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Consumerism in education A comparison between Canada and the United Kingdom Ina Freeman Department of Management and Marketing, Kazakhstan Institute for Management, Economics and Research, Almaty, Kazakhstan, and Michael Thomas University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK Abstract Purpose – With the emergence of the knowledge economy different countries are responding with changes within their tertiary education systems. Education is increasingly recognized as a cornerstone to the continued growth of a country but with the globalization of business is education becoming a commodity? Design/methodology/approach – This paper examines educational policies and their implementation within the UK and Canada. Findings – This paper finds that education in the UK has become a commercial product within the international arena, unlike Canada where tertiary education has remained a domestic pursuit. Originality/value – This paper engages in a controversy that questions whether the economic value to a nation of education is found only in the numbers of students or can be enlarged to include the results of the education for the students. Keywords Tertiary education, Comparative tests, Educational policy Paper type Viewpoint Introduction With the increasing globalization of commerce and the international movement of people, students who are looking for post-secondary education are no longer restricted by national boundaries. Many international organizations are organized around a specific concept and work around the globe to achieve these goals. In so doing, the educational status of those who are involved as well as the world’s population in general is improved. This globalization is evidenced by the increasing number of organizations that work internationally on humanitarian causes, such as Amnesty International, International Humana People to People Movement, Greenpeace International, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, People’s Global Action, among others. International organizations’ perspectives frequently differ from those of the institutions that administer the elected officials’ agenda as well as the elected officials. Often the officials’ agenda is short-term due to the established timeframes of power. When this is translated into the perspective of consumers of education, it results in greedy consumerism and emphasis on short-term gain over longer term success (Tickell, 2002). This is evidenced by the United States’ student population’s high levels of detachment from the world of academia and accompanying low trust in academic institutions, as well as a focus on the career positions and pay levels that will result from the education instead of the focus being on the education itself (Spiegler, 1998). The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-354X.htm Consumerism in education 153 International Journal of Educational Management Vol. 19 No. 2, 2005 pp. 153-177 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0951-354X DOI 10.1108/09513540510582444
Transcript

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-354X.htm

Consumerism in educationA comparison between Canada and the United KingdomIna FreemanDepartment of Management and Marketing, Kazakhstan Institute for Management, Economics and Research, Almaty, Kazakhstan, and

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Michael ThomasUniversity of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UKAbstractPurpose With the emergence of the knowledge economy different countries are responding with changes within their tertiary education systems. Education is increasingly recognized as a cornerstone to the continued growth of a country but with the globalization of business is education becoming a commodity? Design/methodology/approach This paper examines educational policies and their implementation within the UK and Canada. Findings This paper nds that education in the UK has become a commercial product within the international arena, unlike Canada where tertiary education has remained a domestic pursuit. Originality/value This paper engages in a controversy that questions whether the economic value to a nation of education is found only in the numbers of students or can be enlarged to include the results of the education for the students. Keywords Tertiary education, Comparative tests, Educational policy Paper type Viewpoint

Introduction With the increasing globalization of commerce and the international movement of people, students who are looking for post-secondary education are no longer restricted by national boundaries. Many international organizations are organized around a specic concept and work around the globe to achieve these goals. In so doing, the educational status of those who are involved as well as the worlds population in general is improved. This globalization is evidenced by the increasing number of organizations that work internationally on humanitarian causes, such as Amnesty International, International Humana People to People Movement, Greenpeace International, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Peoples Global Action, among others. International organizations perspectives frequently differ from those of the institutions that administer the elected ofcials agenda as well as the elected ofcials. Often the ofcials agenda is short-term due to the established timeframes of power. When this is translated into the perspective of consumers of education, it results in greedy consumerism and emphasis on short-term gain over longer term success (Tickell, 2002). This is evidenced by the United States student populations high levels of detachment from the world of academia and accompanying low trust in academic institutions, as well as a focus on the career positions and pay levels that will result from the education instead of the focus being on the education itself (Spiegler, 1998).

International Journal of Educational Management Vol. 19 No. 2, 2005 pp. 153-177 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0951-354X DOI 10.1108/09513540510582444

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The developed world recognizes the importance of post-secondary education. For example, in England the Prime Minister has expressed a desire for 50 percent of the population to have a university degree. A White Paper, published in January 2003, indicates that 43 percent of the British population between the ages of 18 and 30 is currently enrolled an institution of higher education (Department for Education and Skills, 2003). Universities in Canada recognize that growing student populations are creating a crisis in the post-secondary education system (Borel et al., 2003). The result of this crisis is increasingly larger numbers of potential students who are being turned away and increasing pressure and competition between universities to attract the best candidates because of the perception that the more high-prole the alumni, the greater the likelihood of increased private funding. Universities in England are approaching their funding needs by both increasing the number of international students studying in England as well as exporting university programs to developing countries where satellite campuses are established (Malaysian Business, 2003). Education is the foundation of the success of todays increasingly global marketplace. Complicating this is the increasing globalization felt in communication, commerce, technology, and politics, among others. To educate those who will both participate in and be affected by this globalization is an increasingly onerous task that must respond to and incorporate economic restructuring, demographic shifts, and increasing reliance on information technology as a signpost for the knowledge economy. Post-secondary institutions in the UK and Canada are addressing both the change and the incumbent needs differently, partially due to differences in the historical focus on education, partially due to the different political structures under which post-secondary institutions operate, partially due to the demand for university education by the populations, and partially due to the rising consumerism among students. This paper will address the differences in responses among these countries post-secondary education structures with a view to clarifying issues that may be important to students when contemplating where to pursue their advanced education. Background The importance of the education marketplace is recognized by the World Trade Organization (WTO), which administers the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), originating in 1947. In 1995 the WTO expanded GATT to include services including education under the Central Product Classication system that categorizes education as primary, secondary, higher education, adult, and other (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c). Higher education in this system includes university, college, vocational, and technical education. However these agreements remain incomplete today due to the current 144 participatory members desire to retain control over these services. To September 2003, Canada has made no commitment and is seeking no commitment under these provisions concerning education, health, culture, or social services (Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 2002). The UK, under the banner of the European Union (EU), has stated that it will not make any further commitment concerning education under the WTO agreements (European Union, 2003), a policy that is endorsed by national associations for higher education academics in both countries (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c). These associations in both the UK and Canada look to agreements outside the GATT trade agreements but are under the auspices of the WTO, which

