Constituents Sentence has internal structure The structures are represented in our mind Words in...

ConstituentsConstituents

Sentence has internal structureSentence has internal structure The structures are represented in our The structures are represented in our

mindmind Words in a sentence are grouped into Words in a sentence are grouped into

units, and these units are grouped units, and these units are grouped into larger unit to get a sentenceinto larger unit to get a sentence

Constituency and hierarchical Constituency and hierarchical structurestructure

A speaker of a language has intuition how a A speaker of a language has intuition how a word is more likely to tie to another groupword is more likely to tie to another group

Example:Example:The students loved their syntax assignmentThe students loved their syntax assignmentConstituents:Constituents:The studentsThe studentsTheir syntax assignmentTheir syntax assignmentBut not: *loved theirBut not: *loved their

How do we represent the bigger How do we represent the bigger unitsunits

Square bracket:Square bracket:

[the student][the student] Tree structureTree structure

The studentThe student

So, what is constituent?So, what is constituent?

It is “a group of words that function It is “a group of words that function together as a unit”together as a unit”

It is the most important and the most It is the most important and the most basic notion in syntax theory basic notion in syntax theory containing the intuition of containing the intuition of relatedness between constituentsrelatedness between constituents

Can you draw a tree diagram of the Can you draw a tree diagram of the sentencesentence

The student loved his syntax The student loved his syntax assignment assignment

Or a bracket rule (Chinese boxes)?Or a bracket rule (Chinese boxes)?

End of Lecture 2aEnd of Lecture 2a

Phrase StructurePhrase Structure

In lecture 2a we looked at the In lecture 2a we looked at the concept of contituent.concept of contituent.

Today we’ll begin to look at how Today we’ll begin to look at how words combine to form sentences.words combine to form sentences.

WORD CLASSES

OPEN/CONTENT CLOSED/FUNCTIONAL/GRAMMATICALnouns

lexical verbs

adjectives

adverbs

determinatives

prepositions

pronouns

auxiliary verbs

coordinators

subordinators/

complementizers

Formal criteria:

• morphological

• syntactic

PhrasesPhrases

• Words don’t combine together directly to form Words don’t combine together directly to form sentences. sentences.

• There’s a closer link between some words than There’s a closer link between some words than there is with others.there is with others.

• Words combine to form Words combine to form phrasesphrases and phrases and phrases combine with other words to form bigger phrases.combine with other words to form bigger phrases.

PhrasesPhrases

(1) (1) The tall librarian put the book on that The tall librarian put the book on that shelfshelf

• the tall librarianthe tall librarian goes together better goes together better than than librarian putlibrarian put

• on that shelfon that shelf forms a unit (or forms a unit (or constituentconstituent) ) whereas whereas book onbook on doesn’t. doesn’t.

S

PhrasesPhrases

These sequences of words that go together like These sequences of words that go together like the tall librarianthe tall librarian or or on that shelfon that shelf are called are called phrasesphrases. .

We can’t just throw words together in a random We can’t just throw words together in a random order - sentences have an ordered hierarchical order - sentences have an ordered hierarchical structure.structure.

Words go together to form phrases, phrases go Words go together to form phrases, phrases go together to form larger phrases, then some together to form larger phrases, then some phrases go together to form a clause or sentence.phrases go together to form a clause or sentence.

PhrasesPhrases

We can rely (to some extent) on We can rely (to some extent) on intuition for our native language, but intuition for our native language, but how do we work out phrases for a how do we work out phrases for a language we don’t speak?language we don’t speak?

We need to use We need to use formal tests formal tests to to work out which words in a sentence work out which words in a sentence go together to form a phrase.go together to form a phrase.

Substitution TestSubstitution Test

This test involves substituting a This test involves substituting a single word for a string or sequence single word for a string or sequence of words. of words.

If this substitution doesn’t change If this substitution doesn’t change the meaning of the sentence, then the meaning of the sentence, then the group of words we can replace the group of words we can replace with a single word is a phrase.with a single word is a phrase.


We can see that a single word may be We can see that a single word may be substituted for many of the phrases substituted for many of the phrases in sentence (1).in sentence (1).

