1 CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-1 OVERVIEW Introduction – What is a constitution? Why do we need a constitution? Constitutionalism Constitutional development of the Indian Constitution WHAT IS CONSTITUTION? Though there is no single definition of Constitution, still following are the general understanding of it. ‘Constitution’ is a compact document that comprises a number of articles about the state, specifying how the state is to be constituted and what norms it should follow. o In some countries, like, UK, they do not have one single document that can be called as constitution. Rather they have a series of documents and decisions that, taken collectively, are referred to as the constitution. Constitution is Fundamental law of the land. “Legus legum” - law of all laws Fundamental law in accordance with which a nation/state is governed. Constitution gives us the framework of polity, the so-called ‘Trinity’ of our state- Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. Constitution provides the norms that govern the relationship within the trinity. Determines the relationship between the state and the citizens. It is not a static document. Constitution is an organic one. It GROWS through: o Amendments o Judicial interpretations o Conventions (not written or codified, non-punishable by law if it’s violated)- like in UK o Statutes or laws made by the Legislature WHY WE NEED A CONSTITUTION? 1. Constitution allows coordination and assurance: A constitution provides a set of basic rules that allow for coordination amongst members of a society. 2. Specification of decision making powers: A constitution specifies who has the power to make decisions in a society. It decides how the government will be constituted. 3. Limitations on the powers of government: A constitution sets some limits on what a government can impose on its citizens. These limits are fundamental in the sense that government may never trespass them. 4. Aspirations and goals of a society: A constitution’s purpose is to enable the government to fulfil the aspirations of a society and create conditions for a just society. 5. Fundamental identity of a people: a constitution expresses the fundamental identity of a people. This means the people as a collective entity come into being only through the basic constitution. It is by agreeing to a basic set of norms about how one should be governed, and who should be governed that one forms a collective identity. It showcases our ideals and aspirations as also our conflicts. It creates and reflects an Indian identity and conveys as to what it means to be an Indian 6. What ‘birth certificate’ is to a child, constitution is to a country.
Transcript
1
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT-1 OVERVIEW
Introduction – What is a constitution?
Why do we need a constitution?
Constitutionalism
Constitutional development of the Indian Constitution
WHAT IS CONSTITUTION? Though there is no single definition of Constitution, still following are the general understanding of it. ‘Constitution’ is a compact document that comprises a number of articles about the state, specifying
how the state is to be constituted and what norms it should follow. o In some countries, like, UK, they do not have one single document that can be called as
constitution. Rather they have a series of documents and decisions that, taken collectively, are referred to as the constitution.
Constitution is Fundamental law of the land. “Legus legum” - law of all laws Fundamental law in accordance with which a nation/state is governed. Constitution gives us the framework of polity, the so-called ‘Trinity’ of our state- Legislature,
Executive and Judiciary. Constitution provides the norms that govern the relationship within the trinity. Determines the relationship between the state and the citizens. It is not a static document. Constitution is an organic one. It GROWS through:
o Amendments o Judicial interpretations o Conventions (not written or codified, non-punishable by law if it’s violated)- like in UK o Statutes or laws made by the Legislature
WHY WE NEED A CONSTITUTION? 1. Constitution allows coordination and assurance: A constitution provides a set of basic rules that
allow for coordination amongst members of a society. 2. Specification of decision making powers: A constitution specifies who has the power to make
decisions in a society. It decides how the government will be constituted. 3. Limitations on the powers of government: A constitution sets some limits on what a government can
impose on its citizens. These limits are fundamental in the sense that government may never trespass them.
4. Aspirations and goals of a society: A constitution’s purpose is to enable the government to fulfil the aspirations of a society and create conditions for a just society.
5. Fundamental identity of a people: a constitution expresses the fundamental identity of a people. This means the people as a collective entity come into being only through the basic constitution. It is by agreeing to a basic set of norms about how one should be governed, and who should be governed that one forms a collective identity. It showcases our ideals and aspirations as also our conflicts. It creates and reflects an Indian identity and conveys as to what it means to be an Indian
6. What ‘birth certificate’ is to a child, constitution is to a country.
2
7. Constitution is a common normative home for the diverse elements of Indian society. It is a set of basic rules for minimum co-ordination between various sections. E.g.- ‘Dhamma’ of Ashoka and ‘DIN-I-ILLAHI’ of Akbar.