would allow for the recognition of different countries educational standards. This reluctance may be due in part to the potential income generated by higher education as a marketplace. In 1999, education was estimated as a marketplace that generated $30 billion (12.3448 billion)[1] (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c). Education today is recognized by the WTO as a global commodity. This is based on the attributed importance given to globalization, technology, and communication; increased competition in the global marketplace (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c); and the need to prepare tomorrows workers for a life that demands global literacy. In todays global economy, education is seen as the foundation upon which individual countries economies are based. In Canada, these benets are noted as extending beyond the economic realm by enhancing standards of living in a population resulting in increasing longevity as well as greater willingness to engage in critical thought and debates that contribute toward a more democratic society (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c). Universities are looked to as a means of mobilizing even more effectively the imagination, creativity, skills, and talents [. . .] to build economic strength and social harmony (Department for Education and Skills, 2003). Post-secondary education is seen as an indicator of peoples ability to compete in the job market, thereby increasing their economic prosperity and the opportunities encountered in the burgeoning knowledge-based economy now emerging in the developed world. This has resulted in a proliferation of universities in both the United Kingdom and Canada. In 2003, Canada had 195 community colleges and 75 recognized universities with an enrolment of 580,400 full time and 246,000 part-time university students (representing a total of 2.4 percent of the Canadian population) taught by 33,700 instructors (StatsCan, 2003). It is estimated that 70 percent of those enrolled in undergraduate programs are in the 18-24 age group (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). Canadian universities vary in size, the smallest having a student population of less than 300 and 25 having a student population of over 10,000 (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). Full time enrolment at Canadian universities increased by 16 percent between 1988-1989 and 1998-1999 but has decreased from the 1998-1999 high of 885,600 students (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). This ten-year increase belies the trend of decreasing funding from 1993-1994 to 1997-1998 with the academic year 1998-1999 seeing the rst increase in that ve-year period (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). During the same time period in Canada, college education has increased for both full time enrolment (28 percent) and part time enrolment (12 percent) with approximately one quarter of these students registered in university transfer programs (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). These gures are not indicative of the number of applications that, depending on the university and the individual faculty, are nearly double to ten times the number of students accepted. In Canada this translates to increasing admission standards driven up to a minimum average across all faculties of 85 percent (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1999). The 1999-2000 academic year gures included 59,845 international post-secondary students, representing approximately 10 percent of the student population, who contribute an estimated $3.5 billion (1.44 billion) to $4.3 billion (1.77 billion) to the Canadian economy (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c). This

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gure is small because Canada has not concentrated on the international marketplace in the past. Until very recently, the demand for placement has more than been met and exceeded by Canadian students and the governmental funding structures for universities has not encouraged international students. This is further complicated by the allocation of governmental responsibilities, with the provinces being responsible for education and the federal government being responsible for immigration. The governments contribution for higher education is approximately $14,182 per student per year in the 1998-1999 academic year (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). The student also contributes by way of tuition. The Canada Student Loans assisted 48 percent of post-secondary students in 1990 and 44 percent in 1995 (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003, p. 303). The students contribution depends on the tuition rate set by individual institutions, but the increases are reected in the average debt of these students upon graduation increasing from $7,953 (3,273) in 1990 to $10,601 (4,362) in 1995, representing a 33 percent increase (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003, p. 301). Overall, tuition in Canada rose between 1990 and 2001 (in constant 2001 Canadian dollars) 98 percent for undergraduate students and 138 percent for graduate students, with dentistry increasing 310 percent, medicine increasing 252 percent, law increasing 144 percent, and commerce increasing 115 percent (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). According to a 1999 survey, there are 172 universities in the United Kingdom (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003) with 134 in England, 13 in Wales, four in Northern Ireland, and 21 in Scotland. In the UK, there were 2,086,075 students, including 1,255,555 full time and 830,520 part time students for the 2001-2002 year, up from 1,918,970 for the 1998-1999 year (Higher Education Statistics Agency, n.d.), representing an 8.7 percent increase. On average, the student enrolment increases in the UK have been 6 percent from 1996-1997 to 2000-2001 compared with a 54 percent growth in the number of higher education institutions from 1988-1989 to 1993-1994 (Higher Education Funding Council for England, 2002). The majority of students in the UK are undergraduates, who are noted as being primarily between the ages of 18 and 21 years (Higher Education Funding Council for England, 2002), similar to Canada. In a study of domicile and gender in 2002, of 2,086,075 students there were 1,843,320 (88.4 percent) from the United Kingdom (representing 3.1 percent of the UK population), 90,135 (4.3 percent) from other EU countries, and 152,625 (7.3 percent) international not including the EU. Of these, students from each of China and Africa represented 14 percent, 11 percent were from North America, and 10 percent were from other Asian countries (not including Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and India) (Universities UK, n.d.). The UK government has identied the international student population as worth pursuing. The increase in the number of students is not restricted to home students, with universities in England looking to increase the number of international students to improve the nancial situation (Green, 2003). In a 1999 speech, Mr Tony Blair, the British Prime Minister, announced that one of his governments goals was to be a leader in the provision of education for international students by admitting more international students into the UK higher education system, attaining 25 percent of the global market share of higher education students by 2005, with the longer-term goal of 50 percent (Blair, 1999). This action would perhaps allow the tuition rates for these students to offset the governmental funding shortfalls.

