of coordination in planning at the Paraguayan national and local level, and the impact of inadequate political and economic policies with regard to the country ’ s natural resources. The establishment of environmental impact assessments has somewhat helped to remedy the situation, but, when ignoring them and even paying the fi nes still leaves deforestation a profi table activity, there is a disconnection with reality and little incentive to adhere to the environmental regulations. In cases of severe impact, mitigation measures do not replace the ecological services lost. Fines do not com-pensate for the permanent environmental damage caused. After all, deforestation leads to soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, and a decrease in the quantity and quality of water resources, thereby constraining the livelihoods and economic productivity of farmers. The rate of deforestation and land degradation in eastern Paraguay has slowed during the past decade, especially after the introduction of the Zero Deforestation Law. At the same time, an alarming rate of deforestation has begun to take place in the Chaco of western Paraguay.
THE PREDICAMENT OF THE CHACO REGION
Until recently, the Chaco, and in particular the Western Chaco, represented one of the last extensive undis-turbed wilderness areas in Latin America, with ecosys-tem processes intact at a landscape level and relatively modest changes in the original forest cover. Recently, however, the formerly extensive forests near a major population center in the Central Chaco have now been converted to other land uses ( Huang et al ., 2009 ). As a result, the situation has changed radically, and the current minimum estimated rate of deforestation is
ENCOURAGING SIGNS SINCE 2004
Slowing the high rates of deforestation just described is challenging but there has been an encouraging reversal of this trend since 2004 following a series of actions taken by the government with the support of civil society organizations. These actions included the adop-tion of a National Environmental Policy that prioritized the conservation of natural resources; the passage of a Zero Deforestation Law in 2004; and the strengthening of the Environmental Protection Agency (SEAM). As a result, the rate of deforestation was reduced substan-tially, from 100,000 ha annually in 2005 to 53,403 ha annually in 2008 ( Guyra Paraguay, 2009 ). These are certainly good results, even though the total area of forest is still rapidly being reduced. The Zero Deforesta-tion Law prohibits any land-use change and/or conver-sion of those in eastern Paraguay that still have forest cover. Furthermore, the law provides a more conducive environment to continue implementing programs that support biodiversity conservation in the Atlantic Forest. The law was approved to organize the country ’ s national authorities to provide incentives for forest pro-tection “due to the pending modernization of the forest sector”; the law has been twice renewed. According to Guyra Paraguay, the deforestation in the Atlantic Forest between 2006 and 2008 was reduced to 55,000 ha annually, by illegal deforestation. This deforestation rate does not include properties of fewer than 20 ha, which are in the hands of small producers and are excluded from the law. Governmental expropriation of forested areas for the land reform program is partly responsible for the transformation of extensive tracts of forest into small farms, which are often cleared for agricultural purposes. This is a clear example of politi-cal willingness due to the scientifi c evidence, but, at the same time, of a fl exibility required for societal needs. Some of the most important tracts of standing forest were subject to expropriation and fragmentation into small holdings ( < 20 ha) by the government, in response to requests made by landless people, and this subdivi-sion allowed the land to be deforested legally. We as scientists should not forget that in our democracies the votes are given by people, and politicians are in debt to those giving the votes to them. Legislation such as the Zero Deforestation Law or Moratoria should be based on sound information from both natural and social sci-ences, and not only on political information. All sectors of society and the academia must be part of such an initiative if it is to be successful.
116 Conservation Biology
productivity of the region, an argument for adopting and enforcing ways of protecting these assets for the long run.
The Dry Chaco ecosystem is fragile, with real long-term risks of degradation following clearance of the natural vegetation cover and hydrological modifi ca-tions. Loss of soil fertility and raised salinity are two examples, leading to the sort of desertifi cation that is already locally evident. The forest landscape of the Chaco is being transformed into square blocks of exotic pastures (Figure 14.1 ) by forest removal and burning (Figure 14.2 ). In most cases, this practice is legal as specifi ed by permit-issuing institutions such as the National Forest Institute (INFONA) and the Secretary of the Environment (SEAM), which provide environ-mental licenses to remove the native forest up to 75% of the property (Figure 14.3 ). Such practices certainly lead to reduced opportunities for the survival of biodi-versity and of functional biological communities.