8. It imposes legally enforceable restrictions on the state. It also gives legitimacy to the state and its actions.
9. A written constitution is essential for a federal set up.
CONSTITUTIONALISM A system of government based largely on the ideals of western liberal democracy, the essence of
which is restrictions and limitations on the absolute powers of the state. It is envisaged in the writings of J.S. Mill, Dicey, James Madison, Montesquieu etc.
Components of Constitutionalism 1. Rule of Law: “All manner of people is equally subject to the ordinary law of the land as
administered through ordinary courts". It was given was Dicey. Exceptions:
Existence of quasi-judicial bodies outside the regular courts. e.g.-administrative tribunals. Provisions for affirmative action (Reservation).’
o Affirmative action is a term coined by J.F. Kennedy. Art-361: immunity to President and governor from criminal proceedings.’
o The provision also carries potential to abuse as was alleged in the case of Sheila Dixit being appointed as governor of Kerala. Also, Rajasthan's Governor, Kalyan Singh in Babri Masjid case.
o Immunity from criminal prosecution is western idea taken from British constitutional philosophy.
Diplomatic immunity to foreign consular. Section 499 of IPC deals with ‘defamation’ by speech (slander) and by words (Libel).
o Exception to this is Article -105: immunity against section 499 of IPC given to legislators with respect to anything said on the floor of the house.
o Article –105: Members of the Parliament, o Article -194: Members of the State Legislature.
2. Absence of arbitrary power: Constitutionalism abhors absolutism. Delegation of the powers must
be complimented with appropriate norms guiding its use and safeguards to prevent its abuse. 3. Constitution is the consequence, not the source of rights
It implies that people can enjoy un-enumerable rights as well. (USA) But, this dictum is not largely followed in Indian constitutional philosophy. Indian constitution is uncomfortable with the idea of customary rights or rights outside the
constitution and statutes. o e.g. in India, only after FRA, 2006, tribal acts were recognized. o Earlier flying of drones were not allowed. After Dec 2018, it is allowed for commercial
use only, with sets of restriction imposed by Ministry of Civil Aviation.
4. Separation of powers: Functional separation into the Trinity- Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. Benefits-
It preserves democracy and civil liberties It promotes division of labour, specialisation and efficiency. It institutionalises the system of checks and balances.
3
It promotes debates and constructive friction between the 3 organs often leading to a better decision.
5. Grant of basic civil rights. 6. Free press and media. 7. Temporariness of the government (elected every 5 years) 8. Independent Judiciary.
Conclusion of Constitutionalism Right to life, liberty, expression, residence etc., can also be considered as the components of
constitutionalism. The western idea of constitutionalism is negative in orientation as it principally seeks to restrict, limit
and disempower the state. Ideally, the state must also be empowered adequately to enable it to deliver on the governance
agenda. Thus, the right balance has to be struck between the needs of checking operation and preventing
chaos in the society.
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
1. Regulating Act – 1773 2. Jurisdiction Act – 1781 3. Pitts India Act – 1784 4. Act of 1786 5. Charter Act of 1793 6. Charter Act of 1813 7. Charter Act of 1833 8. Charter Act of 1853
1. The Government of India Act – 1858 2. Indian Councils Act – 1861 3. Indian Councils Act – 1892 4. Indian Councils Act – 1909 5. Government of India Act – 1919 6. Simon Commission – 1927 7. Communal Award – 1932 8. Government of India Act – 1935 9. Indian Independence Act – 1947
COMPANY RULE (1773-1858) 1. Regulating Act of 1773
Significance This was the first step taken by British Government to control and regulate the affairs of East India
Company in India. The political and administrative functions of the company were recognized for the first time. It laid the foundation for central administration in India.