In the 2000-2001 academic year, there were a total of 119,900 academic staff in UK Higher Education Institutions, being 96,850 in England, 5,770 in Wales, 14,330 in Scotland, and 2,955 in Northern Ireland (Higher Education Statistics Agency, n.d.). The UK has a student to academic ratio of 6.2:1 whereas Canadas is 4.1:1. From a survey of 30 OECD countries, Canada has the highest percentage of university and college education for the 25 to 64 year old population (41 percent) (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003, p. 385). Within this study, the United Kingdom is seen to have 26 percent for the same population (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003, p. 385). In England, universities are funded by the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the government department responsible for funding of universities. In the 2003-2004 academic year, the granting of funding from the HEFCE board will increase from 6,406 million ($15,579 million), representing 3,071 ($7,468) per student to 7,599 million ($18,480 million) in 2005-06 (Higher Education Funding Council for England, 2003a). According to the Department for Education and Skills (2003), the cost to the UK taxpayer will be offset by the programs for international students that result in an infusion of 8 billion ($19.4 billion) per year, or 32,954 ($80,141) per student into the UK economy. This infusion comes from the costs of living as well as tuition fees. Student loans are not structured in England as they are in Canada, with much of the undergraduate tuition being government-sponsored for United Kingdom resident citizens until 2004 when top up fees of 1,100 ($2,673) increase tuition to 3,000 ($7,291). However, as of 2006, 30 percent of the poorest students will be guaranteed a 3,000 ($7,291) bursary to pay tuition, minimum income levels structured prior to payment, and loans forgiven after 25 years, leaving the funding of undergraduate education still largely state-sponsored. The median fees across all UK higher education institutions for international students is 7,475 ($18,074.62) for undergraduate courses, 7,650 ($18,497.77) for taught postgraduate courses, and 7,632 ($18,454.25) for postgraduate research courses (Universities UK, n.d.). Canada, on the other hand, is looking to increased government funding (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2002) that now supports approximately 60 percent of the cost of universities (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003a, b), with 20 percent coming from students (CBC News Online, 2004), and the balance coming from other sources, including research contracts. The Canadian governments spending on university education has increased approximately 60 percent from 1991-1992 to 2001-2002 (StatsCan, 2003). In the decade 1989-1997, government funding of the education system in England as portrayed by funding per student has decreased by 36 percent (Clarke, 2004). This difference in funding is also reected in the degree to which each country looks to international students to bridge the gap and is reected in the resources expended on recruiting international students. The value of international students and the global marketplace for education is well recognized with politicians and universities in England admitting their need to focus on funding forcing them to search overseas for paying students. This resulted in the best of the British students to go abroad for their education (Wolf, 2004). The repercussions of this are broadly discussed and include a lack of innovation and skilled labour, both of which impact negatively upon the progress of the country (Caldwell, 2004), ultimately impoverishing the UK and further decreasing its status as a global supplier of quality education.

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In England, universities are experiencing pressure to increase tuition rates as well as enrolment rates, a dichotomy that is obvious when the expected salary gains that come from university education are examined. Graduate earnings in England are no longer increasing, and in some instances, are starting to fall. In a recent study, graduates in law, math, and economics could expect an increase in earnings of 25 percent when compared to not obtaining the degree, social studies increased earnings by 10 percent, education and languages had no effect on earnings, and arts showed a decrease in earnings (The Economist, 2003). This decrease is blamed on English university degrees becoming costlier, worse and commonplace (The Economist, 2003, p. 46). Earnings in Canada are associated with educational levels, with 61 percent of those earning over $100,000 (41,149) (in 2000) having a university education and 62 percent of those earning less than $20,000 (8,230) (in 2000) having high school education or less (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). In a recent study, the rising consumerism among students that has resulted in complex rating systems including the estimated value for the dollar spent on education was cited as prevalent in the choice of higher education institution in America (Spiegler, 1998). There has been one study that forms the latest Canadian research into those factors that are ranked as important to students in Canadian universities. This study, by Pierce (1995), reports that students and their parents look for slightly different aspects. Students look for: . career opportunities; . availability of a specic academic program; . academic facilities; . academic cut-off (lowest acceptable marks); . availability of housing; . campus setting; . reputation of university; . student morale; . visit to the university; . variety of courses; and . university social life. Parents look for: . availability of specic academic program; . career opportunities; . academic facilities; . reputation of university; . variety of courses; . reputation of faculty; . student morale; . student/faculty ratio; . availability of housing; and

.

academic cut-off (lowest acceptable marks), student support services and availability of career counselling as equal.

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These needs are somewhat negated in Canada with limited admissions to universities, making the availability of opportunities the most signicant factor. A study done in the UK in 1998 by Universities UK (Universities UK, 1998) examined the elements that students considered when choosing their institution. It was found that it varied by age groupings. Those who were 21 years and younger looked for, in order of descending importance: (1) Offered the right subject. (2) Overall image. (3) Social life. (4) Teaching reputation. (5) Employment prospects. (6) Entry qualications. For those over 25 years, the aspects in order of descending importance are: (1) Offered the right subject. (2) Attitude to mature students. (3) Teaching reputation. (4) Academic support facilities. (5) Distance from home. Thus in the UK, the perception of important aspects is somewhat in tune with the perceptions of both the Canadian students and their parents, in that the availability of the specic program and the teaching reputation are of high importance. There is an increasing call for post-secondary education in Canada to have a larger real world focus with the inclusion of school-sponsored co-op programs for students, co-op work terms for professors, and increased partnering between universities and business (Ambler, 2003). The Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (2003e) notes that time spent in learning environments in foreign countries enhances the employability of graduates by developing an international perspectives by exposing the students to a different language, encouraging intercultural competence, resiliency, exibility, and international business. Some industry support exists within Canada, with the CESC nding that business support of Research and Development (R&D) in universities has risen from 7 percent in 1991 to 9 percent in 1999 and the universities funding their own R&D rising from 14 to 23 percent (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003, p. 368). In the United Kingdom, business support of R&D has decreased from 8 percent to 7 percent in the same time period, with the universities funding their own staying consistent at 4 percent (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003, p. 368). With the increasing acknowledgement of the importance of education in todays global knowledge economy, established education institutions are expanding enrolments, increasing the variety of programs, and increasing the variety of courses offered in established programs. When the established institutions do not respond quickly, the entrepreneurial spirit comes to the fore by introducing new

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institutions, which then acts as one factor in established education institutions being forced to enter the advertising and publicity arena to attract the best students. A summary of changes in key statistics is given in Table I. Consumerism As dened by the American Marketing Association (AMA), consumerism is the actions taken to protect the public from infringements upon their rights as consumers (American Marketing Association, 2004). However, in the public domain, consumerism is dened differently. Merriam-Webster expands the AMA denition to include the theory that an increasing consumption of goods is economically desirable; also: a preoccupation with and an inclination toward the buying of consumer goods (Merriam-Webster, 2004). This difference may be explained by the attitude found within the literature that:. . . if consumers are content with business practices, they will have favourable attitudes toward business activities and unfavourable attitudes about consumerism and government regulations (Bhujan et al., 2001, p. 226).