In addition, the removal of trees and other vegeta-tion in the dry forest and thicket formations has nega-tive effects on the substantial amounts of carbon stored in the region, and thus exacerbates global warming. Thus, it is estimated that further deforestation in the east-central area of the Chaco region will result in emissions of around 60 million metric tons of CO 2 , a highly signifi cant amount ( Guyra Paraguay, 2011 ). The other center of deforestation, in the south-western
about 200,000–300,000 ha per year (2005–2009). Land clearance for ranching is now intense, at rates often exceeding 1000 ha per day (Guyra Paraguay ’ s monthly reports, www.guyra.org.py ). By mid-2009, 19.1% of the whole Chaco region had been converted to pasture, and licenses to clear additional forests had already been issued to many additional landowners. A recent analysis of economic drivers indicates the very strong likelihood that all suitable land (i.e., land not located within the national PA system or reserved for indigenous communities or as private PAs) will have been transformed for cattle production by 2025. This represents a further 550,000 ha in the east-central Dry Chaco area alone. The clearing is a result of national policies intended to promote the expansion of livestock production in the Chaco with the goal of doubling or tripling production in the coming years to help meet the global demand for beef. If appropriate steps are taken, Paraguay has a major opportunity to provide this beef in an ecologically sustainable fashion, with minimal damage to nature. For example, natural and invasive grasslands could be used as areas for develop-ing cattle ranches in place of areas occupied by forests. Not nearly enough is being done by the government, however, in selecting the most appropriate areas for development. Indeed, the scientifi c evidence on which to base such decisions is often poorly developed.
Such a phenomenal rate and scale of land-use change carries major environmental consequences. The Dry Chaco currently contains rare and specialized biological communities, with many endemic species. For example, it supports a number of Important Bird Areas (IBAs), which lie partly within PAs but are not limited to them. With the assumption that what we know about bird distribution can mirror that of other groups of endemic species, the IBAs are also interna-tionally recognized as key biodiversity areas ( Eken et al ., 2004 ). As further recognition of the region ’ s global environmental importance, a signifi cant part of the Chaco has also been designated a Man and Biosphere Reserve, the Biosphere Reserve of the Great Chaco (which also encompasses land in adjacent Argentina and Bolivia), with the privately owned areas forming the buffer and transition zones. Any reduction in land-scape connectivity through habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation fundamentally jeopardizes the entire ecosystem and its biodiversity, a problem that is receiving inadequate attention at present. Ultimately, the loss of sustainable natural resources and biodiver-sity would have negative impacts on the economic
Figure 14.1 Recent land-use changes in the Chaco Forest for livestock production. Dirt roads in between cleared plots can be detected. Reservoirs are created to capture and store water and they are established in each cleared plot. Source: Image of recent land-use change taken from the validation of Guyra Paraguay’s monitoring system on Chaco Forest.
Americas: Paraguay’s Challenge of Conserving Habitats and Biodiversity 117
Figure 14.2 The process of forest clearing is developed by heavy machinery; land transformers accumulate the cleared forests in lines that are later burned. Once the forest has been removed, the area is ready to receive grass exotic seeds to create forage for livestock. Source: Image of recent land-use change taken from the validation of Guyra Paraguay’s monitoring system on Chaco Forest.
and elsewhere. A series of moratoria on forest clear-ance has been proposed by the government, but even if implemented effectively these moratoria afford only temporary solutions to important regional problems. The general trend, driven by strong economic forces, is largely inexorable but can be done with a view to assur-ing the future sustainability of the region. To assure long-term benefi ts to all, the concerned parties should all work together to promote a land-use pattern in which a sustainable balance is achieved between envi-ronmental and social concerns on the one hand and short-term economic return on the other.
To ensure the preservation of natural habitat in Paraguay, a system of monitoring must be established to gauge properly the impact of economic development on forests and their resident fl ora and fauna. The health of forests should be monitored through both GIS (geo-graphic information system) and fi eld surveys. Field surveys are important to verify the maintenance of biodiversity in standing forests and other habitats. Sci-entists need to develop methods not only for monitor-ing forests from satellites ( Asner et al ., 2010 ), but also for fi eld sampling of biodiversity.
