Contents · 2018-08-31 · of rock that were twice as long as broad, with parallel sharp sides....

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Contents

List of Maps ixIntroduction x

1 Middle and Later Stone Age 1Homo sapiens and other early modern humans 1Scientific dating and climates: 244 kya–present day 2Genetics and ‘African Eve’: 244 kya–190 kya (mis/ois-7) &

190 kya–130 kya (mis/ois-6) 5Shell beads and ochre pigments: 130 kya–74 kya (mis/ois-5) 7Worldwide dispersal of modern humans: 74 kya–60 kya (mis/ois-4) 9Middle to Later Stone Age transition: 60 kya–24 kya (mis/ois-3) 10Twa, Khoe, and San hunter-gatherers 12Diversification of the Wilton LSA: 24 kya–11.5 kya (mis/ois-2)

& 11.5 kya–today (Mis/Ois-1 Holocene) 13Pottery, sheep & cattle from East Africa 15Rock art: painting & engraving 17

2 Early & Middle Iron Age to c.1300 21Bantu origins in West Africa c.2250 BCE 21Early Iron Age people of the Western Stream c.250 BCE–CE 700 24Early Iron Age people in East Africa 25Eastern Stream Early Iron Age people 25Central Stream Early Iron Age people 26Khoe-San history during the Early Iron Age 27The medieval warm epoch c.900–1300 29Indian Ocean trade before c.945 30Ivory, iron, & copper trade c.790–1020 32Gold trade & the Mapungubwe kingdom c.950–1300 34Other Middle Iron Age chiefdoms c.1030–1450 36Nguni & Sotho-Tswana royal ancestry 37Khoe-San transformation c.850–1250 38

3 Later Iron Age Societies to c.1685 43Blackburn pottery & Nguni origins 43Moloko pottery & Sotho-Tswana origins 45

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Nguni invasions onto the Highveld 47Indian Ocean trade 48Great Zimbabwe & Shona origins 49Portuguese incursions 52Munhumutapa & the Portuguese 54Khami (Butwa) kingdom 56Early Venda & coastal chiefdoms 57

4 Early States & European Colonies c.1600–c.1790 61French, English, Dutch & Danish ships call at the Cape 62Dutch settlement at the Cape 64Rozvi & Venda kingdoms 66Tsonga & Nguni near Delagoa Bay 67Nguni descendants in the interior 68Tswana & Pedi states in the interior 69Delagoa Bay shipping & northern Nguni states 73Cape colonial settlement 74Expanding Cape frontiers 75Destruction of the mountain San 78Cape raiders in the interior 79

5 Coastal & Interior Frontier Wars c.1790–c.1868 83Cape Colony under Dutch, Batavian & British rule 84Slave raiding from Delagoa Bay & Cape Colony 87London missionaries in the interior 88Rise of Shaka’s Zulu kingdom 89Ngoni invasions across the Limpopo & Zambezi 92Mantatee raiders on the Highveld 93Sebetwane’s Kololo 94Sotho-Tswana ‘refuge kingdoms’ 95Mzilikazi’s Ndebele kingdom 96Trekkers & Ndebele 97Boer trekkers in Kwa-Zulu & Natalia 99Moravians, Presbyterians & Anglicans 101British Cape & Natal colonies 102Orange River & Transvaal Boer states 104

6 Scramble for Africa Part 1, 1868–1902 109European imperialism in Africa 110Mineral revolution 111



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Confederation plans & Transvaal annexation 113Cape Colony, Griqualand-West & more ‘gun wars’ 115Restoration of Transvaal independence 116British Bechuanaland & German South West Africa 117Gold on the Witwatersrand 118Cape Colony, Natal & the Zulu kingdom 119Founding Rhodesia 121Railway rivalry & the Jameson Raid 123South African War 1899–1902 126

7 Scramble for Africa Part 2, 1902–1919 131Post-war reconstruction 131Political union of four provinces 133High Commission Territories 134Witwatersrand mining & industrialization 135Land segregation & African Congresses 137Germany & Nama-Herero resistance 138Conquest & resistance in Portuguese Africa 140Southern Africa & First World War 141Colonial rule in Southern Rhodesia 143Colonial rule in South West Africa 145Independent churches 146

8 Golden Years for Colonialism, 1919–1948 152South Africa under Jan Smuts 1919–24 152Pact & National Party governments 1924–36 154Fusion government 1934–39 159High Commission Territories 1920–39 161Southern Rhodesia & Northern Rhodesia 1923–39 165Second World War 167Portuguese Mozambique 1910–60 171

9 Apartheid & African Nationalism 1948–1967 176South Africa under apartheid 176Popular resistance in South Africa 179Two Rhodesias & Nyasaland 1945–63 183The end of the High Commission Territories 186National ferment in Basutoland 187Colonial development in Swaziland 188Colonial underdevelopment in Bechuanaland 190



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Anti-fascist struggles in Angola & Mozambique 191Challenges to the South West Africa mandate 194Rhodesia remains a settler colony 195The new Republics of Zambia and Malawi 196South Africa’s outward policy 196

10 Years of Revolutionary Insurgence 1967–1990 200Zambia under President Kaunda 200Malawi under President Banda 202Botswana under President Seretse Khama 203Swaziland & Lesotho under Kings Sobhuza II & Moshoeshoe II 204Revolutions in Portuguese Angola & Mozambique 206Armed struggle in Rhodesia-Zimbabwe 207Post-colonial Angola 211Namibia’s liberation war 212Destabilization in Mozambique 213Independent Zimbabwe’s decade of prosperity 216Front-Line States, SADCC & regional ‘destabilization’ 217Black consciousness & moves towards liberation in South Africa 218

11 Southern Africa since 1990 227The end of apartheid 228Southern African Development Community (SADC) 229Three republics: Botswana, Zambia & Malawi 231Two kingdoms: Lesotho & Swaziland 234Angola & Mozambique 236Independent Namibia 237Zimbabwe in decline under Robert Mugabe 239The ‘rainbow nation’ under Nelson Mandela 242South Africa under Thabo Mbeki & Jacob Zuma 243Southern Africa’s HIV-AIDS epidemic 246Southern Africa’s globalization & climate challenges 246

Notes 252General Bibliography 254Index 260



1

1 Middle and Later Stone Age

During the past two or three decades there has been a revolution in our understanding of the remote human past. There have been scientific advances in genetics, ecology and climatology, and new techniques for dating the age of remains, as well as advances in historical-linguistics and cultural analysis. History as the continuous story of human identities, actions, ideas, customs and crafts is pushing its way deeper and deeper back into prehistory.

The Stone Age refers to the period of the past when people’s tools, notably knives and arrow heads, were crafted from stone. Middle Stone Age ‘industries’ emerged out of the Early Stone Age roughly 300 kya (300,000 years ago), and merged with the Later Stone Age roughly around 35 kya (35,000 years ago). It was during the Middle Stone Age that modern humans like us first appeared. The typical tools made by people in the Middle Stone Age were blades – flakes of rock that were twice as long as broad, with parallel sharp sides. During the Later Stone Age the characteristic stone tool was the microlith: a pear-shaped miniature flake not much larger than a finger nail, attached as barbs on the heads of arrows and harpoons or used as a sharp scraper on wood, bones, and grass twine.

HOMO SAPIENS AND OTHER EARLY MODERN HUMANS

Every person on Earth today is a member of the same biological species, Modern Humans or Homo sapiens – we vainly call ourselves sapient or ‘wise’ in Latin. Homo sapiens developed out of earlier humans known as Heidelberg Man or Homo heidelbergensis – named after Heidelberg in Germany, where a skull and bones were first discovered and classified. These people origi-nated in Africa and spread into Asia and Europe. Middle Stone Age tools of Heidelberg people excavated at Twin Rivers, south of Lusaka in Zambia, are dated between 400 kya and 350 kya. A Heidelberg skull, found by mining north of Lusaka at Kabwe (Broken Hill Man), dated around 300 kya, is heavy-boned with a prominent brow-ridge and evidence of strong neck muscles to support a heavy head.

By contrast, Modern Humans developed a thinner-boned and more globe-shaped skull, compressed during childbirth and then expanding. The brain



2 A History of Southern Africa

was not bigger but better, giving us increased power of speech and manual dexterity using our fingers. Creases in the brain gave it more power of thought and expanded working memory (analogous to computer memory-doubling). Rapid talking was enabled by a thick and highly mobile short tongue and by the voice-box dropping as a child grows older.

Language became more complex as it drew on memory and shared mean-ings with other people. People could tell complex stories and sing and dance. They could also love, believe, and joke. They could certainly run fast, and over long distances, because of their relatively lightweight bones and long, strong muscles. Hairless bodies enabled people to keep cool by sweating, and rela-tively thin skulls prevented the brain overheating.

At the time when this book is being written, the earliest known remains of Homo sapiens have been found at Jebel Irhoud in Morocco (dated around 315 kya) and at Florisbad in South Africa (around 260 kya). Homo sapiens remains in Israel (Misliya) and Ethiopia (Omo) have been dated around 186 kya and around 178 kya. No doubt other and earlier examples can and will be found.

Modern Humans slowly developed out of Heidelberg humans. Early childhood nutrition was essential. Fatty acids like Omega-3 have been iden-tified as essential brain food for infants in the womb and in breast milk. Fatty acids could be obtained by mothers sucking the marrow out of animal bones or from a heavy diet of shellfish such as mussels. The other great advance was improved cooking, making high-energy foods easy to digest. Meat and root crops retain nutrition by being basted on slabs of rock over a fire – using animal dung as flambant – rather than burnt dry in the wood ashes.

From Heidelberg people there also developed other species of early mod-ern humans. Neanderthal people developed in North Africa and Eurasia. Denisovan people and Flores (‘hobbit’) people developed in Asia. Discovered in a deep cave near Johannesburg, the remains of 18 lightweight and small-headed Naledi people have been dated as late as 236 kya. Also in Southern Africa, Boskopoid early modern humans were robust and heavily built.

But all of these species except Homo sapiens have since disappeared from the Earth.

SCIENTIFIC DATING AND CLIMATES: 244 KYA–PRESENT DAY

Radio-carbon dating is the cheapest and most common form of scientific dating for organic remains. It measures the wasting or declining ratio of



Middle and Later Stone Age 3

KALAHARI

SAHARA

SAHEL

CONGOBASINEQUATOR

Tropic ofCancer

Tropic ofCapricorn

Tropical Rain Forest

Sand Desert

Mediterranean Floral Region

Grassland Savanna

Cape Floral Region

Coastal Forest

Steppe Scrubland

radioactive Carbon-14 to stable Carbon-12 in wood or bone, showing its age back to about 45 kya.

Earlier dates than 45 kya can now be obtained from (1) luminescence dat-ing of quartz and sand grains buried in the dark, (2) potassium-argon dating of volcanic rocks, (3) uranium series dating of former living organisms, (4) amino-acid racemization and protein diagenesis measuring protein deterioration in eggs etc., and (5) electron spin resonance measuring electrons in tooth enamel. Sometimes the dates from different techniques disagree, which gives rise to

Map 1.1 Africa: Vegetation




controversies and potential revisions among archaeologists. Hence, some of the dates given in this and other chapters may yet be revised by future research.

The world’s climate periods have been dated by the drilling of cores into the Arctic and Antarctic ice caps. Changes in climate affected vegetation and animal life, and the culture or ways-of-living of humans was profoundly influenced by changing environment. Seven main climate periods, known as marine isotope stages (MIS) or oxygen isotope stages (OIS), are numbered backwards from today. All dates are approximate:

MIS/OIS-7 244 kya to 190 kya Warm climateMIS/OIS-6 190 kya to 130 kya Cold climateMIS/OIS-5 130 kya to 74 kya Very warm climateMIS/OIS-4 74 kya to 60 kya Very cold and dry climateMIS/OIS-3 60 kya to 24 kya Warm climateMIS/OIS-2 24 kya to 12 kya Cold climate MIS/OIS-1 12 kya until the present day Warm climate

60kya

L-3N

L-3M

Abdur125 kya

SkhulOued Djebbana

Taforalt 82 kya

Jebel Inhoud315 kya

Katanda80 kya

Aminuis160-140 kya 30 kya

L-Od1a

L-Ok

L-Od

Florisbad 260 kya

45 kya

“African Eve”194 kya

60kya

L-2

L-4?

L-1

100 kya Omo

River 195 kya

160 kya

110 kya

Map 1.2 Modern Human (mtDNA) Migrations




GENETICS AND ‘AFRICAN EVE’: 244 KYA–190 KYA (MIS/OIS-7) & 190 KYA–130 KYA (MIS/OIS-6)

In 1987, three Californian geneticists traced back the maternal ancestry of 147 people from all over the world. They compared and traced back all the female genes (mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA) to one original source – a woman living at about 194 kya. We are all descended from her, and she most likely lived somewhere on the upland plateaux of Africa. The press started calling this mother-of-us-all African Eve. The American magazine Newsweek featured her on its cover as a beautiful brown-skinned woman – looking African, European, Asian, and above all American!