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Other authors have noted that while consumers have been found to have unfavourable attitudes about business activities, they question whether either the consumer movement or government regulation is capable of controlling or changing these negative practices (Fornell, 1992; Barksdale et al., 1982; Ger and Belk, 1996). Consumerism is seen as a country-specic phenomenon having different aspects according to the country, according to the priorities of the population, and the potential avenues of redress (Ho, 2001). Despite the differences, the recognition of consumers as a priority is increasing around the world. Consumerism is seen as both the bane of the developed world which will, if left unchecked, lead to the worlds destruction (United Nations Development Program, 1998) and the salvation of the developed world, which will inevitably lead to increased prosperity as articulated by Prime Minister Tony Blair in a speech given before a joint session of United States Congress in which he extols the value of ever-expanding consumerism, of prosperity for the sake of prosperity, ofCanada Total population (2003) Number of universities (2003) Number of full-time students (2003) Number of part-time students (2003) Number of instructors (2003) Number of international students (2003) Student/teacher ratio Government contribution per student ($) Student tuition (2004) ($) Percentage change of government contribution (ten-year period) Industry support of university R&D (percentage of total budget) University support of university R&D (percentage of total budget) 31,629,700 75 580,400 246,000 33,700 59,845 4.1:1 14,182 4,025 60 9 23 United Kingdom 59,200,000 172 1,255,555 830,520 119,900 242,755 6.2:1 7,468 7,296 236 7 4

Table I. Summary of differences

freedom for the sake of freedom (Auster, 2003). The ability of consumerism to nourish and promote human life is undeniable. However, as with so many other concepts, the negative patterns that perpetuate consumerism and the effects of too much are perceived as ultimately destructive (United Nations Development Program, 1998). This is recognized by academics as well as the government and consumer advocacy groups (Guest and Colston, 2002). This linkage of consumerism to destructiveness is felt not only within industrialized countries with the highest level of consumerism, but also in the developing world due to the increasingly global nature of travel, commerce, communication, and politics. Increasingly globalization and standardization of products and services into global brands and global standards are inuencing the tastes and desires of the global marketplace, increasing opportunities for corporations to increase sales not only by opening new territories but by increasing existing marketplaces consumption. Consumerism has long been recognized as not limited to tangible consumer goods, but has expanded to the service areas, including education (Emerald, n.d.). The importance of education to the promotion of human rights, increasing the standard of living, and preservation of the environment is recognized by the United Nations Development Program (1998). This recognition, as well as the increasing recognition of the world as one marketplace, has prompted universities to respond to these changes by expanding their reach beyond the borders of their traditional students as dened by nancial and/or social classes and their country of origin. To do this, universities export programs to the developing world to educate those aspiring professionals who will develop their homelands in an international framework within their homeland. Universities also provide opportunities for students from the developing world to be educated about the world of practice in the institutions home country. Both options allow for a more global perspective of both the students and the educators enhancing the opportunities for both to understand the philosophies, customs, traditions, and diversity of new commercial marketplaces. Through this, these institutions are adhering to the United Nations Development Program 1998 report through compliance with its new agenda by: . providing the opportunity for education either at home or internationally; . providing an environment in which new technologies and methods that are emerging in developing countries can be explored both in the developing country as well as in the universitys country of origin; . providing the education that increases the perspectives of its students to be inclusive of the global environment; . providing the education that increases the opportunities for consumer education, information, and environmental protection; . strengthen international understanding by educating students by international professors in an inquisitive environment; . building stronger alliances between and among human rights movements by increasing the global populations knowledge of such movements and their legitimacy; and . building on local initiatives and amplifying the think global act local synergies (United Nations Development Program, 1998).

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Through developing programs that respond to these, the educational institutions engage in consumerism that contributes to the changes in the consumers attitudes. These changes are cyclical in that the educational institution promotes the acquisition of knowledge, which changes consumer attitudes, which then change the perceptions of required knowledge, which changes consumer attitudes. These changes may not be sufcient. Birnbaum (1988) cites the American education system as poorly managed but unwilling to break out of its politico-economic background to re-examine itself. Others have noted the reticence of academic institutions to change, thus presenting a challenge that to date has been denied (Davies, 2002). Few consumer advocacy groups address the issue of post-secondary education, and fewer address the international aspect of this issue despite the linkages between education and consumerism which were rst noted in the late 1970s (Doyle, 1998). When these issues are addressed, it is primarily the cost of the education that is of concern. This emphasis on the cost of education is noted in the public sector as diverting attention from the issue of providing quality education that is inclusive, tolerant of diverse views, oriented toward equity and toward social, racial and religious integration (OBrien, 2001, p. 250), all being additional concerns of consumerism in education, a concept that must be redened when applied to education. Many of the developed countries, including Canada (StatsCan 2004), the United Kingdom (Department of Trade and Industry, 1998), the EU, Japan, and the United States (Zaragoza, 2003) have recognized the evolution of the economy to be based on knowledge. This economy is built on both access to information and the development of new information and knowledge. These form a foundation for education, making education a principal building block for global advancement for and by the consumer. Through these international programs, the technology of both countries can be optimized. The advantage of this can be found both in the rapid dissemination of technology within business as a requirement for competition within the global economy, as well as the adaptation and exploration of time-honored traditions in the developing world that are now being scientically proven to be useful and successful in the developed world. This two-way transfer of knowledge is benecial to both those countries that export education as well as those who hire the students from these institutions. In teaching in both of these environments, the educators are made more aware of the opportunities for consumer education, information, and environmental protection as they differ and are the same within the differing environments. The educators themselves are international when they teach in satellite programs, giving those students the advantage of the knowledge both of their experience and the educators, enhancing the educators knowledge base. This advantage to the educator may not be as pronounced if the educator does not leave their home country, which may inhibit the knowledge base that is imparted within the instructional materials. One of the consequences of satellite educational institutions is the alliances that may be built among the instructors and advocacy groups, such as human rights, that will enrich the worlds knowledge of human conditions in international settings. This consequence will benet the students as well as assist organizations such as the United Nations to disseminate much of this knowledge, including human rights and environmental issues. The consumers of education are not solely the student who is the recipient of the education. The effects of education are not specic in their targeting. Rather, education