The most effective measure in Paraguay, especially when backed by an effi cient monitoring system, is the legal requirement to set aside and protect 25% of all forested land on a given landholding during conversion to cattle ranching. The selection of the forest to be retained is left to the rancher and results in various confi gurations – e.g., single contiguous blocks, multi-ple geometric strips, or a network of patches contribut-ing to stock management (Figure 14.1 ). Management action will occur at the level of the individual property holder, a system that gives the owner freedom to develop the land according to his own needs; such management misses the opportunities for further coordination at the landscape scale, a strategy that could vastly increase the environmental benefi t without any extra cost to the ranch owner. The scien-tifi c underpinnings for such coordination need to be developed fully for the long-term conservation of natural resources in a context of the “adaptive man-agement” of landscapes.
Despite the often-confrontational tone of the debate about deforestation, the ranchers are by no means indifferent to environmental considerations. A pro-posed increase in the proportion of landholdings to be retained as natural forests to 40% was rescinded under industry pressure, perhaps suggesting the limits of regulation, but the legal requirement of 25% of the
Dry Chaco, carries higher carbon stocks in its natural vegetation, with deforestation already much more advanced there than in the east-central Chaco. A further threat to ecosystems and biodiversity, and ulti-mately to the sustainability of the region, arises from the exploration for gas and oil that is being carried out throughout the Chaco region, with adequate rules to ameliorate its environmental impacts.
These environmental issues translate into economic risks for the future as well as for indigenous communi-ties, who gradually are losing their cultural and natural heritage. Within the Chaco live the Ayoreo, one of the last indigenous groups anywhere, some of whose people have avoided contact with the outside world. The Ayoreo live in regions containing what appears to be the richest biodiversity in the region, although it has remained poorly known, as well as the most ample sup-plies of water in the Chaco. More information should be accumulated about these regions and used as evi-dence to protect them from clearing and other forms of disturbance, both on biological and cultural grounds.
CONSERVATION BALANCES
The dramatic rate of forest clearance in the Dry Chaco has prompted widespread concern, both in Paraguay
118 Conservation Biology
resources into the generation of fortnightly informa-tion on land-use changes in the South American Great Chaco, sharing this information with state authorities and citizens through the media. This has generated a broad debate on the future development of the Chaco and has enabled the bringing together of a number of organizations and groups interested in the develop-ment of the Chaco. The fact that Guyra Paraguay tracks forest clearances and other changes that are taking place does not mean that such clearances are illegal. The current regulations are a refl ection of exist-ing public policy and state action in the Chaco, but that they could be improved in such a way as to simultane-ously promote economic growth, improved quality of life, job creation, and higher incomes for its entire pop-ulation, and at the same time the protection of the native forest cover in part of the area for the use of indigenous communities and the preservation of biodiversity.
There is an urgent need to increase a regional vision in which each case of proposed land development is analyzed and, in critical areas, to increase the rate of protection of preserved areas, such as those of biocul-tural importance. There is also the need to immediately implement attractive incentives for forest conservation. The criteria for incentives have to be science-based with adequate monitoring mechanisms. There is also an urgent need to clearly defi ne procedures to ensure the active participation of forest owners in providing ben-efi ts and environmental services for carbon markets and the corresponding payment to them for environ-mental services rendered. The protection and control of remaining forests, especially in the territories of bio-logical and cultural importance, cannot be underesti-mated. The rescheduling of the 3001 Act for Payment for Environmental Services (PES) to compensate for the environmental debt of landowners of the Eastern Region could be directed towards the Chaco territory. This could help to conserve the Chaco instead of refor-esting the already denuded Atlantic Forest in Eastern Paraguay through plantations of non-native species such as Eucalyptus , which because of their rapid growth prevent the regeneration of much of the previ-ously existing biodiversity. Forest conservation should become a government priority, with the relevant state bodies charged with the conservation and sustainable use of forests given the necessary resources to do the job properly. While these changes are taking place and some of these measures are implemented, the existing legislation should be strictly enforced.
land for conservation is now followed scrupulously and indeed often imaginatively. Furthermore, individual members of the ranching community are already key cooperators in conserving IBAs on their properties, while others have expressed interest in the potential for selling carbon credits to maintain more extensive natural cover on their holdings. This raises the possibil-ity of greater use of such incentives as a conservation strategy, in combination with regulatory measures. The UN ’ s Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) programme appears to offer a good mechanism to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions, support developing countries to develop sustainably, generate benefi ts for local people, and benefi t biodiversity. Biodiversity information should come from the scientifi c community for the validation and accreditation institutions, because sound biodiver-sity conservation should be important among the many benefi ts potentially generated by REDD.