Since 1987 many geneticists have calculated and mapped how the daughters and female descendants of African Eve spread across the world.

Victoria Falls

L.TANGANYIKA

Kalambo Falls

NachikufuNgalue

Broken Hill

Twin Rivers

Matopo Hills

Tswapong Hills

Magaliesberg Hills

Homo naledi

Border Cave

Sibudu

WiltonHowieson’s Poort

Klasies River

Robberg Peninsular

PinnaclePoint

Blombos

Still Bay(Stilbàai)

Warerberg Hills

L. MALAWI

Etosha Pan

Tsodilo Hills

Gi

Toteng

Mirabib

Brandberg

Aminuis

Apollo XI Cave

Kanye

Spoegriver

Florisbad

Rose Cottage

Diepkloof

Kastelberg

Die Kelders

Tropic of Capricorn

R.CONGO

Map 1.3 Middle & Later Stone Age Archaeological Sites




The oldest known mtDNA gene type has been numbered L-0. It became dis-tinct between 160 kya and 110 kya, as its group of people moved away from the main African Eve population. Today, it is mostly found among Northern San/Bushmen people living in the northern Kalahari. (These people, like eve-ryone alive, also carry traces of other mtDNA gene types as well.)

The second oldest mtDNA gene type (L-1) originated around 110 kya. It is mostly found among Twa/Pygmy people in the eastern Congo Basin. The third oldest mtDNA gene type (L-2) originated around 100 kya. It is mostly found among people speaking Niger-Congo (or Niger-Kordofanian) languages, nota-bly the Bantu languages. The fourth mtDNA gene type (L-3) is mostly found among people speaking Afro-Asiatic languages, notably Somali, Amharic, and Semitic languages. Around 60 kya, the L-3 gave rise to new genetic types that are numbered L-3M and L-3N. All the other mtDNA types in the world today are descended from L-3M and L-3N.

All the original mtDNA gene types overlap in East Africa, from where it appears that L-3M and L-3N must have spread along and across the Red Sea into the Middle-East and into Asia and Europe. This is the picture presented by our matri-lineages (or mother’s-mother’s-mother, etc.). Our patri-lineages (father’s-father’s-father, etc.) are much more difficult to plot, as the paternal genes evolve and change much more from generation to generation.

The only archaeological remains of the African Eve group of Modern Humans so far known in East Africa is probably a Homo sapiens skull found on the Omo River in Ethiopia, dated around 168 kya (195–160 kya). Middle Stone Age stone tools found at Aminuis Pan in Namibia, probably also made by Modern Humans, are lunette (quarter-moon) shaped and are dated 160 kya–140 kya. At Herto in the Afar depression of Ethiopia, archaeologists have found human skulls, around the same age, that were polished before burial. This suggests reverence for the spirits of the dead.

Geneticists suggest that around 144 kya, Modern Humans were reduced to perhaps less than 10,000 people by a mega-drought of cold and dry centuries. The mega-drought reduced the Great Lakes of East Africa almost to puddles. At one time Lake Malawi fell 600 metres lower than its level today, reducing it to 10 kilometres across and 200 metres deep. But this ‘population bottleneck’ of rapidly declining numbers was followed by quick recovery as the climate improved once again.

The rapid rise in temperature and rainfall towards the end of MIS/OIS-6 resulted in strings of lakes, great and small, covering the Kalahari. Today’s Etosha and Makgadikgadi salt pans, Okavango and Chobe marshes, were brimful with water between 140 kya and 130 kya. Lake Makgadikgadi alone was bigger than today’s Lake Michigan in North America. The south coast




of South Africa, which had stretched up to 25 kilometres further than today when so much sea-water was frozen around the Antarctic, retreated back to cliffs and bluffs pounded by the sea.

At Pinnacle Point caves in quartzite cliffs near Mossel Bay, today under a golf course, the gathering and eating of shellfish by people is dated from about 164 kya to 120 kya. (Mossel Bay takes its name from its proliferation of mussels.) Quartzite stone tools dated around 132 kya include small blades that were hafted (connected) and probably glued onto spear shafts. Shellfish remains include brown mussels, limpets, and periwinkles. The Blombos cave, west of Pinnacle Point, has more evidence of shellfishing around 140 kya. The Pinnacle Point caves were sealed off by sea incursion around 120 kya – and were blocked off by sand dunes between 90 kya and 40 kya.

SHELL BEADS AND OCHRE PIGMENTS: 130 KYA–74 KYA (MIS/OIS-5)

Middle Stone Age sites proliferated across the continent during the warmer and wetter MIS/OIS-5 period. At Abdur on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea, the remains of oysters, clams, sea snails, and scallops have been found with Middle Stone Age tools and dated about 125 kya. In the Cave of Pigeons at Taforalt, 40 kilometres inland from the coast in Morocco, mollusc shells deliberately perforated to be strung as beads are dated about 82 kya. Similar perforated seashell beads, with comparable dates, have been found at sites along the Mediterranean coast at Oued Djebbana in Algeria and at Skhul in Israel. The Middle Stone Age site on a river at Katanda in the Congo Basin, with barbed stone tools such as are used for fish-harpoons, is dated 80 kya.

The northern Kalahari lakes were full of water again during two periods within MIS/OIS-5. At White Paintings Shelter in the Tsodilo hills, a Middle Stone Age occupation – with chert and silcrete stone tools that must have been brought from a distance – is dated between 120 kya and 100 kya. Sharp bone-tips for spears and ostrich eggshell beads from a subsequent occupation are dated around 80 kya. People combined to hunt large herds of migrating wildlife, such as waterbuck and other antelopes, splashing across the rivers and marshes. There was also use of specularite iron ore, ground into powder and mixed with fat for a sparkling hair or body dressing. One hundred kilo-metres away to the southwest of Tsodilo at a place called ≠Gi!, people hunted buffalo, bush-pigs, and zebra in open countryside. Ostrich eggshell remains there, found together with red ochre staining, are dated around 77 kya by no less than three types of scientific dating.




On the coastline around the Cape of Good Hope, there are still today some great piles of discarded shells from shellfish, though much has been removed to be crushed for cement. These piles are the remains of tens of thousands of years of human effort collecting shellfish at low tide. The abalone shells at Pinnacle Point caves have been dated from 100 kya.

Sharp bone tools were used to drill holes in seashells and ostrich eggshells, to be strung for bangles and necklaces, or sewn with bone needles as decora-tions onto leather. Animal skin blankets and clothing, necessary to keep warm during the winter of southern Africa, appear to be very ancient. The lice that infest human bodies in clothes became genetically separated from head-hair lice by around 170 kya.

There is much evidence for the use of red and black pigments. Red ochre (haematite: ‘blood-stone’) was mixed with animal fat for body adornment and protection from cold, while sparkling black ochre (specularite: ‘ reflective-stone’) was also used as hair cosmetic. (Heating red ochre in a fire made it even red-der.) The iron content in these pigments was a powerful astringent that acted as an antiseptic for wounds. Ochre mixed with fat or urine was also used to soften animal skins (for blankets and clothing) when they dried out and became stiff. Mixed with plant gum, ochre became a strong glue used to haft bone or stone points onto spears and arrows. More than 300 pieces of pigment found at Twin Rivers in Zambia suggest that other colours besides red and black were being used during the Middle Stone Age.

It is open to question how far Homo sapiens valued ochre pigments for per-sonal adornment, for its medicinal magic, or for its practical uses. But its use has been seen as proof that Homo sapiens was developing a ‘modern mental-ity’. Painting with ochre pigments was also used, as we shall see, to create the symbols of rock art.

Scholars debate how much we can find modern mentality in the remote past – evidence of people thinking like us. During the latter part of the Middle Stone Age, there is evidence of ‘house-keeping’ on archaeological sites with different areas for living and sleeping. Diet was also becoming more varied. (Grinding grass-seeds and dry fruit on grindstones, presum-ably for boiling into porridge, predates 100 kya at Ngalue in northern Mozambique.) How much does this also indicate emerging gender roles – matriarchy (mother-dominance) inside the home, and patriarchy (father-dominance) outside?

Increased population and competition for resources may help to explain the earliest known crime scene, dated 90 kya, at Klasies River: the bones of at least five people killed at the same time, their remains chopped up and burnt. Cannibalism?




WORLDWIDE DISPERSAL OF MODERN HUMANS: 74 KYA–60 KYA (MIS/OIS-4)

Around the beginning of MIS/OIS-4 the human population was reduced, and in some places eliminated, by a sudden climatic downturn into very cold and very dry millennia without warm Indian Ocean rainfall. This mega-drought, culminating around 70 kya, resulted in another ‘population bottleneck’ among Modern Humans. The fall in population was followed by climatic improvement and extraordinary population recovery. It was this population boom that resulted, around 60 kya, in people of genetic types L-3M and L-3N flooding out of East Africa into the rest of the world.

What caused the mega-drought around 70 kya? The favourite expla-nation is the explosion of Mount Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia, south of Singapore, in 74 kya – the biggest volcanic event on Earth in the last two million years. The eruption drove plumes of volcanic dust and a million tons of sulphuric acid aerosol 30 kilometres high, spread westwards by prevail-ing winds over the Northern Hemisphere – the Indian sub-continent, the Middle-East, and North Africa. Acid rain depleted vegetation and wildlife, and the dust in the atmosphere blocked off sunlight for photosynthesis of plants. Food shortages reduced to a bare minimum, or eliminated, human occupation of the Northern Hemisphere in the cold dark centuries that followed.

Africa around the Equator and southwards appears to have been spared the worst effects of Toba. Drilling into sediments at the bottom of Lake Malawi has shown no evidence of Toba volcanic dust deposited or of the lake level dropping appreciably. Sunlight also penetrated the atmosphere more directly over the Equator and between the two Tropics, and it permitted Modern Humans to survive in sufficient numbers in East Africa.

Genetic dating confirms the rapid population growth of Homo sapiens after 60 kya. Over the next 10,000 years, L-0 type people expanded over the northern Kalahari, while L-1 type people began to settle in the tropical forests of the Congo Basin. L-2 type people spread from East Africa along the northern edge of the Congo Basin into West Africa. L-3M type people crossed the Red Sea and circled the Indian Ocean coast as far as Australia. L-3N type people spread down the Nile or along the Red Sea, in greater num-bers, through the Middle-East and Mediterranean as far as East Asia and Western Europe. Some ancestors of all these groups remained in East Africa.

By contrast, there is good evidence of genetically unclassified (Boskopoid?) people who survived and indeed thrived on the hills and coastal plains of the winter-rainfall region on the south coast – not dependent on summer rainfall




from the Indian Ocean. Archaeologists there find increased consumption of shellfish and use of red haematite during the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort industries of the Middle Stone Age.

The Still Bay industry is dated from 78 kya onwards. Leaf-shaped two-edged quartz blade tools were manufactured in abundance. The blades were trimmed or repaired by pressure flaking (rather than hammer-blows) after being heated in a fire. The Still Bay site at Pinnacle Point shows that shells were collected from the beaches for their beauty and colour. Patterns of bead necklaces and bracelets may indicate ‘modern’ awareness of family pride or individual identity. Were they also devices helping memorization or for counting numbers?

Archaeologists at the Still Bay site in Blombos cave, dated around 75 kya, found numerous sea-snail beads with holes made by bone-point tools, plus hard blocks of red ochre haematite – methodically scratched with parallel and hatched lines. What these patterns mean, no one knows. But they do seem to be evidence of ‘modern mentality’. Perhaps they were graffiti scratched in lei-sure time, simply meaning that this is ‘mine’ or ‘ours’. Or were they products of complex artistic imagination – the first symbolic rock art?

The Still Bay industry flourished around 72 kya–71 kya and spread hun-dreds of kilometres inland. Confirmed sites include Sibudu Rock Shelter in KwaZulu-Natal and Apollo XI cave in the Hunsberge mountains of southern Namibia. Archaeological sites inland as far as Zambia and the Congo, at one time identified as Still Bay, need to be re-investigated with the aid of scientific dating.

MIDDLE TO LATER STONE AGE TRANSITION: 60 KYA–24 KYA (MIS/OIS-3)

Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA) industries in southern Africa overlapped during the MIS/OIS-3 climatic warm period. Demographers from Stanford University and the Russian Academy of Sciences have argued that Africa south of the Sahara ‘experienced a population explosion around 35,000 years ago’ – associated with the emergence of new LSA technology and ways-of-life that increased life expectancy and birth rates. (Though, in the southern Cape, the final stage of the MSA can be dated from around 59 kya to as late as 12 kya.)