Features Governor of Bengal was designated as the Governor General of Bengal (Fort William) Governors of Bombay and Madras became subordinate to the Governor General Executive Council of 4 members was formed to assist Governor General Supreme Court established – Lord Impey was the first chief justice of Bengal Officers were prohibited from private trade or accepting bribe
Facts
4
First Governor General – Warren Hastings Supreme Court had one chief justice and three judges The court heard cases with the help of Jury of British subjects The Court of Directors (24) had to submit report on its Revenue - civil and military
2. Jurisdiction Act of 1781 Features Exempted public servant’s actions done during official capacity from scrutiny of Supreme Court Jurisdiction over inhabitants of Calcutta and administer personal law of defendant Supreme court to consider religions and social customs while enforcing decrees Appeal from provincial court to Governor General-in-council is final for cases less than 5000 pounds
o If it is more than 5000 pounds then appeal is sent to King-in-Council
3. Pitts India Act of 1784 Significance For the first time, company’s territory in India was called as British possessions in India British government got complete control over company’s affairs and its administration
Features Demarcated the political and commercial functions of the company
o Commercial affairs to be managed by the Court of Directors o Political affairs to be managed by a newly formed Board of Control o Board of Control can supervise the operations of the government and revenue
Executive council’s members were decreased from 4 to 3
4. Act of 1786 Features To convince Cornwallis to accept the Governor-Generalship (by Pitt) Governor General got powers to override his council is extraordinary cases on his own responsibility
5. Charter Act of 1793 Features Company’s privileges extended to 20 years Power to override council by Governor General was extended to all future Governor Generals and
Governors All the members salary was to be paid from Indian Revenue (practiced up to 1919) Permission for East India Company to ship opium from India to China Country privileges given to the officials of East India Company to trade outside India
6. Charter Act of 1813 Features Monopoly ended except for tea trade and trade with China Allotted one lakh annually for education and improvement of literature and Science etc. Christian missionaries allowed to preach in India
5
7. Charter Act of 1833 Significance Came in the wake of Industrial revolution and liberal principles in England The Act created for the first time, a government of India having authority over the State territorial
area possessed by the British Features Governor General of Bengal was designated as Governor General of India Bombay and Madras presidency lost their legislation powers Governor General got complete control over civil and military affairs A law member was added as the fourth member to the Governor General’s Council Law commission was constituted in 1834
o Laws made from these acts were named as Acts (previously called Regulations) o Government makes Act, while Company makes Regulation. So, EIC started acting as
Government. East India Company had to end its monopoly over commercial activities. (became an administrative
body mainly*) Facts First Governor General of India: William Bentick T.B. Macaulay became the first law member, also the first law commission’s chairman. This act tried but failed to introduce open competition for civil services Section 87, no discrimination to office under company (between Indians and British Residents) Abolition of slavery by Act V of 1843
8. Charter Act of 1853 Features A separate governor was appointed for Bengal Extended the company’s rule to possess Indian territories. (no specific tenure) For the first time separated the legislature and executive functions of Governor General’s Council Open competition was introduced to recruit for civil services Macaulay Committee was introduced to recruit for Civil Services Number of Court of Directors (at London) were reduced from 24 to 18 Legislation became a separate entity Central legislative Council was formed comprising of –
o 6 legislative members o 4 members from local provincial governments o 2 members appointed by the British o 1 chief Justice of Calcutta + 1 puisne judge of Calcutta
6
संवैधाननक नवकास -1
अवलोकन
पररचय - संविधान क्या है?
क्यय ंहमें एक संविधान की ज़रूरत है?
संविधानिाद
भारतीय संविधान का संिैधावनक विकास
संनवधान क्या है?
हालांवक संविधान की कयई एक वनवित पररभाषा नही ंहै, लेवकन वनम्नवलखित सामान्य समझ द्वारा इसे समझा जा
सकता है है।
संनवधान ’एक सुगनित दस्तािेज है वजसमें राज्य के बारे में कई अनुचे्छद शावमल हैं, वजसमें वनवदिष्ट वकया गया
है वक राज्य का गठन कैसे वकया जाना चावहए और इसे वकन मानदंडय ंका पालन करना चावहए।
कुछ देशय ंमें जैसे वक यू. के. (यूनाइटेड वकंगडम) का संविधान के नाम पर कयई एकल दस्तािेज नही ंहै बखि
उनके पास दस्तािेजय ंऔर वनणियय का एक समुच्चय है वजसे सामूवहक रूप से संविधान के रूप में संदवभित
वकया जाता है |
संविधान देश की मौवलक नवनध है।
"लेगस लेगम" - सभी विवधयय ंकी विवध है|
मौवलक विवध, वजसके अनुसार एक राष्टर / राज्य शावसत हयता है।
संविधान हमें हमारे राज्य के तीन अंगो ं-नवधानयका, काययपानलका और न्यायपानलका कय राजनीवतक प्रदान
करता है ।
संविधान उन मानदंडो ंकय प्रदान करता है जय तीनय अंगय ंके भीतर संबंधय ंकय वनयंवित करते हैं।
राज्य और नागररको ंके बीच संबंध वनधािररत करता है।
यह एक स्थैवतक दस्तािेज न हयकर एक गवतशील दस्तािेज है।
संशयधन
न्यावयक व्याख्या
अवभसमय (यवद वलखित या संवहताबद्ध नही ंहै, कानून का उलं्लघन हयने पर गैर दंडनीय) - जैसे विटेन में
विधानमंडल द्वारा बनाए गए संविवध या ऺानून के माध्यम से विकास करता है |
7
हमें एक संनवधान की आवश्यकता क्यो ंहै?