The tall librarian put the book on that shelfThe tall librarian put the book on that shelf

SheShe put the book on that shelf put the book on that shelfThe tall librarian put The tall librarian put itit on that shelf on that shelfThe tall librarian put the book on The tall librarian put the book on ititThe tall librarian put the book The tall librarian put the book therethere


We’ve verified that the following are We’ve verified that the following are

phrases:phrases:

the tall librarian - the tall librarian - substituted with substituted with sheshe

the book - the book - substituted with substituted with itit

that shelfthat shelf - - also substituted with also substituted with itit

on that shelf on that shelf - substituted with - substituted with there.there.

SubstitutionSubstitution

Substitution is often used quite Substitution is often used quite

naturally to refer back to some naturally to refer back to some

previously mentioned referent.previously mentioned referent.


(3) (3) Do you know Do you know the man who came yesterdaythe man who came yesterday?? Yes, Yes, hehe’s my brother.’s my brother.

In the answer to the question, we haveIn the answer to the question, we havereplaced replaced the man who came in yesterdaythe man who came in yesterdaywith the pronoun with the pronoun hehe, which shows that , which shows that thetheman who came in yesterdayman who came in yesterday is a phrase. is a phrase.


We can also substitute We can also substitute do sodo so or or so do so do (or just (or just do/does/diddo/does/did) for a group of words which ) for a group of words which include the verb. include the verb.

o The tall librarian The tall librarian put the book on the shelfput the book on the shelf, , and and so didso did John. John.

o The tall librarian The tall librarian put the book on the shelfput the book on the shelf, , and John and John did (so)did (so) too. too.

o Who Who put the book on that shelfput the book on that shelf? The tall ? The tall librarian librarian did (so)did (so)..

So the words So the words put the book on the shelfput the book on the shelf in the in theoriginal sentence seem to form a phrase.original sentence seem to form a phrase.

Cleft TestCleft Test

Cleft sentences have the form:Cleft sentences have the form:

It BE ____ that/who _____It BE ____ that/who _____

It is/was/will be/has been ____ that/who ____It is/was/will be/has been ____ that/who ____

Note that we only change the original Note that we only change the original sentence by removing the phrase to be sentence by removing the phrase to be tested.tested.


It is/was/will beIt is/was/will be ____ ____ that/whothat/who ____ ____

The tall librarian put the book on that shelfThe tall librarian put the book on that shelf

It wasIt was the tall librarianthe tall librarian whowho ___ ___ put the book on put the book on that shelfthat shelf

It wasIt was the bookthe book thatthat the tall librarian put the tall librarian put ______ on on that shelfthat shelf

It wasIt was on that shelfon that shelf thatthat the tall librarian put the tall librarian put the book the book ______


It wasIt was the shelfthe shelf thatthat the tall librarian the tall librarian put the book on put the book on ______

*It was *It was put the book on the shelf put the book on the shelf that that the tall librarian the tall librarian ______

*It was *It was put the bookput the book that that the tall the tall librarian librarian ___ ___ on the shelf.on the shelf.


This test works by showing This test works by showing something is a phrase if it fits something is a phrase if it fits between between it BEit BE and and whowho or or thatthat and and still makes a grammatical sentence.still makes a grammatical sentence.

PUZZLE: Phrase which includes the PUZZLE: Phrase which includes the verb passes the substitution test, but verb passes the substitution test, but fails the cleft test. fails the cleft test.

Movement TestsMovement Tests

The tall librarian put the book The tall librarian put the book on that shelfon that shelf

On that shelfOn that shelf the tall librarian put the book ___ the tall librarian put the book ___ (whereas (whereas on this shelfon this shelf she put the magazine ___.) she put the magazine ___.)

The bookThe book the tall librarian put ___ on the shelf, ( the tall librarian put ___ on the shelf, (the the magazinemagazine she threw ___ into the bin. she threw ___ into the bin.

Phrases often behave as units which can be placed at different positions in a sentence. We can think of the relationship between sentences as involving movement of phrases.

Types of PhrasesTypes of Phrases

We now have some formal tests we We now have some formal tests we can apply to find out whether or not can apply to find out whether or not a sequence of words forms a phrase. a sequence of words forms a phrase.

Now we’re going to look at the Now we’re going to look at the different different typestypes of phrases in of phrases in languages, with their different languages, with their different internal structures.internal structures.

