CONTEMPORY MANAGEMENT THEORIES FOR TQM

MANAGERS

LEVEL 300 TQM

MR. JOSHUA OFORI ESSIAM

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Use of Theory

A theory is a set of assumptions or principles that have been repeatedly tested to explain or predict facts or phenomena . Theories:

• Provide a conceptual framework• Provide a common vocabulary• Guide actions• Assist comprehension or judgment• Challenge practice wisdom• Provide framework to evaluate interventions

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Learning Objectives

• Describe how the need to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness has guided the evolution of management theory

• Explain the principle of job specialization and division of labor, and tell why the study of person-task relationships is central to the pursuit of increased efficiency

• Identify the principles of administration and organization that underlie effective organizations

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Learning Objectives

Trace the change in theories about how managers should behave to motivate and control employees

Explain the contributions of management science to the efficient use of organizational resources

Explain why the study of the external environment and its impact on an organization has become a central issue in management thought

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The Evolution of Management Theory

Figure 2.1

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Job Specialization and the Division of Labor

Adam Smith (18th century economist)– Observed that firms manufactured

pins in one of two different ways:- Craft-style—each worker did all

steps. - Production—each worker

specialized in one step.

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Question?

What is the process by which a division of labor occurs as different workers specialize in specific tasks over time?

A. Job Diversification

B. Job Sterilization

C. Job Specification

D. Job Specialization

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Job Specialization and the Division of Labor

• Job Specialization – process by which a division of labor occurs

as different workers specialize in specific tasks over time

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Job Specialization and the Division of Labor

• Workers who specialized became much more skilled at their specific tasks

• Increasing job specialization increases efficiency and leads to higher organizational performance

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F.W. Taylor and Scientific Management

Scientific Management

The systematic study of the relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the work process to increase efficiency.

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Four Principles of Scientific Management

1) Study the way workers perform their tasks, gather all the informal job knowledge that workers possess and experiment with ways of improving how tasks are performed

• Time-and-motion study

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Four Principles of Scientific Management

2) Codify the new methods of performing tasks into written rules and standard operating procedures

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Four Principles of Scientific Management

3) Carefully select workers who possess skills and abilities that match the needs of the task, and train them to perform the task according to the established rules and procedures

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Four Principles of Scientific Management

4) Establish a fair or acceptable level of performance for a task, and then develop a pay system that provides a reward for performance above the acceptable level

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Problems with Scientific Management

• Managers frequently implemented only the increased output side of Taylor’s plan.– Workers did not share in the increased

output.• Specialized jobs became very boring, dull.

– Workers ended up distrusting the Scientific Management method.

• Workers could purposely “under-perform.”– Management responded with increased use

of machines and conveyors belts.

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The Gilbreths

1. Break up and analyze every individual action necessary to perform a particular task into each of its component actions

2. Find better ways to perform each component action

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The Gilbreths

3. Reorganize each of the component actions so that the action as a whole could be performed more efficiently-at less cost in time and effort

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Administrative Management Theory

• Administrative Management– The study of how to

create an organizational structure that leads to high efficiency and effectiveness.

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Administrative Management Theory

Max Weber–Developed the principles of bureaucracy as a

formal system of organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness.

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Weber’s Principles of Bureaucracy

Weber’s Principles of Bureaucracy

Figure 2.2

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Weber’s Principles of Bureaucracy

1) A manager’s formal authority derives from the position he holds in the organization.

2) People should occupy positions because of their performance, not because of their social standing or personal contacts.

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Weber’s Principles of Bureaucracy

3) The extent of each position’s formal authority and task responsibilities and it’s relationship to other positions should be clearly specified.

4) Authority can be exercised effectively when positions are arranged hierarchically, so employees know whom to report to and who reports to them.

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Weber’s Principles of Bureaucracy

5) Managers must create a well-defined system of rules, standard operating procedures, and norms so they can effectively control behavior .

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Rules, SOPs and Norms

• Rules – formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken under different circumstances to achieve specific goals

• Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) – specific sets of written instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task

• Norms – unwritten, informal codes of conduct that prescribe how people should act in particular situations

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Fayol’s Principles of Management

• Division of Labor: allows for job specialization. – jobs can have too much specialization leading to

poor quality and worker dissatisfaction.• Authority and Responsibility

– both formal and informal authority resulting from special expertise.

• Unity of Command– Employees should have only one boss.