The first known bows-and-arrows may be found among MSA people of the Howieson’s Poort industry. (Bows-and-arrows are in a sense the first machine, articulating different parts together in one function.) This industry




was named after a site near Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape, discovered in the 1920s. It lasted from about 65 kya to 59 kya in the southern Cape. The Howieson’s Poort tool-kit included microliths – small crescent-shaped stone blades, used as spearheads and arrowheads hafted with gum and twine, or used as barbs on fish-harpoons. Stone for microliths was often imported from a distance, which implies long journeys or exchanges with neighbours.

Howieson’s Poort sites in the southern Cape include Klasies River and Diepkloof rock shelters. The Diepkloof site has numerous pieces of ostrich eggshell, engraved with identical or similar patterns – implying an agreed decorative style for a group of people. In KwaZulu-Natal, Sibudu rock shelter (lasting until about 49 kya) has evidence of ‘sedentary’ or relatively station-ary settlement of family groups. Microliths covered in traces of resin glue were probably hafted onto the tips of arrows. People were hunting small animals in the local Yellowwood forest – hyrax (rock-rabbit), giant edible rats, and duiker (miniature antelope). Other Howieson’s Poort sites are Rose Cottage Cave near the Free State border with Lesotho and Border Cave on the Swaziland border with KwaZulu-Natal (maybe beginning as early as 75 kya).

On the Zambia-Tanzania frontier, the major MSA site at the bottom of the Kalambo Falls, 235 metres high, is dated about 57 kya–41.5 kya. Hunters waited for animals that came to drink in the pools below the falls. They dug hip-hollows for sleeping, and they built a hunting blind or wind-break with brushwood anchored in a semi-circle of stones. Archaeologists have found waterlogged wood remains of their sticks and spears. Comparable final MSA sites in Kenya are Norikiushin and Enkapane ya Muto, dated around 46 kya.

On the Zimbabwe plateau, there are important final phase MSA (Oakhurst complex) sites at Nswatugwi, Pomongwe, and Tshangula in the Matopo hills, which await re-investigation with new archaeological techniques. Final MSA occupations in the northern Kalahari are seen at the White Paintings Shelter in the Tsodilo hills. People in relatively large groups hunted migrating herds of antelopes and zebras. A number of late MSA phases have been identified at Apollo XI cave in Namibia, just north of the Orange River.

The ‘population explosion’ around 35 kya, identified by Stanford and Russian scientists, followed the adoption of Later Stone Age microlith tech-nology and new styles of living. We can also see the adoption among the ancestors of the Northern San/Bushmen living around the Tsodilo hills in the northern Kalahari. The local lakes were full during the warm and wet MIS/OIS-3 climate, and the Lower Fish level excavated at Tsodilo’s White Paintings Shelter is full of discarded fish bones. The period of MSA-LSA tran-sition here is dated 48 kya–30 kya.




Stone blade tools grew smaller over time, into the size we call micro-liths. Spears and arrows became lighter to carry, and hunters ranged further afield in pursuit of browsing animals. Instead of assembling to intercept migrating herds with spears, people with bows-and-arrows began to disperse in small family groups throughout the year. In the northern Kalahari, some typical LSA microliths were being manufactured from about 38 kya, and the transition to bow-and-arrow culture was complete by 24 kya. People at the ≠Gi hunting site, in open countryside to the southwest of Tsodilo, used microlith arrow-heads the size of a thumb nail – less than two centimetres long. They wore lots of ostrich eggshell beads and hunted a wide variety of species, including now-extinct large hartebeest.

In the southern Cape, there had also been a ‘sudden pulse’ of population growth around 32 kya among late MSA (Robberg and Albany industries) peo-ple. The warm and wet climate caused ocean levels to rise, driving wildlife and hunters from the coastal floodplains back to something like today’s shoreline. The change in climate also opened up to human settlement the Namib and Karoo north of the Cape. The MSA-LSA transition at Apollo XI cave near the Orange River is dated 30 kya–22 kya.

TWA, KHOE, AND SAN HUNTER-GATHERERS

Twa/Southern Pygmy hunter-gatherers occupied sites of the LSA Nachikufu industry in the dense woodlands of northern Zambia and Malawi, even as late as the nineteenth century. (Nachikufu itself is a cave in northern Zambia, with rock paintings now covered in tourist graffiti.) The industry dates from 25 kya or 18 kya onwards. The people had a varied diet, includ-ing wild fruit and nuts and honey and wild nuts and seeds – ground between upper and lower grindstones. They made much use of wood and wood by-products: gum or sap, string and rope, brush fences to herd wild animals towards spring-traps, and bark cloth woven with bone needles for clothes and blankets.

Khoe people and San people come from the same L-0 group genetic origin. Geneticists date the splitting between Northern San (L-0d group) and Khoe (L-0k group) between 43 kya and 25 kya. The split was probably originally between San ancestors of the Khoe living around Tanzania and San people in the northern Kalahari. They would have been cut off from each other when a ‘population explo-sion’ of Twa/Southern Pygmy created a wedge between them, by spreading out of the Congo Basin into northern Zambia and Malawi. (Maybe it is Twa ancestry




that explains the ‘matrilineal belt’ still stretching from Angola to Malawi, where inheritance of wealth and status by men passes through the mother.)

Similar dates, 30 kya–25 kya, are suggested by geneticists for the division of Southern San from Northern San people. Ancestors of today’s Southern San ≠Khomani people (L-0d1a group) settled in the southern Kalahari between the Molopo and Orange Rivers. From there, other Southern San ven-tured further south, and became well-established in the Cape region by about 22 kya. It remains to be established by genetics, archaeology, and linguistics how Southern San people interacted with MSA (Boskopoid?) people already at the Cape.

The LSA technology of the San is known among archaeologists as the Wilton industry (named after LSA rock-shelters on a farm called Wilton near Alicedale, west of Grahamstown in South Africa.) Its spread can be dated from 38 kya onwards in the White Paintings Shelter of the northern Kalahari and from 24 kya onwards on the Robberg peninsula of the Cape’s Plettenberg Bay. Some archaeologists have also used the term Wilton for LSA sites as far north as Kenya and Ethiopia that may be associated with San ancestors of the Khoe.

The typical Wilton tool-kit included bone tools and microliths used for scrap-ing, cutting, and cleaning animal skins, for sewing skins together for leather blankets, for cutting the sinews from meat for use as twine, and for carpenter-ing of bows-and-arrows or spears. Adult men used bone-tipped arrows smeared with poison on long hunting expeditions. Women’s work digging up tubers and termites was made easier by Wilton doughnut-shaped stone weights slipped onto digging sticks. Such weights could also be used for holding down fibre-woven hunting nets.

DIVERSIFICATION OF THE WILTON LSA: 24 KYA–11.5 KYA (MIS/OIS-2) & 11.5 KYA–TODAY (MIS/OIS-1 HOLOCENE)

During MIS/OIS-2, around 20 kya, a slight shift in the Earth’s orbit increased solar radiation. World temperatures rose, melting the polar ice caps and rais-ing ocean and lake levels. But then, between about 18 kya and 11.5 kya, there was an extremely cold and arid period. The Kalahari lakes dried up. The sand dunes of the Namib spread so far up the Orange River that they cut off people to the south from people to the north.

On the Cape coast, there was a final flourish of MSA industry, ending with LSA Wilton tradition predominance – seen in the rising number of fish-bones on coastal sites. People had shifted from collecting shellfish on the shore to




trapping and spearing fish. Wilton tidal fishing pools, made by piling rocks in curving lines, can still be seen on the coast today.

The Wilton site at Rhino Cave in the Tsodilo hills (dated around 14.5 kya) contains evidence of trade in stone tools with other people hundreds of kilometres away. Imported fine-grained stone tools include multi-coloured chert, jasper, and chalcedony – chosen for their flaking qualities or for their colours. Ostrich eggshell beads were drilled and polished in great quantity, presumably for trade. Marshland antelopes, zebra, and even white rhino were hunted seasonally. Smaller game such as tortoise and springhare were trapped and hunted year-round.

Around 11.5 kya, the world climate entered the present-day period of MIS/OIS-1, more commonly known as the Holocene. The Holocene climate was warm but mild, and rainfall was more plentiful. The ocean level on the Cape coast continued to rise until 5 kya – reaching a level two metres higher before it fell back to today’s levels. High tides covered where Cape Town’s airport, shanty-towns, and suburbs now lie. There was a burst of new Wilton sites around 8 kya–7 kya in Lesotho and the Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, and Free State provinces of South Africa. The lakes of the Kalahari reached their highest water levels, but by 4 kya (2000 BCE) hot and dry conditions had set in. Lakes became marshes and seasonally flooded saltpans, the Kalahari became parched bush and grassland, thearoo became scrub once again.

The Wilton industry tradition developed many regional variants. On the Atlantic coast near Cape Town, the Wilton-like LSA sites of Elands Bay, dated between from about 4.3 kya, show hunter-gatherers often using inferior stone tools made from local black quartz pebbles. They combined hunting on land with hunting for seals and stranded whales on shore, as well as beach-combing for shellfish.

The Smithfield industry was a variation of the Wilton on the Highveld of the Free State. People quarried ridges in the Seacow (i.e. hippopotamus) valley for hornfels rock that could be easily flaked – notably for ‘backed monoliths’ used as knives, spearheads, and arrowheads. Campsites along watercourses were abandoned for new ones when they became too smelly, tick-infested, and verminous from human pollution. Smithfield people made hunting blinds or windbreaks with bush branches stuck into stone semi-circles. Summer camps were small and dispersed. Winter camps brought together people sheltering from bitter winds that drove night temperatures below freezing.

On the grassy flats of the Kafue floodplain in central Zambia, the Wilton site at Gwisho Hot Springs was a semi-permanent settlement year-round, tar-geting wildlife that came to drink. Archaeologists have found the burials of no




less than 35 San-like skeletons, as well as stone semi-circles for hunting blinds and waterlogged pieces of wooden bows – and Swartzia poison pods used for arrow-tips.

POTTERY, SHEEP & CATTLE FROM EAST AFRICA

Something new was happening in the Upper Fish sites at White Paintings Shelter in the Tsodilo hills between 8.4 kya and 7 kya. As well as Wilton tools and bream or catfish bones, the sites contain bone crescent-shaped barbs from harpoons, like those also found at Lake Turkana (Rudolf) in Kenya. Geometric white paintings on the rock walls of the White Paintings Shelter are also like those found in East Africa.

To understand what was beginning to happen in Southern Africa, we must first go to East Africa. Like the Kalahari, East Africa and the Sahara were full of lakes and marshes during the early Holocene. Nilotic people spread from the Sahara and upper Nile into East Africa, taking with them their so-called Aquatic culture. They lived by fishing with bone-tipped harpoons and by making bag-shaped pottery of clay hardened around woven reed bags. The first people who brought Aquatic harpoons and white paintings to the Tsodilo hills may have been Khoe people coming from south-western Tanzania through the area of Zambia, to live with their Northern San relatives in north-western Botswana.

Between about 7.5 kya and 4.5 kya, there were great droughts that began to turn the Sahara and Arabia into the sand dune deserts we know today. Meanwhile, former lakes and marshlands in East Africa became grasslands suitable for grazing animals. Cattle were first herded into East Africa in the years between 5 kya and 3 kya. Nilotic (Nilo-Saharan) people brought in big-horned Sanga-type (Saharan ox) cattle. Cushitic (Afro-Asian) people brought in sheep and smaller Zebu-type (Arabian or Taurine) cattle from their relatives across the Red Sea. A new culture of livestock herders arose in East Africa, known to archaeologists as the Kenya-Capsian, combining both Nilotic and Cushitic roots.

Kenya-Capsian people rejected the old Aquatic fishing culture by adopting the Cushitic fish taboo, i.e. refusing to eat fish. Cattle were given a god-like status and rarely slaughtered, but their milk, blood, urine, and manure were used. Fat-tailed (‘five-legged’) sheep were more often slaughtered for meat and fats. People made clay pots with pointed bases and rippled rims, for milk and water to be kept cool hung on branches. They also carved bowl-shaped stones, probably to cook mutton stew. Hence the Kenya-Capsian is also known as the Stone Bowl industry.




The southward expansion of Kenya-Capsian cattle-keepers came to a halt around the gap between the south end of Lake Tanganyika and the north end of Lake Malawi. The way was blocked for most of each year by the infestation belt of tsetse-fly (Glossina), whose bite is ultimately fatal to cattle and people. But Kenya-Capsian Khoe herders managed to get through the tsetse belt. They took with them sheep and the making of pottery probably hundreds of years before successful trekking of cattle. Linguists show that the Khoe language adopted Nilotic or Cushitic words for sheep (-ku) and cattle (-xomo). Geneticists have found both Nilotic and Cushitic male and female genes among Khoe people dating from intermar-riage about 2.4 kya.