Noun PhrasesNoun Phrases

These are all the same types of phrase:These are all the same types of phrase:

the sentencethe sentence Detv NDetv N that boythat boy a doga dog that large bicyclethat large bicycle Detv AdjDetv Adj NN some dirty watersome dirty water womenwomen NN DavidDavid QueenslandQueensland happinesshappiness elderly menelderly men Adj NAdj N theythey PronPron

Noun PhraseNoun Phrase

The simplest NPs contain only a noun The simplest NPs contain only a noun (proper noun [+proper] such as ‘John’, (proper noun [+proper] such as ‘John’, pronoun [+pron] such as ‘he’, mass noun pronoun [+pron] such as ‘he’, mass noun [-count] such as ‘water’, or plural noun [-count] such as ‘water’, or plural noun [+plural] such as ‘cats’)[+plural] such as ‘cats’)

This generates a rule:This generates a rule:

NP N or NPNP N or NP

NN

SS

NP VP

N


In the previous examples, the most In the previous examples, the most important word is a noun or pronoun. important word is a noun or pronoun.

Noun/pronoun cannot be omittedNoun/pronoun cannot be omitted

Noun/pronoun may be the only Noun/pronoun may be the only element in a phraseelement in a phrase

So, since nouns are the most So, since nouns are the most important words in the phrases, we important words in the phrases, we call these phrases call these phrases noun phrasesnoun phrases..


In English, a noun phrase may be made In English, a noun phrase may be made up of:up of:

determinative + noun = NP (Detv) Ndeterminative + noun = NP (Detv) N determinative + adjective + noun = determinative + adjective + noun =

NP Detv Adj N NP Detv Adj N nounnoun adjective + nounadjective + noun pronounpronoun


We use We use phrase structure rulesphrase structure rules to to

represent these structures, for represent these structures, for

example:example:

NP NP Detv N Detv N

This rule says that a noun phrase (NP)This rule says that a noun phrase (NP)

““is made up of” (arrow) a determinativeis made up of” (arrow) a determinative

(Detv) followed by a noun (N). (Detv) followed by a noun (N).

Noun PhraseNoun Phrase

Another was of representing this formula Another was of representing this formula is by using a phrase structure tree:is by using a phrase structure tree:

NP

Detv N


To account for the types of NP in (11):To account for the types of NP in (11):

NP NP (Detv) N (Detv) N NP NP (Detv) (AdjP) N (Detv) (AdjP) N NP NP (Detv) (AdjP) N (PP) (Detv) (AdjP) N (PP) NP NP N N NP NP (AdjP) N (AdjP) N NP NP Pron Pron


We can simplify this rule to:We can simplify this rule to:

NP NP (Detv) (Adj) N (Detv) (Adj) N (PP) (PP)

This rule says that a noun phrase This rule says that a noun phrase consists of a noun, with an optional consists of a noun, with an optional determinative and adjective (in that determinative and adjective (in that order) preceding it and a prepositional order) preceding it and a prepositional phrase following it.phrase following it.


Note:Note: This rule will not cover all possible This rule will not cover all possible

English NPs (we’ll be modifying it English NPs (we’ll be modifying it shortly) but now we’ve got a structure shortly) but now we’ve got a structure to start with.to start with.

A NP can consist of just a noun. When A NP can consist of just a noun. When we see a noun in a sentence without a we see a noun in a sentence without a determinative or adjective, it is often determinative or adjective, it is often in a noun phrase, even though it’s the in a noun phrase, even though it’s the only element of a noun phrase.only element of a noun phrase.

PhrasesPhrases

We will look at phrases for all of the content words:We will look at phrases for all of the content words: Noun phrasesNoun phrases Verb phrasesVerb phrases Adjective phrasesAdjective phrases Adverb phrasesAdverb phrases

and a phrase for one closed class word:and a phrase for one closed class word: Preposition phrasesPreposition phrases

Adjective PhrasesAdjective Phrases

o That That very happy very happy woman leftwoman lefto That woman is That woman is very happyvery happyo So happySo happy is that woman... is that woman...

In these sentences, the wordsvery happy and so happy form a phrase.

Adjective PhraseAdjective Phrase

As with nouns and noun phrases, As with nouns and noun phrases, whenever we see an adjective in awhenever we see an adjective in asentence, we will say that it is a constituent sentence, we will say that it is a constituent of an adjective phrase (AdjP).of an adjective phrase (AdjP).