Meanwhile, it must also be noted that management funding is defi cient for PAs, most noticeably at the national level. To be credible, any initiative to decelerate defor-estation on private land should be mirrored by improve-ments in the management of land already conserved. A blanket prohibition on land-use change in the Chaco is not supported by the NGO Guyra Paraguay. Their monitoring has shown that every time an announce-ment of a particular prohibition, regulation, or moratoria for the Chaco has been made, the rate of deforestation has actually accelerated. This indicates that the 2004 Zero Deforestation Law for the Atlantic Forest of Eastern Paraguay may not be suitable for the Chaco.
Without science-based management control in the Chaco, there is no possibility of developing the area sustainably. The national debate must be undertaken in such a way as to ensure that the rapid deforestation of the Paraguayan Chaco is slowed down to a consider-able degree. For regional sustainability, the Paraguayan Chaco must be managed properly as a major compo-nent of the South American Great Chaco. In terms of the economic development, there is clearly a great deal of potential in the Chaco for producing food, especially beef, to help feed the growing human population. As the developments that will enable such productivity take place, however, it is of critical importance to support sustainable development by a system that makes production possible but at the same time leads to the preservation of the most biodiversity-rich and fragile natural areas. Several institutions, such as the NGO Guyra Paraguay, have invested signifi cant
Americas: Paraguay’s Challenge of Conserving Habitats and Biodiversity 119
Acosta , G. , Victoria , E. , Secada , L. , Valqui , M. and Flint Hughes , R. ( 2010 ) High-resolution forest carbon stocks and emissions in the Amazon . Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 107 , 16738 – 16742 .
Eken , G. U. , Bennun , L. , Brooks , T. M. , Darwall , W. , Fishpool , L. D. C. , Foster , M. , Knox , D. , Langhammer , P. , Matiku , P. , Radford , E. , Salaman , P. , Sechrest , W. , Smith , M. L. , Spector , S. and Tordoff , A. ( 2004 ) Key biodiversity areas as site con-servation targets . BioScience , 54 , 110 – 118 .
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Huang , C. , Kim , S. , Altstatt , A. , Townshend , J. R. G. , Davis , P. , Song , K. , Tucker , C. J. , Rodas , O. , Yanosky , A. , Clay , R. , Musinsky , J. ( 2007 ) Rapid loss of Paraguay ’ s Atlantic Forest and status of protected areas: a Landsat assessment . Remote Sensing of Environment , 106 , 460 – 466 .
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Scientists should also become involved in the impli-cations of biodiversity for business: (1) the regulatory framework, because governments should implement measures and barriers; (2) the reputation, because public opinion weighs in consumers, clients, commu-nity, and press, which in turn begins to infl uence land-use patterns; and (3) fi nally in the fi nancial sector, because more stringent requirements from the fi nan-cial community are expected in the years to come (con-ditioned loans to biodiversity conservation). Scientists also need to understand the forces that are operating outside their offi ces and laboratories. We scientists need to recognize and add value to private and public organ-izations that develop and implement initiatives for the conservation and preservation of biodiversity, helping our governments in the decision making based on sci-entifi c information. As part of the international com-munity, we have to remember E. O. Wilson ’ s words ( Powell, 2002 , 2010): “The radical reduction of the world ’ s biodiversity is something for which future gen-erations will least forgive us.”
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper would have not been written without the support of a committed scientifi c team at Guyra Para-guay ( www.guyra.org.py ). I would like to especially thank Oscar Rodas and José Luis Cartes, also the National Authorities of Paraguay who have cordially invited us to continue monitoring land-use changes in close cooperation with the environmental agencies of the country such as the Secretary of the Environment, the National Forest Institute, and the Public Ministry.
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