There are many questions open to more research about early Khoe set-tlement, expansion, and influence in Southern Africa. Who was responsi-ble for the stone bowls of Kenya-Capsian type that have been found near Windhoek in Namibia, near Kanye in Botswana, and near Kimberley in South Africa? Who was responsible for making a type of clay pottery known as Bambata ware – dating from 2.1 kya and deriving its name from a cave site in the Matopo hills? Bambata ware from the next 500 years has been found at Toteng near the Okavango swamps, at Skeurkrans in the Waterberg hills, Jubilee Shelter in the Magaliesberg, and Mirabib and Falls Rock in Namibia. Bambata bowls and jars were thin-walled and well-fired, in a variety of shapes for carrying and storing water (some with spouts for pouring), cooking meat stew or porridge, and possibly for fermenting and drinking beer made of honey or fruit.

Sheep and cattle bones dating from the last centuries BCE have been found at Toteng and Lotshitshi in northern Botswana. The gene for toler-ance in the human gut of non-human milk (numbered -14010*C), inherited from Cushitic/Nilotic ancestors, became widespread among livestock herd-ers. The new milk supply relieved women from breast-feeding older babies. Women could bear more children, since lactation inhibits fertility. Babies were more likely to survive weaning off mother’s milk. New ways-of-living, and intermarriage with Northern San, led to a population boom among Khoe people in northern Botswana. The Showa, the Deti, and other ‘black Bushmen’ around the Makgadikgadi pans (and Victoria Falls) grew tall on cow’s milk and continued to herd cattle and sheep.

On the other hand, the Khoe-speaking Buga or so-called river Bushmen of the Okavango remained fishing people without livestock. (They believed that a cave in the Tsodilo hills was the womb from whence they came.) The ances-tors of G/ui and G//ana hunter-gatherers in the central Kalahari also adopted Khoe language without adopting livestock culture.




The archaeologist Karim Sadr has argued that acculturation between groups of people, rather than migration by large numbers of people, explains how Khoe language, pot-making, and Kenya-Capsian livestock were spread south-wards. Genetic evidence shows that Khoe-speaking people from the Orange River southwards were basically of Southern San ancestry. But there were at least a few male migrants from the north, as Southern San people carry some Nilotic/Cushitic as well as Khoe male genes.

The earliest making of pottery and movement of sheep can be traced southwards down the Atlantic coast. Just south of the Orange River, at Spoegrivier, thin-walled and well-fired pottery bowls have been dated about 2.4 kya. Sheep bones have been excavated, and dated a few hundred years later, at Spoegrivier, at Die Kelders near Cape Town, and in Blombos cave on the south coast. The Kasteelberg and Witklip sites north of Cape Town show that ‘ hunters-with-sheep’ were well established by CE 200. Relatively few cat-tle bones of that time have been found.

The main settlement of Southern Khoe keeping cattle, for maybe 1,000 years, was in the Orange-Vaal basin. These Southern Khoe – also known as Einqua and Xiri – made thin-walled and well-fired pottery jugs that were distinct from the pottery bowls of hunters-with-sheep. The crude pots of ‘Smithfield ware’, made by hunters-with-sheep in the Seacow valley between about CE 400 and 1100, were made from thick slabs of wet clay, lightly fired in pits. Most were flat-bottomed cooking bowls. They were suitable for people living a nomadic life – easily made, easily abandoned.

ROCK ART: PAINTING & ENGRAVING

According to pioneer archaeologist John Desmond Clark, rock art in Southern Africa is ‘generally of such a high order’ that it must have been made by ‘consummate artists, whose mastery of line and skill with colour place this among the most vital and most pleasing the world has ever seen.’ But rock art is very difficult to date, as pigment colours fade, particularly under rain and sun.

The oldest and most widespread form of rock art was ‘cupules’ – cup-shaped holes engraved out of the rock. Cupules in South India and Australia have been dated almost 50 kya. In Southern Africa, there are hundreds or thousands of cupules in rock walls in the Tsodilo hills that remain undated. Cupules on horizontal surfaces could have been used for grinding ochre or seeds. On vertical walls, cupules have no obvious purpose, though freshly-cut quartz or granite cupules can twinkle like stars in firelight or moonlight.




The earliest dated rock painting is at Apollo XI cave in Namibia, preserved under a rock fall. The painted slab of a wildcat with human legs has been dated around 26 kya, but it is in a style unknown elsewhere. Scientific dat-ing of paint and engraving is technically very difficult, and rock art is usually dated by its association with other materials. Thus, some rock engravings at Tsodilo have fish-bone patterns that are also etched on animal bones dated 8.4 kya–7 kya. The earliest dated rock painting south of the Orange River is dated around 3.6 kya in Steenboksfontein cave, at Lambert’s Bay on the Atlantic coast near Cape Town.

Without dated chronology, scholars have differed widely on classifica-tion and interpretation of rock art. The ‘art history’ approach concentrates on naturalistic representations of wildlife as the products of individual artists. An ‘ethnic’ approach is to see the art as graffiti expressing possession of the land and its wildlife by groups of people. ‘Symbolic’ interpretations seek deeper meanings, with visible features standing in for ideas known, unknown, or unknowable. ‘Shamanistic’ interpretations see the art as prod-ucts of trance-dancing or drugged fantasy. All these approaches are useful.

Rock engravings were etched with stone or bone tools. Rock paintings were made either by finger-painting or with some kind of soft stick or brush. A rock painter shot dead in Lesotho during the nineteenth century CE was found to be wearing a belt with pods for different colour pigments. Finger-painted red and white circles, half-circles, and parallel lines, found on rock faces from Angola across to Mozambique and northwards up Lake Tanganyika, have been interpreted as Twa art. Other geometric art has been attributed to Khoe people. Some finger-painted white dots and lines in caves are relatively recent, made by young boys at secret circumcision camps on the rocks, and also on their own bodies. The rock art tradition continues up until today with graffiti written or sprayed on brick walls in industrial cities.

Finely drawn engravings of rhinos and other wild animals on rocks in the Orange-Vaal area, including Kimberley, have been attributed to the Southern Khoe. They have much in common in design with beautiful naturalistic rock paintings by Southern San artists in the southern Cape and around the Drakensberg and Lesotho.

Much rock art is associated with rain magic and the rain snake – a long tubu-lar black cloud moving through the sky spitting lightning from its mouth, with rain-legs trailing behind. Also associated with rain and good times is the noble eland. It is the largest antelope, grazing alone rather than in herds. Evidence of religious belief in a spirit world, inside the rocks and waters, may be seen in sym-bolic figures denoting ghostly creatures and in ‘entopic’ images produced inside the eyes during trance. (Close your eyes, particularly during a migraine, and you will see something like the grids and zigzags found in some rock paintings.)




Has all development and change necessarily been ‘progress’ – i.e. for the better? The counter-argument is that change has only been necessary when and where there has been failure. Social and economic structures last as long as they meet people’s needs. Changes come about because of environmental crisis, human intervention, or sheer chance and misadventure.

FURTHER STUDY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blundell, Geoffrey (2005), Fragile Heritage: A Rock Art Field Guide. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.

Blundell, Geoffrey, ed. (2006), Origins: The Story of the Emergence of Humans and Humanity in Africa. Cape Town: Double Storey Books for Origins Centre Johannesburg & London: Global.

Bonner, Philip, Himla Soodyall &c., eds. (2007), A Search for Origins: Science, History and South Africa’s ‘Cradle of Humankind’. Johannesburg: Wits University Press.

Campbell, Alec C. & David Coulson (2001), African Rock Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams.Deacon, Hilary. J. & Janette Deacon (1999), Human Beginnings in South Africa:

Uncovering the Secrets of the Stone Age. Cape Town & Johannesburg: David Philip.Ehret, Christopher (2001), An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in

World History, 100 B.C. to A.D. 400. Oxford: James Currey, & Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.

Garlake, Peter Storr (1995), The Hunter’s Vision: The Prehistoric Art of Zimbabwe. London: British Museum Press.

Mitchell, Peter (2002), The Archaeology of Southern Africa. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press.

Parkington, John (2002), The Mantis, the Eland and the Hunter: Follow the San. Cape Town: Credo Communications for Krakadouw Trust/Living Landscape Project.

Smith, Ben W. & Geoffrey Blundell (2018), Rock Art in Sub Saharan Africa: The Art of the Other World of Hunters and Gatherers. Johannesburg: Wits University Press.

Soodyall, Himla, ed. (2006), The Prehistory of Africa: Tracing the Lineage of Modern Man. Johannesburg & Cape Town: Jonathan Ball Publishers.

VIDEOGRAPHY

DVDs and Downloads:

The Great Dance: A Hunter’s Story (Earthrise Productions, 2000. 90 minutes): filmmakers Craig Foster & Damon Foster record hunting with bows and spears in the Kalahari, without dogs or guns.




The Human Family Tree (National Geographic Genographic Project, 2009. 90 mins): geneticist Spencer Wells tracks the DNA of two hundred New Yorkers back to Africa.

The Incredible Human Journey (BBC, 2009. 5 × 60 minutes): palaeontologist Alice Roberts follows Modern Human origins from East Africa up to the maritime cross-ing to Australia.

The Search for Adam (National Geographic Genographic Project, 2006. 52 mins): geneticist Spencer Wells tracing Modern Humans back to East Africa, visits the (semi-Khoe-San) Hadza and Sandawe.



260

Index

Abdurahman, Abdul (1872–1940), 134, 138, 161

Acts, Bills, Proclamations (SA except where noted):

1833 Abolition of Slavery (UK), 881836 Cape of Good Hope Punishment,

98, 1041890 Foreign Jurisdiction (UK), 1641909 South Africa (UK), 1341911 Mines and Works, 153; Native

Regulation Act, 152–531913 Natives Land, 137–39, 141, 160,

2431923 Native Urban Areas, 1541924 Industrial Conciliation, 1551926 Mines and Works Amendment,

1551927 Native Administration, 1561930 Land Apportionment (SR), 165;

Riotous Assemblies Amendment, 156

1936 Natives Trust and Land, 160; Natives Representation, 160, 243

1937 Marketing, 159 1949 Prohibition of Mixed Marriage,

1771950 Group Areas, 177, 243;

Immorality, 177; Population Registration, 177; Suppression of Communism, 180; Unlawful Organisations,181

1951 Separate Representation of Voters, 179; Land Husbandry, 184; Native/ Bantu Authorities, 181; Native Building Workers, 178

1952 Native Abolition of Passes, 178

1953 Bantu Education, 178; Native Labour Settlement of Disputes, 178; Reservation of Separate Amenities, 178

1954 Native Urban Areas, 177 1955 Senate Act, 1791956 Industrial Conciliation, 1781957 Extension of University

Education, 294; 1959 Promotion of Bantu Self–

Government, 1791962 Sabotage, 1811963 Coloured People’s Education, 1781965 Indian Education, 1781967 Terrorism, 1831967–68 Prohibition of Improper

Political Interference, 1831973 Bantu Labour Regulations, 2201980 Minimum Wage (Zimbabwe), 2171982 Legal Age of Majority

(Zimbabwe), 2191983 Maintenance (Zimbabwe), 2191985 Labour Relations (Zimbabwe),

2171987 Deceased Persons Family

Maintenance, 2171991 Abolition of Racially Based Land

Measures, 2431992 War Veterans (Zimbabwe), 2391993 War Victims Compensation

(Zimbabwe), 2391994 Restitution of Land Rights, 2432003 Black Economic Empowerment,

243–34‘African Eve’, 5African National Congress (ANC), see

political parties



Index 261

African nationalism, 147, 154, 156, 166, 170, 177, 179, 183, 189, 199, 250, see also individual countries

Afrikaans language & culture, 75, 116, 132, 143, 146, 151, 157, 159, 183, 220, 220–22, 238

Afrikaner nationalism, 108, 116, 127, 133–33, 143–44, 153–54, 157, 159–62, 167, 173

Afrikaners, Oorlam, 80, 88–89, 97Afrikaners, white, 106, 108, 116–17,

125–28, 130, 132–33, 142–45, 153–62, 167, 173, 200, 256, 258, see also Boers

agriculture:bananas, 3, 31, 37citimene (swidden), slash–and–burn

22cotton production, 22, 34, 50, 51, 56,

164, 172, 172, 193, 203‘food cradles’ Sahel, Niger–Congo, 22GM (genetic modification) crops, 247maize (American corn) production, 48,