1. संनवधान सामंजस्य और परस्पर नवश्वास की अनुमनत प्रदान करता है: एक संविधान बुननयादी ननयमो ंका
एक समूह हयता है जय वकसी समाज के सदस्य ंके बीच समन्वय कय लाता है।
2. ननर्यय लेने की शक्तियो ंकी नवनशष्टता: एक संविधान वनवदिष्ट करता है वकसके पास समाज में वनणिय लेने की
शखि है। यह तय करता है वक सरकार का गठन कैसे वकया जाएगा।
3. सरकार की शक्तियो ंपर पररसीमन: एक संविधान कुछ सीमाएँ वनधािररत करता है जय सरकार अपने नागररकय ं
पर लागू कर सकती है। ये सीमाएं इस मायने में मौवलक हैं वक सरकार कभी भी उनका उलं्लघन नही ंकर सकती
है।
4. नकसी समाज की आकांक्षाएं और लक्ष्य: संविधान का उदे्दश्य सरकार कय एक समाज की आकांक्षाओ ंकय पूरा
करने और न्यायपूणि समाज के वलए पररखस्थवतयय ंकय बनाने में सक्षम बनाना है।
5. लोगो ंकी मौनलक पहचान: एक संविधान लयगय ंकी मौवलक पहचान कय व्यि करता है। इसका अथि है वक एक
सामूवहक संस्था के रूप में लयग केिल मूल संविधान के माध्यम से अखस्तत्व में आते हैं। यह वनयमय ंके एक मूल
समूह से सहमवत प्रदान करता है वक वकसी कय कैसे और वकस प्रकार शावसत वकया जाना चावहए, तावक एक
सामूवहक पहचान बन सके। यह हमारे संघषों के साथ-साथ हमारे आदशों और आकांक्षाओ ंकय भी दशािता है।
यह राष्टर ीयता की पहचान बनाता है और दशािता है वक भारतीय हयने से अवभप्राय है।
6. जन्म प्रमाण पि जय वक ’एक बचे्च के नलए होता है, उसी प्रकार संविधान एक देश के नलए होता है।
7. भारतीय समाज के विविध तत्वय ंके वलए संविधान एक सामान्य आदशििादी आश्रय है। यह विवभन्न िगों के बीच
नू्यनतम समन्रय के वलए बुवनयादी वनयमय ंका एक समूह है। उदाहरण के वलए जैसे- अशोक का ‘धम्म’ और
अकबर का 'दीन ए इलाही’।
8. यह राज्य पर कानूनी रूप से लागू करने योग्य युखियुि प्रवतबंध लगाता है। यह राज्य और उसके कायों कय
िैधता भी प्रदान करता है।
9. एक संघीय ढांचे के वलए एक नलक्तित संनवधान का हयना आिश्यक है।
संनवधानवाद
सरकार की पनिमी उदार लोकतंत्र के आदशों पर आधाररत एक प्रणाली है, वजसका मूलतत्व राज्य की संपूर्य
शक्तियो ंपर प्रनतबंध और सीमाएं हैं। इसकी पररकल्पना जे.एस. वमल, डेज़ी, जेम्स मैवडसन, मयटेंस्कू्य आवद
के लेिन में की गई है।
8
संनवधानवाद के घटक
1. नवनध का शासन: "सभी प्रकार के लयग समान रूप से देश के साधारण कानून के अधीन हयते हैं वजने्ह सामान्य
अदालतय ंके माध्यम से प्रशावसत वकया जाता है"। इसे ए .िी .डायसी द्वारा प्रवतपावदत वकया गया था |
अपवाद:
सामान्य अदालतय ंके बाहर अर्द्यन्यानयक ननकायो ंका अखस्तत्व। उदहारण -प्रशासवनक अवधकरण
सकारात्मक कारयवाई के नलए प्रावधान (आरक्षर्)
सकारात्मक कारििाई (जे एफ कैनेडी द्वारा वदया गया एक शब्द है)।
अनुचे्छद -361: आपरानधक काययवाही से राष्टर पनत और राज्यपाल के नलए संरक्षर् का प्रावधान करता है
यह प्रािधान दुरुपययग की भी संभािना रिता है जैसा वक केरल के राज्यपाल के रूप में शीला दीनक्षत कय