A simple adjective phrase may consist of a A simple adjective phrase may consist of a Degree Adverb (Degree Adverb ( so, very, rather, so, very, rather, extremely...extremely...) followed by an Adjective:) followed by an Adjective:

AdjP AdjP (Adv) Adj (Adv) Adj


NP NP (Detv) (Adj) N (Detv) (Adj) N

We need to modify our NP structure rule We need to modify our NP structure rule because it has Adj on its own, and we now because it has Adj on its own, and we now know that an adjective will always be in an know that an adjective will always be in an AdjP.AdjP.

NP NP (Detv) (AdjP) N (Detv) (AdjP) N

However…However…


Noun phrases can be much more complex Noun phrases can be much more complex than the examples given earlier.than the examples given earlier.

o the the very largevery large man man o the the rather quietrather quiet very largevery large man man

So our new rule will be:So our new rule will be:

NP NP (Detv) (AdjP)* N (Detv) (AdjP)* N

'*' indicates any number.'*' indicates any number.

Adverb PhrasesAdverb Phrases

An adverb phrase normally consists ofAn adverb phrase normally consists ofan adverb possibly preceded by aan adverb possibly preceded by adegree adverb:degree adverb:

very quicklyvery quickly rather carefullyrather carefully extremely wellextremely well

AdvP AdvP (Adv) Adv (Adv) Adv

Preposition PhrasesPreposition Phrases

Preposition phrases (PP) consist of a Preposition phrases (PP) consist of a preposition (P) alone or with anotherpreposition (P) alone or with anotherconstituent following it, often a nounconstituent following it, often a nounphrase:phrase:

toto the shops the shops afterafter the party the party intointo the large kitchen the large kitchen besidebeside those very large buildings those very large buildings

Adverb phrasesAdverb phrases

pass the substitution test with pass the substitution test with thusthus pass the cleft testpass the cleft test pass the movement testpass the movement test

She ran She ran very slowlyvery slowly..She ran She ran thusthus..

It was It was very slowlyvery slowly that she ran ___. that she ran ___.

Very slowlyVery slowly she ran ___. she ran ___.

Preposition PhrasesPreposition Phrases

A preposition doesn’t need to be A preposition doesn’t need to be followed by anything:followed by anything:

o John went John went outsideoutside..o Pam stood Pam stood behindbehind..

PP PP P (NP) P (NP)

Preposition phrasePreposition phrase

Prepositions may also be followed by Prepositions may also be followed by Prepositional Phrases:Prepositional Phrases:

James emerged James emerged from behind the shedfrom behind the shed..The monster arose The monster arose from out of the mistfrom out of the mist..

PP PP P PP P PP

Single formula: Single formula: PP PP P (PP/NP) P (PP/NP)

Preposition PhrasePreposition Phrase

• Passes the cleft testPasses the cleft test

o It was It was from out of the mist from out of the mist that the that the monster arose.monster arose.

• Passes the substitution test.Passes the substitution test.

o The monster arose The monster arose therethere..o The monster arose from The monster arose from therethere..

VERB PHRASESVERB PHRASES

o The tall librarian The tall librarian put the book on that shelfput the book on that shelf..

• Recall that Recall that put the book on that shelfput the book on that shelf seemed to pass the substitution test (using seemed to pass the substitution test (using do/does/did)do/does/did), but failed the cleft test. , but failed the cleft test.

• It also fails the movement test:It also fails the movement test:

o **put the book on that shelfput the book on that shelf the tall librarian__ the tall librarian__

Verb PhraseVerb Phrase

Assuming that the substitution test does Assuming that the substitution test does

identify the part of the sentence which identify the part of the sentence which

includes the verb and everything that follows includes the verb and everything that follows

as a verb phrase (VP) then we have VP's of as a verb phrase (VP) then we have VP's of

the following sort:the following sort:

Verb PhrasesVerb Phrases

The girl The girl leftleft The girl The girl went to the shopswent to the shops The girl The girl kissed the boykissed the boy The girl The girl kissed the boy after lunchkissed the boy after lunch The girl The girl kissed the boy after lunch under the treekissed the boy after lunch under the tree The girl The girl gave the boy a bookgave the boy a book The girl The girl gave the boy a book after lunchgave the boy a book after lunch The girl The girl gave the boy a book after lunch under gave the boy a book after lunch under

the treethe tree


The girl The girl leftleft (V) (V)

The girl The girl went to the shopswent to the shops (V + PP) (V + PP)

The girl The girl kissed the boykissed the boy (V + NP) (V + NP)