61, 74, 83, 113, 138, 152, 160, 164–75, 203, 247

sorghum (African corn) production, 22, 24–26, 31, 48, 61, 113, 164

tobacco production, 138, 164, 183, 201vineyards & wine production, 65–66,

68, 85–87, 109, 116, 119–20wheat production, 41, 65, 85, 85, 113,

137, 160, 164, 188wool production, 87, 103, 109, 119,

164see also cattle, diet & nutrition, goats,

peasants, sheep, white commercial farmers

aircraft, civil & military, xi, 14, 153, 158, 168, 184, 191, 203, 211, 214, 216, 219, 223, 240, 245

America & Americans, x: Pre–1300, 5, 6; 1300–1685, 48, 52, 54; 1600–1790, 61, 63–64, 73, 80;

1790–1868, 84, 102; 1868–1902, 109, 122, 124, 126, 129–30; 1902–1919, 132, 143, 145, 146–49, 151; 1919–1948, 156, 173–74; 1948–1967, 188, 190, 190, 199; 1967–1990, 219, 223; 1990–2018, 232, 248, 250, 252, 256

Angola, Pre–1300, 13, 18, 24, 1300–1685, 54–55,1600–1790, 61, 64, 67, 751868–1902, 95,1902–1919, 140–41,1919–1948, 152, 159, 173,1948–1967, 176, 192–94, 196,1967–1990, 202, 207–09, 212–14,

218–19, 223, 225–26,1990–2018, 230–31, 236, 238–49

apartheid, x, 80, 173, 175–77, 179–85, 187–95, 197–99, 203, 213, 219–28, 250–51, 253, 258–59

‘apprenticeship’ (inboekseling), 85, 86, 94

archaeological industries & cultures (search for site names on the Internet): Middle Stone Age, 1–2, 6–7, 10–13; Later Stone Age, 12–19, 21–22, 27–29, 38–40; Early Iron Age, 23–29; ‘Middle Iron Age’, 29–38; Later Iron Age, 43–59 etc.

architecture, housing, 8, 25–26, 28–29, 35, 40, 43–44, 47, 64–65, 69, 77, 82, 88, 82, 104, 119, 132–33, 164, 170, 175, 182, 185, 191, 205, 215, 223, 233, 242, 248; see also stone walls, towns & townships

asbestos mining, 164assassination plots, Civil Cooperation

Bureau (SA), 219; see also Chitepo, Machel, Mondlane, Retief, Shaka Zulu, Tongogara, Verwoerd



262 Index

Asia & Asians, x–xi, see also China, India, Indian Ocean: Pre–1300, 1–2, 5–6, 9, 15, 22, 31–33, 36; 1300–1685, 49; 1600–1790, 62, 69, 74; 1790–1868, 84; 1868–1902, 110; 1948–1967, 176, 190; 1967–1990, 223; 1990–2018, 254

Australia & Australasia, x, 9. 17, 20, 28, 80, 84, 110, 112, 120, 124, 126, 130, 148, 223, 254, 255

Austrians, 73, 141

Bambatha rising, 133Banda, Hastings Kamuzu (c.1898–1997),

185–86, 196–97, 203, 232–34banking & finance, 114, 158, 201, 205,

214–15, 223Bantu languages, xi, 6, 21, 22–25, 28, 34,

34, 40, 42, 83, 89, 161, 174, 177, 222

Bantustans, 178–79, 181, 187–88, 209, 221–23, 228–29, 244

Bamato, Barney (1852–97), 113, 119battles:

‘Blood River’ Ncome (1838), 100, 161Boomplats (1848), 105Cuito Carnavale (1987), 213–14, 223Delville Wood (1916), 143Dithakong (1823), 89, 94, 96Ethaleni (1838), 100Gqokoli Hill (1818–19), 90Grahamstown (1818–19), 87Isandhlwana (1879), 116Jameson Raid (1895–96), 122–23, 125,

129, 135Kalabani (1880), 115Kanye (1826), 94–95Majuba (1881), 116Marico (1837), 99Maunwge (1684), 66–67Mbolompo (1828), 94, 102Mbuzi Hill (1817–18), 90Mhlatuze River (1818–19), 90

Ndololwane (1826), 92Rooysvlei (1907), 140Salt River (1510), 53Thaba ya Basadi (c.1840), 95Ulundi (1879), 116Viervoet (1851), 105Waterberg (1904), 139see also wars

Basutoland, see Lesotho Batavian Dutch rule at the Cape

(1803–06), 85Bathoen II (1908–90), 125, 164 Beads, 7, 10, 12, 14, 24, 26, 29–35, 37,

40, 50—51, 53, 58, 61, 66, 69, 74–75, 79, 90, 252

Bechuanaland, see BotswanaBerends (Barends), Berend (c.1770–

1839), 89, 96Biko, Steve Bantu (1946–1977), 148black consciousness, 170, 176, 193, 214,

219–221, 256Blackburn Nguni pottery tradition, 38,

43–45, 48, 68Boers, 76–78, 80, 84, 87–88, 91, 96–101,

104–06, 111, 114, 116–17, 126–28, 131–32, see also Afrikaners

Bondelswarts, 145, 154Bophuthatswana, 179, 209, 223, 225, 229Botha, Louis (1862–1919), 117, 127, 133,

135, 142–43, 153–55Botha, P.W. (1916–2006), 216, 222–23,

228Botswana ex–Bechuanaland Protectorate,

see also Tswana: Pre–1300, 6–7, 9, 11–16, 201–21, 26,

28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 42,1300–1685, 45–47, 1600–1790, 70–73, 81, 1790–1868, 88, 94, 96–97, 105, 1868–1902, 111, 113,14, 117–18,

121–22, 125–26, 129, 1902–1919, 134–35, 139, 140–41, 144,

146,



Index 263

1919–1948, 159, 161–64, 168, 170–71, 173–74,

1948–1967, 187, 190–91, 194–95, 198–99,

1967–1990, 201–05, 209–10, 217–19, 221,

1990–2018, 228–39, 246, 248–49, 251, 254, 258

Britain (UK of Great Britain & Ireland): 1790–1868, 83; 83–87, 100, 103–05, 107; 1868–1902, 109–10, 112, 113–20, 125–26, 128; 1902–1919, 131, 134–35, 138, 140–41, 145, 147, 151; 1919–1948, 157, 162, 164, 166–68, 171; 1948–1967, 176, 183–84, 186, 188, 196–97; 1967–1990, 203, 208–09, 211, 223; 1990–2018, 240, 248

British, 84–88, 91, 97–105, 109–18, 121–28, 130–35, 137–38, 14144, 146, 148, 152, 161–70, 179, 181, 185–86, 188–90, 194, 204–09, 211–12, 235, 237–38, 240, 245, 255, 257, 259, 259, see also English, Irish, Scottish

British Bechuanaland, 117–118British South Africa Company (BSAC),

121–25, 135, 144, 163, 165–66Broederbond, 143, 157–58, 161, 173Burgers, Thomas Francois (1834–81),

114Buthelezi, Gatsa (born 1928), 90, 242Butwa 56–57, 66

Cape Colony, 64–66, 74–82, 84–88, 97–98, 101–04, 107–08, 115, 118–20, 124, 126–27

Cape Coloureds, see also coloured people, Khoekoe, Malay, San

Cape Town, 14, 17–18, 48, 53, 63, 74–75, 79, 84–, 98, 100–104, 113–16, 120–21, 123, 127, 133–34, 137, 141, 154, 156–57, 164, 169, 175,

177, 181, 194, 222–23, 229, 237, 247–48, 250

Cape liberalism, x, 86, 120, 134, 157, 183, 184, 28, see also ‘colour–blind’ franchise, free–market liberalism, missionaries, Schreiner, votes & voters

cattle, 15–17, 24–30, 34–39, 43, 45–48, 50, 53–54, 57–58, 61–63, 68–74, 76–80, 83, 87, 90–93, 96–103, 112, 114, 118–19, 123132, 140, 146, 163–65, 172–73, 179, 190, 205, 256

Central African Federation (Rhodesias & Nyasaland), 184–86

Cetshwayo (c. 1825–84), 116, 120, 133Changamire (ruled 1490–94), 54, 66China & Chinese, 31–32, 35, 44, 49,

52–53, 59, 64, 112, 135, 159, 195, 202, 232–33, 244, 253, see also Asia

Chitepo (1923–75), 199, 210Christian churches & missions, see also

missionaries, religion:African Methodist Episcopal (AMEC),

147, 163Anglican & Church of the Province,

101–02, 146–47, 162Christian conversion, 53–54, 80, 85,

89, 102, 106–07, 129Congregational, 103, 146, 147, 192Dutch Reformed (DRC), 84–85, 143,

154, 157, 161Ethiopian, 132, 146–48London Mission (LMS), 85–86, 88–89,

93, 101, 103, 106, 121Lutheran, 89, 146 Moravian, 84, 101Paris Evangelical (PEM), 89, 146Roman Catholic (RC), 54, 65, 162,

172–73, 193, 217, 221, 224, 233Watch Tower & Bible, 167Wesleyan WMS, 89, 146–47Zion Christian, Apostolic, &

Pentecostal, 147–48



264 Index

Ciskei, 24, 54, 98, 102–03, 179, 209, 223, 228

climate & weather, x, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11–12, 14, 25, 29, 34, 37, 41, 43, 48, 58, 125, 246–47, see also drought, rainfall

clothing & shoes, 8, 12, 22, 29, 37, 44, 51, 54, 58, 63, 65, 75–76, 81, 87, 90, 93, 103, 111, 138, 167, 169, 228, 241, 257

colonial wars: 1505–72 Portuguese–Muslim, 53 1510 Portuguese–Khoekhoe, 531659–77 Dutch–Khoekhoe, 651744–63 & 1792–1815, Anglo–French,

84–851779–1878, Cape–Nguni, 77, 84, 87,

98, 102, 115 1834–6, 6th Cape–Nguni, 981836–7, Trekker–Ndebele, 98–99 1838, Trekker–Zulu, 99–1001858 and 1865–69, Sotho–Boer, 106,

111 1876–77 Pedi–Boer, 114 1879, Anglo–Zulu & Anglo–Pedi, 115 1880–81, Basutoland Gun, 1151880–81, 1st Anglo–Boer, 116 1893–94, German–Nama, 1381892–93, Anglo–Ndebele, 1221895, Portuguese–Gaza, 1411896–97 Ndebele & Shona risings, 1231896–97, Langeberg rising, 118 1898 Venda conquest, 125 1899–1902 South African (2nd Anglo–

Boer), 126–271904–05 German–Herero and Nama,

139–401905–06 Natal–Bambatha, 133 1914–18 1st World War, 141–431939–45 2nd World War, 167–711961–74 Angolan liberation, 193,

207–081964–74 Mozambican liberation,

193–94, 208

1966–79 Zimbabwean liberation, 196, 209–11

1975–89, Namibian liberation, 213–14

1962–90 South African liberation, 181–83, 218–19, 221–23

colour–bar in employment, 153, 155, 165, 178, 200, 220, 222

‘colour–blind’ franchise, 103, 120, 134, 179, 189

coloured, people of colour, xi, 78, 87, 100, 112, 126, 134, 146, 150, 156, 159, 165, 168–70, 172, 174, 177–80, 199–200, 220, 222, 238, 244, see also Khoekhoe, Malay

Commonwealth (former British), 168, 181, 184, 187, 197, 211, 223, 237–38, 255

concentration camps & labour compounds, 127–29, 131, 140, 159

Congo ex–Belgian Congo & Zaïre: Pre–1300, 5–7, 9–10, 12, 22–24, 41, 45; 1300–1948, 52–53, 91, 141, 143, 166–67; 1948–1967, 185–86, 190, 193, 197, 207, 213, 230–31, 238, 240, 244; 1967–1990, 207, 213, 230–31, 238, 240, 244; 1990–2018, 230–31, 238, 240, 244

Conventions, Sand River (1952), 105; Bloemfontein (1854), 105; Pretoria (1881), 116; National (SA 1908–09), 133; SA Native National, 134; Mozambique–SA (1928), 158; All–African (1935), 161; Congress of the People (1955), 210; Black People’s, 220; CODESA, for a Democratic South Africa, 228; All Basotho, 235

conservation, de–stocking & ‘betterment’, 149, 160–61, 165, 173, 178–79, 25541, 74



Index 265

copper production during Iron Age, 22, 24, 26–27, 29–30, 32–34, 36, 40, 43, 45, 49–51, 56–57, 63, 68–69, 71–73, 75–76, 142; under industrial–capitalism 142–43, 146, 158, 163, 166–69, 183, 185–86, 190–91, 194, 196, 201–02, 204, 232–33, 240

COSATU Congress of SA Trade Unions, 180, 243

Cuban & Cubans, 104, 212–15 currencies, 32, 48, 58, 76, 158, 184, 229,

232, 235, 240–41customs union, 134, 136, 155, 184,

204–05, 207, 219, 229, 235

Denmark & Danish, 62–64Dating, calendar & scientific explained,

xi, 1, 3–4, 7, 9, 252Defiance Campaign, 180, 199de Klerk, F.W. (born 1936), 228, 237,