given to one person is spread throughout the population by the thoughts and actions of that one person. These far-reaching implications of education are recognized by agencies such as the United Nations in the quest for development of the global village. Instead, consumers are recognized as those who utilize a good or service, thus blurring the identity of the consumer of education due to the nature and effects of education. However, the person who ultimately makes the choice as to the intent and subject matter of the education is the student and perhaps their funders, who might include family, academic institutions, political agencies, and commercial enterprises, among others. The person who ultimately engages in the educational experience and has the opportunity to determine the extent of the benet of this experience is the student, making the student an important participant among the ultimate consumers of the educational experience. Thus, universities are not able to solely appeal to the student, although recognizing that the student is often one of the primary determinants of which institution is chosen. This rising consumerism, however, does have negative implications for educational institutions. Studies have looked at the reasons behind the students choices as including nancial, access to graduate schools, school reputation, job placement, the schools reputation, and the schools social reputation (Spiegler, 1998). Students enter their post-secondary education with expectations of positive outcomes that will result in good jobs. A recent decision by Oxford colleges in the UK to take out insurance in the uncertain event of students suing for failure to attain necessary grades for future employment or education (Simon, 1991) is an indication of some of the negative aspects of this changing environment, where education has become a marketplace commodity instead of remaining true to the understanding of professorialism. Michael (1997) denes professorialism as similar to Brubachers (1990) epistemological consideration, which is the decision of professors to monitor themselves in when, how, and what to offer to students for their consideration, because education is a knowledge industry with a mission to educate the minds and train the hands under conditions that may be sometimes less than comfortable or acceptable to the students (Michael, 1997). Gerstner et al. (1994) write that the treatment of students as consumers allows academics to negate their ivory tower elitist status by instituting real world practices in higher education institutions (Gerstner et al., 1994). Other authors debate whether or not students are capable of being treated as consumers given their limited knowledge of the workings of the world into which they hope a university education will take them, and given their general immaturity. Cheney et al. (1997) look at the commercial world interpretation of consumerism as supplying the consumer with what they desire. With this denition, they question whether the student knows or understands what the requirements of the career choice they make are, such that they can determine the course content. They argue that the metaphor of student-as-consumer will damage higher education because: . the student-as-consumer metaphor actually distances students from the very educational process which is supposed to engage them by instituting the singular focus of paid employment instead of the exploration and acquisition of knowledge;

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the provision of momentary customer satisfaction should not be confused with providing a high-quality educational experience or with ongoing educational improvement; market-driven, customer-oriented response mechanisms often represent in practice a type of pseudodemocracy that gives power without regard to requirements or abilities; the measurement mania accompanying the rise of the student-as-consumer metaphor is reductionistic in its conception of the educational process; and much can be lost in the translation of contemporary business-management fads to the experiences of higher education because the fads present cookbook style thinking and do not allow for learning how to think (Cheney et al., 1997).

Instead, Cheney et al. (1997) advocate the adoption of a co-creator philosophy between universities and students that engages students not only in academic philosophies and practices held by universities, but by taking the ideas of both society and universities to challenge and change the world through investment in life-long learning and the human community.

Practical implications Education has long been recognized as the means by which to achieve change, create new ideas, and initiate the new practices that move a country toward increasing prosperity (Wheatley, 2001). The Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (2003d) endorses this, stating higher education and research cooperation at an international level turns the forces of globalization to societies advantage (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003d, p. 8). Thus, there must be a new denition of the concept of consumerism within education that both endorses the rights of students to receive quality education that will adequately and appropriately prepare them for the workplace and endorses the rights of educators to maintain the academic integrity and freedom to structure their classes, assignments, exams, and research to meet the underlying premise of humankind, including universities. Traditionally universities incorporated intellectual training before a person entered the workplace. This tradition has caused some dissent concerning the ability of universities to relate to the working world. The discussion adopts the concept of atrophy and stasis. Within biology, in organisms that are in stable environments, where needs are met and evolution is not necessary for survival, genetic drift occurs making the organism vulnerable to competition. For universities, the environment is stable and their need to be attuned to the evolution of the environment has been minimized by the security that was put in place to ensure their continuation. Further, as Kuhn (1977, 1962) noted, academics who have founded their career on one line of thinking do not readily admit to errors, resulting in the emergence of new paradigms only when the old guard has retired, died, or become incapacitated. Thus, universities continue to train people for a workplace that may not be reective of the reality of the environment. Heifetz (1999) recognizes this potential in his understanding of two types of leadership:

(1) Technical/operational leadership that is based on authority. (2) Adaptive leadership that is based on the principles of living systems. Of the two, universities apply technical/operational leadership both in their administration as well as in their classrooms (Kuhn 1977, 1962), a factor that may not appeal to upcoming students who have been raised in an era of consumerism. In the recent past, the workplace has changed from labour- and product-based to knowledge-based, a fact that enhances the role of universities. In educating and training this workforce, universities also become incubators for spin-out companies in which the theory that is taught is changed and tested before the knowledge is copyrighted (Sykes, 2003). To enhance funding, these incubators require optimal ideas and personnel. This requires universities to attract world-class students, which amplies the need for attention to be paid to the recruiting process that is a response to the rising consumerism in global education. Universities are experiencing increasing competition for students from other universities, partially due to governmental funding for universities dependent upon enrolment statistics within individual programs and as a whole. This has resulted in increased numbers of students from non-traditional cohorts enrolling in education, which decreases the naturally occurring decline in the population of the traditional cohort (Michael, 1997). However it is recognized that there are limits to a continuation of this phenomena and universities have started to examine other markets. Both the increasing competition for funding and the recognition of limited resources has resulted in the export of university programs to other countries into the global marketplace (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c). In particular, universities in the United States, the UK, and Australia are not only exporting their programs but are competing actively among the target population for international students to enter their universities. This international trade in education is recognized as important to countries by preparing students for employment in a global marketplace by exposing the international students to the culture, attitude, practices, and opportunities in the country of education (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003d) as well as exposing the educational institution and others in the community to the international students culture, attitude, and practices. Companies are beginning to recognize that cutting the work force and buying technology does not automatically generate productivity and prots (Gordon, 2003). Unfortunately, companies are not nding the skills and knowledge in potential employees that are needed and are therefore structuring their own educational programs and calling them corporate universities (Garman, 2003), including one that is cited as exemplary, the Defense Acquisition University structured by the US Department of Defense (Schettler, 2003). This adds to the competitiveness. These corporate universities are cited as having numerous benets to corporations, including discovering new talents and employee groups that are capable of innovative thinking that leads to redesign and restructuring of process (Gearon, 2003). At this point, these universities do not offer degrees that have the equivalencies of traditional universities, but as observed in the United Kingdom when standards were adjusted to provide for colleges to apply for university status, this may only be a temporary restraint. Universities also serve as a means through which national culture is questioned, researched, and formulated. The Canadian culture, which values cosmopolitanism,

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internationalism, and respect for diversity and tolerance, is increasingly becoming unique within North America (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003d). The Conference Board of Canada recognizes the importance of both Canadian students studying abroad and international students studying in Canada as key indicators of a countrys economic wellbeing (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1999). However, this is not recognized by the federal government funding sources funding less than $1 (0.41) per capita on international education of Canadian students possibly contributing to the paucity of less than 1 percent of Canadian students participating in international exchange programs (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003d). A recent study concerning the country of origin of the terminal degrees of 50 of Canadas universities found a total of 2,490 commerce academics. These faculties ranged from four members for Brandon University to 232 members for HEC Montreal. Of the academic staff who listed their qualications, there were 642 (or 25.7 percent) who listed their terminal degree as originating in a Canadian university, and 657 (or 26.3 percent) who listed their terminal degree as originating in the United States. Of PhD or equivalent degrees obtained outside of North America (235, or 9.4 percent), the largest number was obtained in England (101 or 4 percent), with the next closest being from France (64 or 2.6 percent). The majority of those holding terminal degrees from France taught in Quebec Universities. There were 525 (21 percent) who did not disclose information about the origin of their terminal degree (Freeman and Knight, 2004) attesting to the importance Canadian universities place upon the international perspective. In addition to this, there are established exchange programs between visiting research chairs in the United States and Canada which further enhance structuring an international environment for students in both countries. Through the 2001 Summit of the Americas Action Plan, political leaders throughout all three Americas recognized the importance of international education. There are 195 universities listed within the United Kingdom. Using similar criteria for determining university status as was used with Canadian universities, web sites for 79 u niversities in England were searched to determine the country in which the educators terminal degree was obtained. In total there are 4,365 full-time lecturers and professors noted on web sites as of March 30, 2004 of business schools within English Universities. These faculties ranged from no staff information on the web in nine universities, to ve faculty members of Bristol University to 200 faculty members at London South Bank University. Of the academic staff who listed their qualications, there were 858 (or 19.6 percent) who listed their terminal degree as originating in an English university, 27 (or 0.6 percent) from a Welsh university, 28 (or 0.6 percent) from a Scottish university, and 8 (or 0.2 percent) from an Irish university. Of PhD or equivalent degrees obtained outside of the United Kingdom and Ireland (212 or 4.8 percent), the largest number was obtained in the United States (125, or 2.9 percent), and only 15 (or 0.03 percent) from Canada. There were 1,911 (or 43.8 percent) who did not have a PhD and 1,320 (or 30.2 percent) did not disclose information about the origin of their terminal degree. It must be noted, however, that the country of origin may not be the same as the country where the terminal PhD degree is obtained. However, when compared to the education standards and the international perspective reected by the terminal PhD degree, England has an overall lower percentage of PhD educators and has a lower

number of educators who received their terminal PhD from outside their boundaries than does Canada. With the increasing numbers of universities from which to choose, including the paper mills that have emerged, and the increasing sense of consumerism that is discussed in the academic literature, it is increasingly becoming incumbent on the potential student to choose their post-secondary educational institution carefully. By denition, universities promote their consumers interest by offering the chance to take advantage of opportunities that are not available without degrees. However, the educational market is not an equal market because the student is at a distinct disadvantage in lacking the knowledge of the prevailing market conditions (Michael, 1997). Universities are, to varying degrees, dependent upon the students demand for education. However, the evaluation of post-secondary education is very difcult as it is intangible (Harvey and Busher, 1996) with the quality of higher education being complex and long-term (Baldwin and James, 2000), making other variables important in the determination of which university to attend. One of these variables is the name of the institution, meaning the reputation of the institution (Treadwell, 2003). Similarly, the reputation of the country in which the educational institution is located is similarly important to consumers (Srikatanyoo and Gnoth, 2002). Together, these factors can be seen as intrinsic to the top ten factors previously listed herein for both students and their parents. This approach to education is not without its limitations. Andrews (2003) notes the need for academic personnel to adopt new teaching methods, including approaches that turn the classroom into a workshop to encourage the student to become an active learner, a role not previously expected or accepted. Baldwin and James (2000) conducted a study of the limitations on the higher education applicants knowledge and understanding of the higher education system, both requisites for an informed consumer. A study completed in the UK recognizes the need for students and potential students to become informed consumers. This study cites a number of shortfalls within the UK system that must be corrected for potential students to achieve informed consumer status. These include: . improving decision making tools, for example developing a check list that forces the student to examine elements such as the choice of their subject (e.g. entry requirements, relevance to life after graduation), course structure (e.g. balance between structured tuition, self study, work experience, etc.), type of university/college and its environment, sources of income (including loans, parental contributions, the availability of student employment, and help with budgeting), subsequent career aspirations and expectations; . improving and ensuring the reliability and validity of the aforementioned core information; . improving access to nancial information concerning tuition, living costs, book fees, and potential income opportunities; . providing a more comprehensive guide to career paths, including access to testimonials from individuals who have graduated from particular institutions and the career possibilities, opportunities, and obstacles encountered;

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improving career advice from people who are engaged in the eld, especially those non-tradition individuals who are traditional elds or those who are contemplating entering non-traditional elds; improving the quality and accuracy of information about different institutions; and utilizing new technologies to bridge the gap between the users and the providers of information (Universities UK, 1998).