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Fayol’s Principles of Management

• Line of Authority– A clear chain of command from top to

bottom of the firm.• Centralization

– The degree to which authority rests at the top of the organization.

• Unity of Direction– A single plan of action to guide the

organization.

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Fayol’s Principles of Management

• Equity - The provision of justice and the fair and impartial treatment of all employees.

• Order - The arrangement of employees where they will be of the most value to the organization and to provide career opportunities.

• Initiative - The fostering of creativity and innovation by encouraging employees to act on their own.

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Fayol’s Principles of Management

• Discipline– Obedient, applied, respectful employees

are necessary for the organization to function.

• Remuneration of Personnel– An equitable uniform payment system that

motivates contributes to organizational success.

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Fayol’s Principles of Management

• Stability of Tenure of Personnel– Long-term employment is important for the

development of skills that improve the organization’s performance.

• Subordination of Individual Interest to the Common Interest– The interest of the organization takes

precedence over that of the individual employee.

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Fayol’s Principles of Management

Esprit de corps

– Comradeship, shared enthusiasm foster devotion to the common cause (organization).

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Discussion Question?

Which of the following is the most important aspect of Fayol’s principles of management?

A. Division of Labor

B. Unity of Command

C. Remuneration of Personnel

D. Esprit de corps

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Behavioral Management Theory

Behavioral Management– The study of how managers should

personally behave to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organizational goals.

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Behavioral Management

Mary Parker Follett– Concerned that Taylor ignored the

human side of the organization• Suggested workers help in

analyzing their jobs• If workers have relevant knowledge

of the task, then they should control the task

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The Hawthorne Studies

Studies of how characteristics of the work setting affected worker fatigue and performance at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company from 1924-1932.

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The Hawthorne Studies

– Worker productivity was measured at various levels of light illumination.

– Researchers found that regardless of whether the light levels were raised or lowered, worker productivity increased.

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The Hawthorne Studies

Human Relations Implications– Hawthorne effect — workers’ attitudes

toward their managers affect the level of workers’ performance

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The Hawthorne Studies

• Human relations movement – advocates that supervisors be behaviorally trained to manage subordinates in ways that elicit their cooperation and increase their productivity

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The Hawthorne Studies

Implications

• Behavior of managers and workers in the work setting is as important in explaining the level of performance as the technical aspects of the task

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The Hawthorne Studies

• Demonstrated the importance of understanding how the feelings, thoughts, and behavior of work-group members and managers affect performance

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Question?

What theory assumes the average worker is lazy, dislikes work and will do as little as possible?

A. Theory X

B. Theory Y

C. Theory Z

D. Theory QZ

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Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor proposed the two different sets of assumptions about workers.– Theory X assumes the average worker is

lazy, dislikes work and will do as little as possible.• Workers have little ambition and wish to

avoid responsibility• Managers must closely supervise and

control through reward and punishment.

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Theory X and Theory Y

– Theory Y assumes workers are not lazy, want to do a good job and the job itself will determine if the worker likes the work.• Managers should allow workers

greater latitude, and create an organization to stimulate the workers.

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Theory X vs. Theory Y

Figure 2.3

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Management Science Theory

• Contemporary approach to management that focuses on the use of rigorous quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services.

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Management Science Theory

– Quantitative management — utilizes linear and nonlinear programming, modeling, simulation, queuing theory and chaos theory.

– Operations management —techniques used to analyze any aspect of the organization’s production system.

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Management Science Theory

– Total Quality Management (TQM) —focuses on analyzing input, conversion, and output activities to increase product quality.

– Management Information Systems (MIS) — provides information vital for effective decision making.

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Organizational Environment Theory

Organizational Environment – The set of forces and conditions that operate beyond an organization’s boundaries but affect a manager’s ability to acquire and utilize resources

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The Open-Systems View

Open System

– A system that takes resources for its external environment and transforms them into goods and services that are then sent back to that environment where they are bought by customers.

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Figure 2.4

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The Open-Systems View

– Inputs: the acquisition of external resources to produce goods and services

– Conversion: transforms the inputs into outputs of finished goods and services.

– Output: the release of finished goods and services to its external environment.

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Closed System

• A self-contained system that is not affected by changes in its external environment.

• Likely to experience entropy and lose its ability to control itself

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Systems

• Synergy – the performance gains that result from the combined actions of individuals and departments– Possible only in

an organized system

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Contingency Theory

• “There is no one best way to organize”

• The idea that the organizational structures and control systems manager choose depend on—are contingent on—characteristics of the external environment in which the organization operates.