242–43 Delagoa Bay, 25, 43, 48, 54–55, 57, 61,

67–69, 72–74, 79, 83, 87, 89–92, 114, 124–25

de la Rey, Jacobus (1847–1914), 127, 142depression, economic & financial, 109,

153, 157, 164–65, 167destabilization of region, 214, 216,

218–19 de Wet, Christian (1854–1922), 127, 133diamond production, x, 112–13, 118,

124, 130, 145, 158, 194, 204, 232, 236, 258

diet & nutrition: 2, 8, 22, 28, 31, 40, 48, 59, 63–64, 74, 90, 103, 136, 143, 158,160, 167–69183, 188, 196, 203, 207, 210–11, 213, 215, 218, 232–33, 247; malnutrition, 9, 123, 127, 140, 225, 247

difaqane wars & migrations, 71, 91, 93–94, 252

Dingane (c.1795–1840), 92, 98–100

Dingiswayo (c.1770–1816), 74, 89–91, 108

diseases human & epidemics, 151; body lice, 8; bilharzia, malaria & sleeping–sickness, 41; smallpox, 74; malaria, 41, 105, 127; measles, 127, 215; plague, 35, 132; tuberculosis & modern urban life, 148, 213, 257; waterborne, 247; see also diet & nutrition, health services, HIV/AIDS, ‘sanitation syndrome’

Dithakong 70–71, 94, 96Dombo (died c.1695), 57, 66–67drought 6, 9, 15, 39, 46, 61, 69–70, 83,

97, 119, 123, 135, 157, 164, 188, 190, 201, 216, 247

Dube, John Langalibalele (1871–1946), 134, 137, 174

Durban, 25, 29, 47, 73, 91, 99, 104, 124, 133, 169, 177, 198, 219–20

Dutch, see Netherlands, VOCdu Toit, Stephanus Jacobus (died 1911),

161, 186

economic strategies:ASGI Accelerated & Shared Growth

Initiative 2005–2010 (SA), 244BEE Black Economic Empowerment

2003 (SA), 243–44ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment

Programs (IMF), 243FTLRP Fast–Track Land Reform

Programme (Zimbabwe), 241GEAR Growth, Employment &

Redistribution 1996–2005 (SA), 243–44

NDP National Development Plans 1965– (Botswana), 204

NDP National Development Plan 2013–2013 (SA), 244

NGP New Growth Path 2010–2013 (SA), 244



266 Index

PTA Preferential Trade Area for Eastern & Southern Africa, 219

RDP Reconstruction & Development Programme 1994–96 (SA), 242–43

SADC, see Southern African Development Community

ZIMPREST Zimbabwe Programme for Economic & Social Transformation 1995, 239

education, 33, 59, 65,51, 57–58, 70, 85, 101–03, 114, 128, 132, 134, 137, 152, 157, 162, 173, 178, 180, 184, 192, 195–96, 198, 204, 214–15, 220–22, 224, 227, 231, 235, 238, 242, 248, see also Lovedale, universities

Einqua (Khoe) people 17, 27, 38–40, 70English people, language & culture, 55,

62–64, 67, 73–74, 86–87, 89, 99, 113, 117, 120–21, 125–26, 132, 142–43, 145, 151, 154, 157, 159, 163, 166–67, 183, 190, 220, 229, 235, 237–38, 252, 255

Erinpura ship disaster (1943), 168Ethiopia 2, 6, 13, 31, 52–53, 104, 147,

168, 230, 253Ethiopianism, 146–48, see also

pan–AfricanismEurope & European influences, x–xi:

Pre–1300, 1, 5–6, 9, 35, 39, 40; 1300–1685, 49, 52, 53; 1600–1790,61–63, 65, 67, 69, 71–77, 79, 81; 1790–1868, 83, 102, 108; 1868–1902, 109–11, 117, 120, 126; 1902–1919, 131, 138, 146, 148–49, 151; 1919–1948, 153, 156, 162, 167, 172; 1948–1967, 176–78; 1967–1990, 207, 223; 1990–2018, 229, 232, 234, 247, 252

see also Britain, British, English, France, Germany, Irish, Portugal, Scottish

films, 159, 170; 1915–23 production, 143, see also videography

firearms & colonial disarmament of blacks,

fishing 2, 7–8, 10–11, 13–16, 18, 24, 27, 45, 62, 70, 87, 115, 194, 203, 216, 250

Fokeng people, 47–48, 68, 71–72, 94France & French influence, 62, 65,

84–85, 87, 89, 109, 111, 125, 143, 145–46, 213

Freedom Charter (1955), 180–81free–market or free –trade liberalism,

113, 116, 135, 171, 238–39, 242–43

Front–Line states & Front–line presidents, 201–02, 204, 209, 211, 218

Fusion government, 159, 161

Gandhi, Mohandas (1869–1948), 120, 180

Gatsi Rusere, Munhumutapa (c. 1560–1623), 55

Gcaleka (c. 1730–92), 77, 98, 102genetics & DNA, 1, 4–6, 8–9, 12–13,

16–17, 20, 22, 25, 28, 31genocide, 78–79, 81, 151, 239Germany & Germans: Pre–1300, 1;

1600–1790, 74; 1868–1902, 109, 118, 120, 124–25; 1902–1919, 131, 136, 138–43, 145–46, 151; 1919–1948, 152, 167–68; 1948–1967, 195; 1967–1990, 207, 213, 219; 1990–2018, 238–39, 252–53

Ghana, 65, 176, 184–85, 187Goats, 22, 24, 26, 28, 40, 50, 74, 251gold production during Iron Age, 32–36,

38, 40, 48–49, 51–56, 76, 75;



Index 267

under industrial–capitalism x, 111, 118–22, 124, 135, 152–53, 155, 157–59, 161, 163–69, 171–75, 203, 204, 223–24

Great Trek, 97–98, 107–08, 160; other trekkers, 122, 129

Great Zimbabwe, 26, 30, 32–33, 35–36, 42, 45, 49–5254, 56–60, 122, 259

Griqua Oorlam 79–80, 88–89, 91, 94–100, 107, 111, 115, 129

Griqualand East 24, 92, 104, 111 Griqualand West 112, 114–15, see also

Kimberleyguerrilla warfare, 115, 127, 133, 139–40,

194

health services & hospitals, 41, 44, 196, 204, 212, 214, 217, 227–29, 231, 236, 238, 241–42, 247–48, 157, see also diseases (human), nutrition

herders of livestock, 15–16, 21, 24–25, 27–29, 39–40, 44, 46–47, 70, 75–78, 88, 139, 163

Herero people, 118, 138–40, 145, 150–51, 194–95, 209, 213

Hertzog, James Barry Munnik (1866–1942), 127, 133, 143, 154–62, 167

Hertzog Bills, 157–58, 160–61high commissioner, 104, 114, 131, 133,

135, 164, 187High Commission Territories, 134–35,

138, 152, 161–62, 164, 168, 170–71, 179, 186–87, 197, 205

HIV/ AIDS epidemic, 231, 236, 238, 241, 244, 246

‘Hottentot Code’, 85–86Huggins, Godfrey (1883–1971), 155, 183hunters & gatherers, 11–12, 14, 16–17,

19–21, 24, 27–29, 34, 37, 39–40, 50, 65, 71, 75, 77–79, 88, 98, 139

hunters–with–sheep, 17, 27, 40Hurutshe people, 46, 48, 71, 88, 97, 181

ICU (Industrial and Commercial Workers Union), 154–57, 166, 183

imperialism, i.e. capitalist imperialism, 109–111, 113, 123–24, 128–29, 131–33, 152

India, xi, 17, 31–32, 34, 51–55, 62, 65, 75, 84, 110, 120, 122, 126, 176, 179,

Indians, 30, 52–53, 65, 75, 112, 120, 126, 157, 159, 170, 177–78, 180, 220, 222, 244–45

Indian Ocean, x, 9–10, 21, 24–26, 29, 31–32, 24, 37–38, 40, 48–49, 52, 55, 68, 73, 82, 86–87, 104, 202

indigenous knowledge, 2, 8, 16–17, 21–22, 25–26, 28, 33–34, 40, 43, 57–58, 70, see also music, religion, rock art, stone walls

industry & industrialization, 192, 201, 205–06, 215, 218–20, 222, 238– 42

Irish, 73, 112, 129–30, 144, 159, 223, 240

iron production: during Iron Age, 7–8, 21–22, 26, 30, 32–33, 39, 42–43, 46–47, 49, 51, 59, 69, 72, 76, 90, 106; industrial capitalist, 81, 103, 111–12, 155–56, 158, 169, 182, 188 Islam x, 31–32, 49, 52, 58, 75, 259

ivory trade, 24, 26, 29–34, 37, 53, 55–57, 67–69, 71–74, 77, 79, 81, 88, 91, 96–98, 103, 105–06, 252

Jabavu, John Tengo (1859–1921), 134 Jameson, Leander Starr (1853–1917),

122–25, 129Japan, 109, 188, 232Jews, 103, 248Johannesburg, 2, 47, 69, 118–19,

123–26, 133, 142, 148, 153, 156, 170, 175, 177, 180–82, 200, 220, 244, 248



268 Index

Jonathan, Leabua (1914–87), 187–88, 197, 207, 234

Joubert, Piet (1831–1900), 116–17, 125

Kadalie, Clements (c.1896–1951), 154, 156, 166

Kalanga peoples, 50, 56, 70–71, 99, 142, 144, 195, 205, 218

Kaunda, Kenneth David (born 1924), 185, 196, 198, 201–02, 204, 210, 218, 232–33

Keate Line (1871), 112 Kenya, 11, 13, 15–17, 49, 149, 168, 184,

189, 229 Khalagari peoples, 28, 36, 48, 71Kgatla peoples, 46–48, 69–70, 72, 93,Khama III (c. 1835–1923), 118, 125, 129,

142Khama, Ian (born 1953), 231–32Khama, Seretse (1921–80), 190–91, 199,

201–02, 204Khama, Tshekedi (1905–59), 161,

163–64, 174, 190–91, 194Khoe people xi, 12–13, 15–18, 20–21,

24–28, 34, 37–38, 46–47, 70, 99–100, 108, 145, 232, 66, see also Bondelswarts, Einqua,

Khoekhoe 38–40, 44, 46–47, 53, 62–66, 70, 75–80, 82, 84–87, 89, 99–103, 108, see also Korana

Kimberley 16, 18, 39, 104, 112–15, 117, 119, 121–24, 126, 129–30, 137, 141, 145, 147, 182, 248

Kitchener, Horatio (1850–1916), 127Kok, Adam I (c.1710–95), 80, 89, 104,

129Kololo, 91–93–95, 97Korana 62–63, 66, 70, 75–77, 79–80,

112, 115, 88, 94, 96, 112, 115, 117–18

Kotane, Moses (1905–72), 173, 179KwaZulu–Natal (former Natal &

Zululand), 10–11, 24–25, 29,

43–44, 47, 55, 73, 91–92, 99–102, 104, 107–08, 110, 113–16, 119–20, 124, 126, 132–34, 137, 148, 156–57, 159, 220, 245–46, 254

labour relations & policy, x–xi, see also apprenticeship: Pre–1300, 32; 1300–1685, 58; 1600–1790, 71, 73, 81; 1790–1868, 83, 86, 100, 103, 106; 1868–1902, 110, 114–15, 118–20, 123–24; 1902–1919, 132, 135–37, 140, 142–43, 145, 149, 151; 1919–1948, 152, 154–59, 161, 164–66, 168–69, 172; 1948–1967, 177–79, 184, 186–88, 190, 192; 1967–1990, 203, 205–06, 208, 217, 220; 1990–2018, 227, 240, 242, 248

land, colonial alienation & sale, 55, 65–66, 76, 78, 80, 98–102, 109–10, 112, 114–15, 117–18, 122–26, 132, 137–52, 165, 173, 175, 179, 183, 189, 192, 228, 238, 240–41, 243, 245, 256

Langalibalele (c. 1818–89), 113languages, x, 2. 6, 16–17, 21–22, 25,

27–28, 36, 40, 43–45, 48, 50–51,56, 53, 69, 75, 79, 85, 89, 95, 120, 128–29, 132, 143, 152, 159, 167, 183, 214, 220–22, 238, 247

Lefela, Josiel (1885–1965), 163, 170, 187Lemba, 31, 58Lembede, Anton (1914–47), 170, 179Lesotho ex–Basutoland, see also Sotho:

Pre–1300, 11, 14, 18, 24, 1300–1685, 45–46, 1600–1790, 71,1790–1868, 89, 91, 96, 101, 104, 106,