This listing of recommendations may in fact represent an opportunity for Canadian universities to modify their recruitment information without the cost of a study. Traditional universities are often bound in the framework upon which their reputation was built. Often, that framework restricts its adoption of the innovation that corporate universities can more easily incorporate, partially because they do not have the history and historical structures of universities, and partially because universities are structured to survive regardless of economic performance making them less than responsive to the marketplace. With the increased awareness of the costs of education, universities must learn to learn and change in order to survive, thereby adopting those characteristics of a learning organization that are appropriate. Organizational learning was rst identied by Cangelosi and Dill (1965). Despite this and the terms popularity, there is little agreement on the terms meaning or the facets that are necessary for it to occur within organizations (Crossan et al., 1999). Organizational learning is fundamental to the development of organizational design, as well as organizational renewal, both fundamentals of competitive advantage (Doz, 1996; Epple et al., 1991). The concept of learning is dynamic, with both the process and the results continually changing the learner. Dodgson (1993) nds that learning within an organization unies the individual, group, and corporate levels of analysis. But as implemented within many organizations, learning may in fact close the organization to the external environment, thus restricting the organizations ability to contemplate new ideas and concepts (Kuhn 1962, 1977). Simon (1991) recognizes that organizations are capable of learning only through their members. The individual members through which the learning happens are now recognized as including many of those who are important to organizations, being employees, consumers, and stakeholders. However, as Tsang (1999) notes, learning in organizations is synergistic, in that the lessons learned go beyond the capabilities of each individual. This brings to the fore learning theory as proposed by Gardner (1999), which cites humans as having eight or nine basic intelligences, including the two that are predominantly used in educational settings (i.e. logical/mathematical and linguistic), those that are most notable in the arts (i.e. musical, bodily kinesthetic, and spatial), those that are inward directing (i.e. interpersonal and intrapersonal), and the three most newly described (i.e. naturalist intelligence, spiritual intelligence, and existential intelligence). It is recognized that these intelligences are used by different people at different times with different degrees of success, but these intelligences form a comprehensive outline for how learning can be facilitated. Although Gardner (1999) proposes that these intelligences are individual, it is individuals who are the essence of a company and who undertake the organizational learning that occurs both because of them and through them. In consumerism, it is these individuals and their ability to learn that promotes them as valuable consumers.

It is because of the use of different intelligences that brands are perceived as unique to each individual. The branding of universities is immediately obvious with the mention of names such as Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard, Princeton, and McGill. These university names are known, recognized, and admired around the world because of the branding that has been built over decades, and for some more than a century, while some of their practices remain obscure. For example, few individuals know that Oxford grants its baccalaureate recipients with a Masters degree following a set period of working in their eld of training without attendance at a university. All that is required is compliance with application procedures for the advanced degree. Numerous authors have stated that the quality of education at the Ivy League universities in the United States is equivalent to or has lesser economic value than degrees at other American institutions. Other educational institutions that do not have the historical prestige of these brands are now working at branding. This branding is becoming essential because the product of education is interchangeable and the market, specically in the UK where there are 195 higher education institutions for a population in 2003 of 59.5 million, whereas in Canada where there are 75 higher education institutions for a population in 2003 of 31.6 million. Higher education institutions in the UK represent 2.6 times the number found in Canada. Thus, the need for branding in an oversupplied market becomes paramount (Twitchell, 2002), especially when the product is promoted across international boundaries. Butler (2002) writes that this branding will assist UK universities in setting out their particular strengths and proclivities such that all students can be serviced within the UK environment. It is postulated by Belanger et al. (2002) that if this branding is successful, it will enhance the student retention of these institutions. Other authors have noted the difculties of global branding including the rapidity of change, evolution, and progress in the marketplace (Briggs, 2001). In an article in Precision Marketing, more than two thirds of marketers felt their company lacked the expertise to successfully translate brand messages between nations (Precision Marketing, 2004) a factor that complicates universities attempts to appeal to international students due to cross-cultural implications and associated meanings (Gray et al., 2003). Another article has noted the reluctance of departments and faculty within British universities to afrm the government proposals that encourage them to begin to brand the university (PR Week, 2003). However, branding of universities is occurring within the UK environment, with a resulting debate as to the success or the thoroughness of precursor research (Clegg, 2003), while recognizing that many UK universities have employed outside PR or consulting agencies to research and initiate the branding process for the university (Design Week, 2003). Branding of Canadian business schools has and is continuing to occur, although with fewer studies being described in the literature (Corwin, 2000).

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Where to from here? We live in an increasingly complex world, one that forces us to evolve and grow in ways not previously contemplated. To respond to this many corporations have established their own universities, a trend that may have a negative impact upon traditional universities unless there is a willingness by these traditional institutions to change. These universities are successful on many fronts, including increased