The girl The girl kissed the boy after lunchkissed the boy after lunch (V + NP + (V + NP + PP)PP)


The girl The girl kissed the boy after lunch under kissed the boy after lunch under the treethe tree (V + NP + PP + PP) (V + NP + PP + PP)

The girl The girl gave the boy a bookgave the boy a book

(V + NP + NP)(V + NP + NP)

The girl The girl gave the boy a book after lunchgave the boy a book after lunch (V + NP + NP + PP)(V + NP + NP + PP)


The girl The girl gave the boy a book after lunch gave the boy a book after lunch under the treeunder the tree (V + NP + NP + PP + PP)(V + NP + NP + PP + PP)

Although these look like very complex Although these look like very complex structures, we can write them using one structures, we can write them using one phrase structure rule:phrase structure rule:

VP VP V (NP) (NP) (PP)* V (NP) (NP) (PP)*



Note: unlike our earlier rules where we usedNote: unlike our earlier rules where we usedan asterisk (*) to indicate an asterisk (*) to indicate more than one more than one of of a constituent, we’ve written a constituent, we’ve written twotwo NPs NPsbecause in general because in general no more than twono more than two NPs NPs are found in a VP. are found in a VP.

This is not the case with the PPs, so we’veThis is not the case with the PPs, so we’veused the asterisk there.used the asterisk there.

SentencesSentences

A sentence may consist of an NP A sentence may consist of an NP

and a VP:and a VP:

S S NP VP NP VP

SentencesSentences

S S NP VP NP VP

[[SS [ [NPNP the tall librarianthe tall librarian] [] [VPVP put the book put the book on that shelfon that shelf]]]]

S

NP VP

Phrases in SentencesPhrases in Sentences

The tall librarianThe tall librarian the bookthe book that shelfthat shelf

NP NP (Detv) (AdjP)* N (Detv) (AdjP)* N

The tall librarian put the book on that shelf.


The AdjP The AdjP tall tall within the first NP within the first NP the the tall librariantall librarian consists simply of an consists simply of an adjective, one of the possibilities:adjective, one of the possibilities:

AdjP AdjP (Adv) Adj (Adv) Adj


Phrases in sentencesPhrases in sentences

Let’s consider another more complex Let’s consider another more complex Adjective phrase:Adjective phrase:

The librarian is The librarian is so very extremely tallso very extremely tall The librarian is The librarian is rather quite exquisitely tallrather quite exquisitely tall

AdjP AdjP (AdvP) Adj (AdvP) Adj

AdvP AdvP (AdvP) Adv (AdvP) Adv


The VP consists of a verb (V) followed The VP consists of a verb (V) followed by an NP and a PP, which conforms by an NP and a PP, which conforms to our VP rule:to our VP rule:



The PP The PP on that shelf on that shelf consists of a consists of a preposition (P) followed by an NP, preposition (P) followed by an NP, which fits the PP rule:which fits the PP rule:

PP PP P (NP/PP) P (NP/PP)



This small set of phrase structure This small set of phrase structure rules that we’ve devised can account rules that we’ve devised can account for many English sentences. for many English sentences.

To account for all sentences of To account for all sentences of English, we will have to develop English, we will have to develop more complex rules.more complex rules.

SentencesSentences

Looking at our phrase structure tree (p7), we Looking at our phrase structure tree (p7), we can see that sentences are made up of phrases can see that sentences are made up of phrases rather than words, and that phrases may rather than words, and that phrases may contain other phrases, showing us that contain other phrases, showing us that sentences have an ordered hierarchical sentences have an ordered hierarchical structure.structure.

In future lectures we will argue that S is also a In future lectures we will argue that S is also a phrasephrase

In next week's lectures we will look at ways of In next week's lectures we will look at ways of talking about the relations between the various talking about the relations between the various constituents of phrasesconstituents of phrases

Further Reading:Further Reading:

Carnie, Andrew. 2007. Syntax: a Carnie, Andrew. 2007. Syntax: a generative introduction. Chapter 3generative introduction. Chapter 3

Lee, David. 2003. Lee, David. 2003. Grammar surveyGrammar survey, , pp3-9, and chapters 3 and 5.pp3-9, and chapters 3 and 5.

Fromkin, V. Fromkin, V. et al.et al. 2005. 2005. An Introduction An Introduction to Languageto Language. Ch. 4.. Ch. 4.

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