108,1868–1902, 111–13, 115,1902–1919, 134, 137–38, 146,



Index 269

1919–1948, 157, 161–64, 168, 170, 174,

1948–1967, 186–88, 197,1967–1990, 205–207, 209, 218–19,

224, 1990–2018, 229–31, 234–35, 246,

248–49liquor 112, 149, 159livestock diseases 128, 218, see also

rinderpestliterature & publishing, 75, 81, 85, 89,

103, 146–47, 220, 255, see also black consciousness, Du Toit, Mofolo, Plaatje

Lobedu people, 67Lobengula (c.1836–94), 121, 122, 129,

144Lovedale & Fort Hare 101–02, 104, 108,

147, 170–71Lozi people, 95Luderitz Bav, 117 (Angra Pequena),

140–41, 145

Machel, Samora (1933–86), 204, 208, 211, 214, 216, 218, 237

Macmillan, Harold (1894–1886), 176Madagascar, 31–32, 64–65, 73, 75, 82,

85, 230 Mafeking (Mahikeng), 126, 129, 191Maherero, Samuel (1856–1923), 139Makgadikgadi former lake, 6, 16, 26, 37,

51–52, 56–57Makhanda (c. 1780–1820), 87Malagasy people, xi, 31–32, 38, 40Malawi ex–Nyasaland:

Pre–1300, 5, 6, 9, 12–13, 16, 26,1300–1685, 45, 50, 55,1790–1868, 93,1902–1919, 136, 140–51,1919–1948, 154, 157, 159, 164, 166,

167–68,1948–1967, 176, 183–86, 191, 193,

196–99,

1967–1990, 203, 218–19,1990–2018, 230–34, 246–49

Malay xi, 75, 112Mandela, Nelson Rolihlahla (1918–2013),

x, 179, 182, 191, 198, 200, 224–26, 228–30, 237, 242–43, 249–50

Mantatees, see Mma–Nthatisi, MfenguManye Maxexe, Charlotte 147Maputo, 25, 55, 73–74, 114, 214, 216 Maqoma (1798–1873), 98, 102Matebeleland (Matabeleland), 121–23,

144, 204, 210, 217–18Mbanderu people, 95 Mbandzeni (c. 1850–89), 114, 117, 121,

188Mendi ship disaster 1917, 143, 150, see

also Erinpura Mfecane, 83, 107, 252 Mfengu (Fingo) people, 91, 94, 102–03,

115, 144Milner, Alfred 1854–1925 126–27,

131–33, 136, 220mining, 158 (manganese, chrome, coal).

see also asbestos, copper, gold, iron tin

missionaries: 255Booth, Joseph (1851–1932), 148Colenso, Bishop John William (1814–

93), 101–02, 107, 113, 128, 133 Livingstone, David (1813–73), 95–96,

106–07, 113Mackenzie, John (1835–99), 117Moffat, Robert (1795–1883), 89, 93Philip, John (1777–1851), 86, 89,

107–08, 120Vanderkemp, Jan (1747–1811), 85

missionaries’ road, 105, 117Mma–Nthatisi (ruled 1810s–30s), 93–94

& 100Mnangagwa, Emmerson, 242, 249 Thomas Mofolo (1876–1948), 163; Mokone, Mangena (1851–1936) 146



270 Index

Moloko Sotho–Tswana pottery tradition 38, 43, 45–46, 48, 68

Moletsane (died 1860s), 94.96Mondlane, Eduardo (1920–69), 193–94,

198, 208, 225Mosaka, Paul, 171Moshoeshoe I (c.1785–1870), 93, 95–97,

101, 103–05, 108, 111 Moshoeshoe II (1938–96), 187–88, 205,

207, 234Motsete, K.T. (1899–1974), 191Mozambique ex–Portuguese East Africa:

Pre–1300, 8, 18, 25, 29–32, 36, 38,1300–1685, 43, 49, 54–55, 571600–1790,

61, 65, 67, 70, 72–73, 751790–1868, 88, 1061868–1902, 119, 124,1902–1919, 136, 140–42, 1491919–1948, 152, 157,58. 164, 166,

171–74,1948–1967, 176, 192–94, 196, 198,1967–1990, 202–04, 206–11, 214–16,

218, –19, 221, 224–251990–2018, 230, 233–38, 242, 244,

246–49, 257Mpande (c. 1800–72 111), 100Mpondo (Pondo) people, 89, 92, 94, 97,

100, 104Mswati II (Makhosetive) (born 1968),

206, 235, 240Mthethwa people of Dingiswayo, 74,

89–90Mugabe, Robert Gabriel (born 1924),

195, 210–12, 218, 232, 238–42Munhumutapa (Monomotapa), 52,

54–55, 58–59, 66–67, 92music and dance, 2, 20, 28, 31–32,

40–51, 78, 86, 113, 159, 171, 173, 176, 199, 226, 248, see also Sontonga

Mzilikazi (c.1795–1868 48), 91, 93–94, 96–99, 101, 108, 111

Nama people, 27, 38–40, 75–76, 79–80, 85, 88–89, 117–18, 138–40, 145, 151, 154, 195, 209, 213, 238

Namibia ex–South West Africa: Pre–1300, 16, 10–11, 16, 18, 27, 39, 1600–1790,76, 79–80,1790–1868, 95,1868–1902, 114–15, 117,1902–1919, 138–40, 141–42, 145–46,

150–51,1919–1948, 174,1948–1967, 195, 198–99,1967–1990, 213–14, 224–27,1990–2018, 229–32, 236–39, 246,

249–50, 258nationalism, see African nationalism,

Afrikaner nationalism, & individual countries

Native Affairs Department (NAD), 134–35, 160, 170, 194

‘native reserves’, 103, 137, 139, 144–45, 149, 160–61, 165, 177–78, 183, 187, 228

Nazi connections, 130, 168, 180, 192Ndebele of Mzilikazi & Lobengula, 28,

44, 48, 94–99, 101, 108, 121–23, 142, 144, 166, 195, 218, see also Transvaal–Ndebele

Ndwandwe of Yaka & Zwide, 73–74, 89–93

Netherlands, 62, 84–85, 100, 124, 126, 132, 223

Netherlands East India Company, see VOC

newspapers & journalism, 109, 138–39, 161, 174, 177, 181, 210, 221, see also Jabavu

Ngoni peoples of Malawi etc., 91, 92–93, 96, 99

Nguni peoples, 28, 37–38, 41, 43, 44–48, 58, 61, 67–70, 73–74, 89–93, 97, 115, 140, 252



Index 271

Ngqika (Gaika) (c. 1775–1828), 77, 84, 98, 102

Ngwaketse people 71, 94, 164Ngwato people, 71–72, 95, 122, 129,

162–63, 190Nkomati Agreement or Accord (1984),

216Nkomo, Joshua (1917–1999), 185 –86,

195, 199, 204–05, 211, 212, 217, 225

Nongqause (1841–98) & Mhlakaza (c.1800–57), prophets, 103

Northern Rhodesia, see ZambiaNujoma, Sam (born 192), 194, 195, 199,

214, 237, 237–39Nyasaland, see Malawi

Okavango delta 6, 16, 24, 27, 37, 72, 88, 232

Oorlam 80, 88–89, 97Orange Free State 11, 14, 47, 101,

105–06, 109, 111–12, 115–16, 125–28, 131, 133, 138, 153, 157

Ovambo 140, 142, 145, 194–95, 209, 213, 238

Pact government, 154–55, 158, 161pan–Africanism, 170, 221, see also

political parties PACpass laws, 100, 140, 145, 154, 157,

169, 172, 177–78, 180–81, 199, 223

peasants, 102–03, 112, 132, 137–38, 143, 152, 156, 160, 172–73, 184, 192, 208, 210, 215–17

Pedi people, 69–73, 91, 96, 105–06, 113–114, 116–17, 128, 146, 181

Pirow, Oswald (1890–1959), 168, 180Plaatje, Solomon Tshekisho (1875–1932),

100, 104, 108, 129, 137–38, 151, 174

political parties:ANC African National Congress of

South Africa, 137, 144, 150, 156–57, 162,174, 179–81, 184–7, 189–91, 194, 205–09, 213, 216–17, 219, 221–22, 224–25, 228–29, 234, 242–45, 249, 257; ANC Youth League 170, 179–80

BCP Basotho Congress Party, 187, 207, 234

BNP Basotho National Party, 234BDP Botswana Democratic Party, 191,

204, 231BIP Botswana Independence Party, 191BPP Botswana People’s Party, 191CP Communist Party 153, 156,

170–71, 179, 180, 182, 200, 212Congress Alliance (SA), 180DTA Democratic Turnhalle Alliance

213EFF Economic Freedom Fighters 245FRELIMO Front for the Liberation of

Mozambique, 193–94, 201, 208, 214–16, 237, see also Machel

IFM Inkatha Freedom Movement, 228, 242, see also Buthelezi

MCP Malawi Congress, 185–86MMD Movement for Multi–Party

Democracy (Zambia), 232–33RENAMO, Mozambique Resistance

Movement, 216, 237MPLA Popular Movement for the

Liberation of Angola, 192–93, 202, 207–08, 212–14, 219, 236, 238

NP National Party (Afrikaner), 143, 154, 157, 159, 167, 242–43, 253

NNLC Ngwane National Liberatory Congress (Swaziland), 189

PAC Pan–Africanist Congress of Azania (SA), 181–83, 186–87, 191, 219, 221–22, 228–29, see also Sobukwe



272 Index

PF Patriotic Front (Zimbabwe), 211, 218

RBVA Rhodesian Bantu Voters Association, 144, 166

RF Rhodesia Front, 186, 195–96SAP South African Party, 134, 136,

143, 153–54 SALP South African Labour Party, 154,

156–57SANNC South African Native National

Congress, 137, 141, 144, 156, 162, see also African National Congress of South Africa

SAP South African Party, 134, 143, 153–54

SWAPO South West African People’s Organisation, 195, 202, 209, 213–14, 219, 237–39

UDF United Democratic Front (SA), 222, 228

UNIP United National Independence Party (Zambia), 185–86, 196, 201

UNITA Union for Total Independence of Angola 192–93, 202, 207, 212–14, 236, 238

ZANC Zambia African National Congress, 185, 201

ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union, 186, 195–96, 202, 204, 209–13, 216–18, 241

ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union, 185–86, 195–96, 202, 204, 209–11, 213, 217–18

‘poor white problem’, 132, 138, 154–55, 157–59

Portugal & Portuguese: 1300–1685, 48–49, 52–57, 59; 1600–1790, 61–62, 64–67, 73, 75, 81; 1790–1868, 87, 91–93, 105–06; 1868–1902, 114, 119, 124, 126; 1902–1919, 136, 140–42, 145; 1919–1948, 152, 158–59, 166, 171–73; 1948–1967, 176, 192,

194, 196; 1967–1990, 201–03, 207–08, 210, 212, 214–15; 1990–2018, 237, 248

Potgieter, Hendrik (1792–1852), 98–101, 105–06

pottery 15–17, 22–27, 29–30, 32, 35–40, 43–48, 50–52, 56–58, 68–69, 71–72, 79, 81, 95

protectorates 115, 117–18, 125, 134–35, 139–41, 161–62, 164, 174, 190–91, 198, 255

race & racial classification, xi, 28, 39, 108, 120, 128–29, 156, 161, 171, 177–78, 180, 200, 214, 220, 224, 242–43, 246, 255–57

railways, 83, 109, 114, 122–24, 127, 132, 135, 139, 143, 149, 155, 158, 164–66, 168, 171, 178, 183–84, 202–03, 207, 212, 230, 248

rainfall 3, 6, 9, 14, 18, 24–25, 36, 50, 56, 61, 67, 77, 79, 144, 217, 247

Rand Native Labour Association 119religion, traditional ideas, 89, see also

Christianity, Islamresistance to colonization, defined 131,

147 152; also 76, 78, 85, 105, 108, 115, 129, 131, 133, 138, 140, 147, 152, 173–74, 179–81, 198, 224

Retief, Piet (1780–1838), 99–100Rhodes. Cecil John (1853–1902), 110,

113, 119–25, 128–30, 140, 149Rhodesia, Southern see Zimbabwe;

Northern see Zambiarinderpest cattle epidemic 118–19, 123,

125, 132Rivonia trial 182Robben Island 63, 82, 87, 98, 113, 115,

182, 200rock art painting & engraving 8, 10, 12,

15, 17–19, 29, 42, 78, 104,



Index 273

Rolong people, 46–47, 69–70, 79, 89, 96, 98–99, 117

Royal Navy (British), 88, 104–05, 164Rozvi rulers, 57–58, 66–68, 92, 95Rubusana, Walter Benson (1858–1936),

134, 137Russia & Russians, 10–11, 80, 109, 122,

124–25, 153, 202, 207

SADC Southern African Development Community, 229–31, 234–35, 241

SADCC Southern African Development Coordination Conference 204, 218–19

SADF South African Defence Force, or Union Defence Force 141, 142–43, 168

Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira (1889–1970), 171–72, 192