वनयुि वकए जाने के मामले में आरयप लगाया गया था। साथ ही राजस्थान के राज्यपाल, कल्यार् नसंह पर
बाबरी मखिद मामले में।
आपरावधक अवभययजन से प्रवतरक्षा (विवटश संिैधावनक दशिन से वलया गया पविमी विचार है)।
विदेशी संप्रभु (शासक) , राजदूत एिं कूटनीवतक व्यखि के वलए राजनवयक संरक्षण
आईपीसी (भारतीय दंड संनहता) की धारा 499 'भाषर्' (मानहानन) और शब्ो ं (अपमान-लेि) द्वारा
'मानहानन' से संबंवधत है।
इसका अपिाद अनुचे्छद -105 है: सदन के अंदर कही गई बातय ंके संबंध में संसद के सदस्य ंकय आईपीसी
की धारा 499 के खिलाफ प्रवतरक्षा।
अनुचे्छद -105: संसद के सदस्,
अनुचे्छद -194: राज्य विधानमंडल के सदस्।
2. मनमानी शक्ति की अनुपक्तथिनत: संविधानिाद, ननरंकुश राज्य का विरयधी है। शखियय ंका प्रत्यायोजन इसके
उपययग और सुरक्षा उपायय ंका मागिदशिन करने िाले उवचत मानदंडय ंके साथ वकया जाना चावहए, वजससे इसका
दुरुपययग रयका जा सके |
3. संनवधान पररर्ाम है, अनधकारो ंका स्रोत नही ंहै
इसका तात्पयि यह है वक लयग अनेक अनधकारो ंका भी आनंद ले सकते हैं। (अमेररका)
लेवकन, भारतीय संिैधावनक दशिन में इस उखि का बडे पैमाने पर पालन नही ंवकया गया है।
9
भारतीय संविधान, संनवधान और नवनधयो ं के बाहर परम्परागत अवधकारय ं या अवधकारय ं के विचार से
असहजता प्रकट करता है।
उदाहरण जैसे भारत में, एफआरए (िन अवधकार अवधवनयम), 2006 के बाद ही आवदिासी कृत्य ंकय मान्यता
दी गई थी।
पहले डर यन के उडान भरने की अनुमवत नही ंथी। वदसंबर 2018 के बाद, इसे नागररक उड्डयन मंिालय द्वारा
लगाए गए प्रवतबंधय ंके साथ केिल व्यािसावयक उपययग के वलए अनुमवत दी गई है।
4. शक्तियो ंका पृिक्करर्: कायाित्मक पृथक्करण तीन अंगय ं- नवधानमंडल, काययपानलका और न्यायपानलका
में वकया गया है ।
लाभ
यह लयकतंि और नागररक स्वतंिता कय संरवक्षत करता है
यह श्राम विभाजन विशेषता तथा दक्षता कय बढािा देता है।
यह जाँच और संतुलन की प्रणाली कय संस्थागत बनाता है।
यह तीनय ंअंगय ंके बीच बहस और रचनात्मक संघषि कय बढािा देता है वजससे प्रायः बेहतर वनणिय हयता है।
5. बुननयादी नागररक अनधकारो ंको स्वीकृत करना ।
6. स्वतंत्र पे्रस और मीनडया।
7. सरकार का अथिानयत्व (हर 5 साल में चुनाव)
8. स्वतंत्र न्यायपानलका।
संवैधाननकता का ननष्कषय
जीिन का अवधकार, स्वतंिता, अवभव्यखि, वनिास आवद कय भी संिैधावनकता के घटक के रूप में माना जा
सकता है।
संिैधावनकता का पविमी विचार वसु्ततः में नकारात्मक है क्ययवंक यह मुख्य रूप से राज्य कय प्रनतबंनधत,
सीनमत और अक्षम करने का प्रयास करता है।
आदशि रूप में, राज्य कय शासन की कायि सूची पर स्वतंि रूप से व्यिहार करने के वलए पयािप्त रूप से सशि
हयना चावहए।
10
इस प्रकार, समाज में जांच कायििाही और अराजकता कय रयकने की जरूरतय ं के बीच सही संतुलन हयना
चावहए ।
भारत में संवैधाननक नवकास
कंपनी शासन (1773-1858) ताज का शासन (1858-1947)
1. नवननयमन अनधननयम - 1773 1. भारत सरकार अनधननयम - 1858