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Contingency Theory

Figure 2.5

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Type of Structure

Mechanistic Structure– Authority is centralized at the top. – Emphasis is on strict discipline and order– Employees are closely monitored and

managed.– Can be very efficient in a stable

environment.

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Type of Structure

Organic Structure– Authority is decentralized throughout

the organization. – Departments are encouraged to take a

cross-departmental or functional perspective

– Works best when environment is unstable and rapidly changing

Application: Contingency Theory

Given that

• purpose of organization is service to clients

• people served are involuntary, vulnerable & reluctant to speak out

• people employed are young, altruistic, with BSWs

• task is to provide case management for the elderly

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Application: Contingency Theory(con’d)

• service technology is complex, hard to quantify & support

• public has mixed feelings about mission & procedures [external sociocultural]

• resources are from taxes & contracting [external economic force]

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Application: Contingency Theory(con’d)

• agency has many regulations to follow [external political influences]

then it makes sense that, or research shows that a bureaucratic structures accomplishes missions better than an team structure

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HERZBERG’S Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Psychologist Frederick Herzberg believed that:

• Intrinsic—natural, real—factors are related to job satisfaction &

• Extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction.

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Herzberg’s Theory cont’d

• On the other hand, when employees were dissatisfied, they tended to cite extrinsic factors such as company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, and working conditions.

• Herzberg suggested emphasizing motivators—those factors that increase job satisfaction, such as recognition and growth.

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Hygiene Factors

• Herzberg’s term for factors such as:– Working conditions and Salary—when these

factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied, but neither will they be satisfied.

– These factors may eliminate job dissatisfaction but do not necessarily increase job satisfaction.

• Herzberg proposed that his findings indicate that the opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction” and the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no dissatisfaction.”

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Herzberg’s Theory

• He believed that an individual’s attitude toward his or her work can very well determine success or failure

• Intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility were related to job satisfaction

• When people felt good about their work, they tended to attribute these characteristics to themselves.

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Implications of Herzberg’s Theory

• Satisfaction is not the opposite of dissatisfaction.

• There is a need to think carefully about what motivates employees.– Meaningful, interesting, and challenging

(enriched) work is needed to satisfy and motivate employees.

Implications of Herzberg’s Theory(cont’d)

• Problems with Theory– Assumption of job performance improving

with satisfaction is weakly, at best, supported.

– One person’s dissatisfier is another person’s satisfier.

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Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

• Vroom’s theory is a model that assumes that motivational strength is determined by the perceived probabilities of success.– Expectancy: One’s subjective belief or

expectation that one thing will lead to another

• A Basic Expectancy Model– One’s motivational strength increases as one’s

perceived effort-performance and performance-reward probabilities increase the likelihood of obtaining a valued reward.

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A Basic Expectancy Model

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Relevance of Expectancy Theory to Managers

• Employee expectations can be influenced by managerial actions and organizational experience.

• Training increases employee confidence in their efforts to perform.

• Listening provides managers with insights into employees’ perceived performance-reward probabilities.

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Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

• People have needs, and when one need is relatively fulfilled, others emerge in predictable sequence to take its place.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

– Physiological needs: food, water, sleep, and sex

– Safety needs: safety from the elements and enemies

– Love needs: desire for love, affection, and belonging

– Esteem needs: self-perception as a worthwhile person

– Self-actualization: becoming all that one can become

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

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Self-Actualizing Manager

• Characteristics of the Self-Actualizing Manager– Has warmth, closeness, and sympathy– Recognizes and shares negative information

and feelings– Exhibits trust, openness, and candor– Does not achieve goals by power, deception, or

manipulation

Self-Actualizing Manager(cont’d)

– Does not project own feelings, motivations, or blame onto others

– Does not limit horizons; uses and develops body, mind, and senses

– Is not rationalistic; can think in unconventional ways

– Is not conforming; regulates behavior from within

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Relevance of Maslow’s Theory for Managers

• Beyond physical and safety needs, managers cannot predict which of the three highest needs will emerge.

• A fulfilled need does not motivate an individual.

Relevance of Maslow’s Theory for Managers(cont’d)

• Effective managers can anticipate emerging needs based on individual need profiles and provide opportunities for fulfillment.

• The esteem level of needs satisfied by jobs and recognition provides managers with the greatest opportunity to motivate better performance.

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Movie Example?

How are the workers viewed in Metropolis? How do the workers feel about going to work each day?