San people xi, 6, 12–13, 15, 19–21, 26, 28–29, 34, 39–40, 42, 44, 46–47, 66, 75–81, 88–89, 92, 99, 104, 112, 115, 163, 232, 238; Southern San 17–18, 84, 92, 104, 120; Northern San 11, 15–16, 24, 163, 232

Sandile (c.1820–78), 102‘sanitation syndrome’, 132–33, 151, 257,

see also towns & townshipsschools, see education, universitiesScottish 87, 89, 101, 147Sebetwane (c. 1790–1851), 94–95, 97, 99Sechele I (Setshele) (c.1810–92), 96, 105,

118segregation, 131–32, 137, 149, 157,

160–62, 165, 173, 175–77, 189, 224

Sekhukhune I (c. 1810–82), 106, 114, 116–17

Sekwati (c.1780–1861), 96 Seme, Pixley ka lsaka (1880–1951), 137,

151, 161, 174–75, 178

Shaka Zulu (c. 1787–1828), 83, 89–92, 94, 107–08, 163

Shangane people 91–92share–cropping, 110, 132, 137–38,

160Sharpeville massacre, 181, 221sheep, 15–17, 22, 24–28, 30, 33–34, 37,

40, 50, 62–63, 66, 66, 77–80, 87–88, 98, 101, 164

Shepstone, Theophilus (1815–93), 104, 107, 114, 116

Shepstone, ‘Offy’ Theophilus Jnr. (1843–1907), 117

Shona peoples, 38, 53, 49–53, 57–59, 67, 121–23, 142, 144, 186, 195, 210, 225

Sikonyela (1804–56), 93–94, 100Sisulu, Walter Max (1912–2003), 179,

182, 199 Sithole, Ndabaningi (1920–2000), 195,

199, 210–211slaves, slavery & slave trade 32, 52–55,

57, 64–68, 73–75, 80–81, 83, 85–91, 93–95, 98–99, 101, 104–06, 108, 114, 136, 138, 140, 152, 154, 163, 172, 199

Smith, Harry (1787–1860), 102, 104–05

Smith, Ian Douglas (1919–2007), 168, 195–96, 202, 208–09, 211

Smuts, Jan Christian (1870–1950), 127, 133–34, 142–44, 152–57, 159, 167–70, 176, 186, 194

Sobhuza II Mona (1899–1982), 174, 188–89, 205–06

Sobukwe, Robert Mangaliso (1924–78), 180–82, 199

Sontonga, Enoch (1873–1905), 171Soshangane c.1790–185992, see also

ShanganeSotho–Tswana, 28, 36, 37–38, 40–41,

43, 68, 93–96, 107, 220, see also Sotho, Tswana



274 Index

Sotho or South(ern) Sotho: 46–48, 89, 94, 96, 99, 111, 163, 171, 173, 252; North(ern) Sotho, 46, 57–58, 67, 72, 173, 179; see also Lesotho, Pedi

South Africa: Pre–1300, 2, 7, 10, 13–14, 16–19,

24–26, 32, 36, 42 1300–1685, 43–44, 46–49, 51–52,

59,1600–1790, 64–68, 70, 72, 74–81,1790–1868, 84–87, 88–92, 93–94,

96–106, 106–08,1868–1902, 111–20, 124–28,

128–30,1902–1919, 131–34, 135–38, 141–43,

146–48, 150–51,1919–1948, 152–61, 167–71,

173–75,1948–1967, 176–83, 186–87, 198,

198–200,1967–1990, 210–11, 213, 215–16,

219–23, 224–26,1990–2018, 228–29, 230, 238–45,

248–49, 249–51, 253–58South African confederation, 113–14,

126South African Native Affairs Commission

(1903–06), 137, 160South African Republic, see TransvaalSouth African War (2nd Anglo–Boer,

1899–1902), 126–28South West Africa, see NamibiaSoweto 125, 133, 177, 207, 220–23,

225–26; Orlando 220; Pimville 133

‘squatters’, 101, 132, 146Stellaland & Goshen, 117–18Stellenbosch, 40, 65–66, 75–76, 78, 80,

101, 150stone tool manufacture & trade, 1, 6–8,

10–16, 18–19, 21–24, 26–27, 32, 37, 40, 50

stone walls, 34, 35, 39, 47–48, 50–51, 56, 65, 67–72, 77–78, 81, 93, 96–97, 101, 120

Strijdom (Strydom), Johannes Gerhardus (1893–1958), 179

strikes & labour disputes, 153–54, 166–67, 171–72, 178, 180, 183, 185, 189, 193–94, 213, 219, 220

Swaziland (iSwatini), see also Ndwandwe, Nguni:

Pre–1300, 11, 26, 29, 36,1300–1685, 441868–1902, 116–17, 1211902–1919, 134–35, 141, 149,1919–1948, 161–64, 168, 174,1948–1967, 187–89,1967–1990, 205–06, 209, 218–19,

221,1990–2018, 229–30, 235–36, 246,

248–49Sweden 62, 219, 245Swellendam ‘republic’ 76, 78, 84

Tambo, Oliver Reginald (1917–93), 179, 191, 198, 200, 221, 224

Tanzania ex–German East Africa, Tanganyika:

Pre–1300, 12, 15, 16, 18, 25, 30, 38, 1300–1790, 48–49,1790–1868, 93,1868–1902, 124,1902–1919, 141–42, 145, 151,1919–1948, 159,1948–1967, 183, 193, 195,1967–1990, 201–02, 204, 209, 211,

216, 218–19, 221,1990–2018, 230, 246, 249

Tati & Francistown, 34, 111, 121, 191, 203

Tau (Rolong king), 79Taung (Sotho) people, 94, 96 taxation, 55, 86, 104, 112, 115, 119–20,

123, 133, 137, 140, 146, 152, 154,



Index 275

160, 162, 167, 172–73, 188, 190, 193, 205, 234, 242

telegraphs, 83, 109, 111, 114, 121Tembe kingdom, 68, 73Thembu (Tembu) people, 92, 94, 102,

104, 115, 146–47tin mining, 49, 51, 56Tlhaping people, 70–71, 88–89, 112,

114–15, 117–18Tlokoa people, 72; Tlokwa, 48, 72, 93,

100Toba mountain 74 kya mega–explosion, 9Toivo, Toivo Herman ja (1924–2017),

194–95 Tomlinson Report, 178, 186Tongogara, Josiah (1938–79), 210, 212Torwa dynasty, 56–57, 66–67towns, townships & town planning see

also architecture & housing, ‘sanitation syndrome’: Pre–1300, 14, 33; 1300–1685, 48, 50; 1600–1790, 63, 67, 70–72, 74–75; 1790–1868, 84, 87–88, 92, 97–98, 101, 103; 1868–1902, 110–111, 114, 120, 130; 1902–1919, 133, 137, 139, 143, 149; 1919–1948, 157, 159, 163, 169, 173–74; 1948–1967, 181, 186, 193, 195, 199; 1967–1990, 207, 215, 220, 222–23, 226; 1990–2018, 228–29, 231, 241, 244, 247, 250

trade, x: Pre–1300, 14, 24, 26, 27, 29–38, 40–41; 1300–1685, 43 48–58; 1600–1790, 62–65, 67–73, 75–77, 79; 1790–1868, 84, 86–89, 91–99, 103–04, 105–06; 1868–1902, 110–11, 113–117, 120; 1902–1919, 136, 138–40; 1919–1948, 162; 1948–1967, 182–83, 197; 1967–1990, 203, 215–16, 219, 223; 1990–2018, 229–30, 235, 239, 240

trade unions, 153–56, 158, 165, 172, 177–78, 180, 183, 185, 203, 206, 208, 222, 232–33, 243

Transkei, 29, 44, 61, 104, 115, 150, 179, 181, 209, 221, 223

Transvaal, 70, 101, 104–06, 111, 123, 124, 125–28, 130–34, 136–38, 148, 153, 157, 161, 173, 199, see also South African Republic, Transvaal–Ndebele

Transvaal–Ndebele people, 48, 69, 70, 72, 111–14, 116–20, 123

treason trial, Pretoria,treaties, 85, 87, 98, 102, 104, 105, 117,

122, 138, 164,216, 229, 239 treaty–state system, 104, 117‘tribalism’, 202Truth & Reconciliation Commission

(TRC), 242, 250–51Trichardt, Louis 1783–1838’ 98tsetse–fly, 16, 25, 30, 35, 41, 46, 61, 72,

125, 132Tsonga people, 43, 55, 67–68, 72–74, 179Tswana language & peoples, 43, 46–48,

see also Sotho–TswanaTswapong hills, 5, 23, 24, 30, 33, 45, 51,

69, 88, 99Tutu, Desmond Mpilo b.1931, 223, 242Twa Pygmy people, 6, 12

Uitlanders, 124, 131 Umkhonto we Sizwe MK, 182, 198,

205–07, 209, 211, 216–17, 225, 234

Union of South Africa, formation, 133–34

United Nations Organisation, 169–70; 185, 194,208, 213, 223, 237; League of Nations 145, 194

universities, 10, 131, 184, 193–94, 201, 220, 251,

Vaal drifts crisis 1895, 124



276 Index

van der Stel, Simon (1639–1712), 65Venda people, 37, 40, 57, 66–67, 72, 88,

105–06, 125, 179, 209, 223verligte/verkrampte, 228Verwoerd, Hendrik (1901–66), 178–79,

181–82, 187, 197videography, films, DVDs, downloads, 20,

42, 60, 82, 108, 130, 151, 174–75, 199–200, 225–26, 250–51

vitrified dung, 36–37VOC (Verenigde Oostindische Companie),

62, 64–65, 74–77, 79votes & voting, see ‘colour–blind’

franchiseVorster, Balthazar John (1915–83), 168,

197, 202, 210, 256

wages of workers, 119, 132, 135–37, 153–55, 165–67, 203, 213, 217, 219–20, 233

Warren, Charles (1840–1927), 117Waterberg hills, 16, 23–24, 30, 33, 49, 51,

69, 139Waterboer, Andries (c.1790–1853), 89Waterboer, Nicholas (1819–96), 112Welensky, Roy (1907–1991), 185 white commercial farmers, 74, 76, 85, 98,

101, 102, 111, 115–16, 118, 126, 132, 137–38, 144, 155, 159–60, 162, 165–66, 177, 183–84, 193, 203, 208, 231, 238, 240–41, 245

Witwatersrand, 118, 121, 124, 129, 131, 135, 146, 152–53, 158–59, 167, 169, 171, 187, 193, 208, 218,

Witwatersrand chamber of mines, 119, 153, 159

Witwatersrand Native Labour Association WNLA or Wenela, 135–36, 159, 203, see also Rand Native Labour Association

women: Pre–1300, 13, 16, 28, 30, 33, 40–41; 1300–1685, 44, 50, 53, 56, 58–59; 1600–1790, 65, 67, 70, 74–76, 79; 1790–1868, 90, 95, 97–98; 1868–1902, 118, 126,

129; 1902–1919, 138–39, 144, 147; 1919–1948, 154, 157, 163, 168–69, 171–72; 1948–1967, 178, 180–81, 198; 1967–1990, 211, 217; 1990–2018, 246

wood, woodland, & forest, 1–3, 11–12, 11–12, 15, 22, 31, 35, 40, 56, 61, 69, 85, 100, 115, 136

Xhosa peoples, 28, 44, 61, 67, 77, 84, 87–89, 92, 94, 97–99, 101–04, 107, 115, 133, 182, 220

Xuma, Alfred Bitini (c.1893–1962), 170

Yei people Okavango, 72

Zambia ex–Northern Rhodesia:Pre–1300, 1, 8, 10–12, 14–15, 24, 33, 1300–1685, 50–51,1790–1868, 92–93, 95,1868–1902, 121,1902–1919, 141–42, 149,1919–1948, 152, 159,1948–1967, 176, 183–86, 190, 195–96,

198–991967–1990, 201–04, 207, 209–11,

218–19, 221, 224,1990–2018, 230–33, 237, 239, 246–29

Zimbabwe ex–Southern Rhodesia: Pre–1300, 11, 19, 25–26, 30–38, 42, 1300–1685, 45–48, 48–60,1600–1790, 66,1790–1868, 92, 95, 99,1868–1902, 111, 117, 121–23, 124–25,

129,1902–1919, 134–151,1919–1948, 152–74,1948–1967, 176, 183–186, 191, 196,

198–99,1967–1990, 201–02, 204, 208–13,

215–19, 221, 224,1990–2018, 227 227–28, 230–33,

237–42, 244, 246–50, 254–55, 256–57, 259

Zwangendaba (c.1785–1845), 92–93



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