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employee satisfaction and retention (Murray, 2003). Some of the important concepts that have proved successful and are described in the literature include: . Johnson (2003) discusses the factors that have enhanced the success of the university structured by the Sprint organization. The survival of the university is seen as resulting from their ability to measure the results as a demonstration of value which goes beyond the student year-end evaluations that are prevalent in universities today. Sprint offers a traditional learning environment in a bricks-and-mortar university as well as a virtual university offering e-learning, thus engaging students who are unable to travel due to family, work, or personal commitments. It is necessary, however, to recognize that e-learning presents challenges that are not easily overcome. Another aspect of traditional universities that is incorporated by Sprint is the practices of these universities to perform as benchmarks for evaluation. This willingness to adapt to the needs of students is encapsulated by encouraging employees to learn in their own way. Sprint also ensures that the education offered is in alignment with its core business strategies and is updated and revised with the evolution of its business. This means that the technology that is utilized is the technology that will be encountered in the workplace, despite the initial costs. Sprint understands the importance of technology and education, and therefore does not cut these budgets, but instead prunes the content of courses so that they are constantly updated to current practices. This updating may only become available through alliances with traditional universities, other businesses, and others, a task that Sprint enters into to ensure the quality of the education imparted within the walls of their university. . Gardner (2000) writes of tools that are necessary for successful negotiation that are easily adapted to the educational environment. These tools include observing and learning from institutions that are successful; encouraging students to do the same and to practise this using role-playing and coaching; allowing each individual to challenge directly those aspects that do not work while always collecting evidence that there are different ways to approach the topic; encouraging utilization of many different methods of teaching including role-playing, story telling, logical argument and jokes, among others. That is, in teaching and in structuring the university, be innovative and creative. . Flexibility and an openness to change are seen as a hallmark of Defense Acquisition University, which is seen as one of the leading corporate universities in the United States (Schettler, 2003). Despite being sponsored by the armed forces of the United States, the DAU actively searches for collaborators while giving both students and supervisors as much control of their learning process as possible. DAU works to remain as current as possible, trying to ensure that information is accurate, timely, and readily available. . Equally important is the necessity for universities to fulll their original mandate that of exploration of the universe and all within in it utilizing academic freedom to explore and discuss previously untapped or unacknowledged areas. This requires the maintenance of the concept of fundamentals that have long been established, being strong communication skills, use of an interactive style, and asking thought-provoking questions

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(Smart et al., 2003, p. 71) together with prociency in the use of technology that will both enhance the teaching as well as the research capabilities of the educator. In the attainment of the original mandate, is the recognition that the application of this mandate may need to be re-examined in light of the evolution of the world of commerce. This evolution within commerce is increasingly being related to chaos theory and complexity theory as applied to organizations (Pascale et al., 2000) and should be applied to universities. Universities need to remember that the potential for social engineering that originates in systems thinking ultimately stagnates the university and negates the originating mandate under which they operate. This reality brings forward the need for universities to remember the Law of Requisite Variety from cybernetics, which states that the survival of any system depends upon the systems capacity to cultivate variety in its internal structure. In universities this means the ability of its staff to hire those who offer a new perspective rather than comply with established research patterns and norms.

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ConclusionsThe universe is governed by quantum mechanical laws. This means there are probabilities for alternative histories. Any entity in the world around us owes its existence not only to laws of physics but to an inconceivably long sequence of indeterministic probabilistic events (Gell-Mann, 1994, p. 17).

Universities are educating those who will create the future of the world as well as informing the world today. The role of education is crucial in todays quickly evolving environment. Within this role, universities are responsible to many, including the students who are educated in this environment as well as the population where these students live. From the literature we are aware of the attributes that students and their parents look for when considering universities together with the decreasing resources that hinder students in their educational pursuit. The literature also discusses the effects of the creeping consumerism that is being expressed by many of the stakeholders of higher education institutions. This is already noted as having negative consequences, such as universities that respond to their student base by guaranteeing degrees regardless of effort expended, decreased quality of graduates, a backlash to this decreased quality by industry establishing its own universities and educational programs that are beginning to attract students who would otherwise attend traditional universities, and the publics perception of universities as having lesser standards and thus increasing the difculty for graduating students to obtain jobs and devaluing the degrees, which in turn defeats the purpose of global expansion. It is necessary to consider whether the student can be given the responsibilities of being a consumer of education, and if so, under what conditions. Universities and funding sources must be able to meet and collaborate on the issues that are most relevant to the world as it operates. Promises of increased standards of living and wage opportunities through education must be weighed against the implications. The UK Prime Minister Tony Blair has not taken into consideration the

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impact that a two year foundation degree will have on the reputation of the higher education institutions of that country. Whereas most universities in North America have adopted a four-year baccalaureate as a standard, he has instituted a two-year degree that will carry the same name as the more comprehensive four-year degree. The royal family is ensuring the future kings education and Tony Blair is ensuring his sons education by enrolling their sons in four-year degrees. However, the UK has instituted two-year degrees that for many are not distinguishable and therefore negate the standard of education in the UK. This failure is already noted internationally. In a study recently completed by Freeman and Knight (2004), UK PhD recipients are not viewed favourably when applying for academic jobs in Canada. This indicates that the traditional impact of a good product, such as a British education, can be eroded if the brand is not carefully monitored (Lamming, 2001). This emphasis on the high value of the management of an institutions reputation is mandatory in todays world of instantaneous communication (Schmitt, 2000). It also emphasises the impact of extraneous variables that impact upon a brand, such as the populations attitudes and behaviors. The negativity of going to England for education is compounded by government-sponsored studies that reveal the racial and ethnic discriminatory practices by the white British population (Modood and Acland, 1998). When this is compared to Canadas reputation for high quality innovative education courses, its stunning scenery and the friendliness of its people make it a rm favourite with overseas students (Evans, 2003), the UK has some intensive work to be completed at several levels. If universities do not actively respond to their consumer base, others will, and universities will suffer losses in both reputation and the ability to respond to the world as it continues to evolve. On the other hand, if universities are held accountable to the strict mandates of the term consumerism when applied to their students, the quality of education offered will be negatively impacted. If universities are not allowed the professorial component that encourages growth both in academia as well as the world of commerce, society will lose one of the greatest resources it has available to it. There is a ne line that universities must establish and defend that will allow the academics within universities to express intellectual integrity and quality in both their teaching and their research. This expression must include students as both participants and recipients not only while engaged in classes, but also as participants and recipients within the society in which the university is structured.Note 1. Unless indicated otherwise, all nancial amounts are given in Canadian dollars and British pounds. References Ambler, S. (2003), Educated guessing, Computing Canada, Vol. 29 No. 20, p. 15. American Marketing Association (2004), Consumerism, available at: www. marketingpower.com/live/mg-dictionary-view771.php (accessed February 14). Andrews, D. (2003), Consumers, Business Communication Quarterly, Vol. 65 No. 4, pp. 6-7. Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (2002), Trends in higher education backgrounder, available at: www.aucc.ca/publications/media/2002/trendsback_e.html (accessed January 20, 2004).

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