Contents Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1

Good Woods ...................................................................................................... 1

About this Guide ................................................................................................ 2

Forest Management: United Kingdom Forestry Standard (UKFS) ...................... 3

Professional Foresters ........................................................................................ 3

Woodland management, conservation and timber production ......................... 4

Woodland Star Rating (WSR) – an introduction to the UKFS .............................. 4

Management Planning ....................................................................................... 5

Woodland Inventory ....................................................................................... 5

Assessing a woodland property for timber production ...................................... 6

Timber Quality ................................................................................................... 8

Example of timber products from a tree in a broadleaved woodland ........... 10

Timber species – considerations ...................................................................... 11

Timber Properties ......................................................................................... 11

Harvesting..................................................................................................... 11

Species choices ............................................................................................. 12

Species table ................................................................................................. 12

Timber supply from UK Woodlands – regulation and assurance ...................... 26

Where a felling licence is not needed – felling licence exempt ..................... 26

Felling Licence information ........................................................................... 27

A UKFS-compliant management plan ............................................................ 27

Independent certification and UK Woodland Assurance Standard (UKWAS) 27

Further resources: ........................................................................................... 28

Appendix 1 – Woodland Star Rating - Questions ........................................... 31

Appendix 2 – Field key for identification of common forest and woodland trees ............................................................................................................. 33

Good Woods (2014). Timber Production from British Woodlands - An introductory guide to forest species and timber uses. 35pp.

1 Introduction British Forestry has had a long tradition of providing a range of woodland products. However in recent years there has been recognition across Government, businesses and environmental charities that many UK woodlands have suffered from decades of under management. This has resulted in a general reduction in the ecological condition and productive potential of these woodlands.

This guide has been produced as part of the Good Woods project. It is part of a suite of resources that aims to bring the UK’s woodlands back into better ecological and silvicultural1 condition and ultimately support a thriving ‘wood culture’ where both nature and society benefits.

Good Woods Good Woods is a partnership between sustainability charity BioRegional, forestry charity the Sylva Foundation and the business community.

In 2013, with support from B&Q, the founding business partner, we piloted a new approach supporting owners, managers and community groups in improving the condition of their woodlands across the South East and East of England.

1 Silviculture – The science and practise of cultivating forest crops.

2 About this Guide This guide is intended to help woodland owners and managers realise the productive potential of their woodlands. It is not a complete guide to forestry in the UK, yet aims to complement a number of other publications produced by a host of authors and organisations to support the forestry sector in the UK. Some of these publications are referenced in the Further Resources section at the end of this document.

The species listed in this guide are not an exhaustive list of timber species in the UK. The Silviculture of Trees Used in British Forestry2 notes that there are over 500 species of tree that can easily be seen in parks and gardens in Britain and this rises to over 1700 if special botanic collections are included. The 30 genera included in this guide are an arbitrary selection based on the trees represented in the New Sylva3 and The Silviculture of Trees used in British Forestry. The species selected focus on the forest trees that one is most likely to encounter in British woodlands, however a few uncommon forest trees are included to highlight the productive potential of novel species and trees that are grown predominantly for amenity purposes.

The products attributed to each of the species are not exhaustive either. The focus is on timber production although coppice materials are described where significant to that species. Non-timber forest products are not included in this guide and although they represent an important group of products to the woodland economy they are beyond the scope of this guide.

In this guide the Forestry Commission is referred to on a number of occasions in relation to the UK Forestry Standard (page 3) which was developed and published by the Forestry Commission in Great Britain.

Forestry is a devolved matter with regard to the delivery of the grants and regulatory framework. The following agencies perform this role:

England - Forestry Commission England; Scotland - Forestry Commission Scotland; Wales – Natural Resources Wales; Northern Ireland - Forest Service.

This guide has referenced documents from Forestry Commission England as Good Woods originally started in England, however there should be reciprocal documents available for the other countries’ respective agencies.

2 Savill, P. (2013) The Silviculture of Trees used in British Forestry, 2nd Ed. CAB International. 3 Hemery, G and Simblet, S (2014) The New Sylva: a discourse of forest and orchard trees for the twenty first century, Bloomsbury Publishing.

3 Forest Management: United Kingdom Forestry Standard (UKFS) The UKFS4, supported by a series of guidelines, outlines the context for sustainable forest management in the UK. Standards and requirements are defined, and a basis for regulation and monitoring is provided. The third edition was in published 2011.

The UKFS has been produced to:

• Provide an explicit statement of UKFS Requirements for sustainable forest management.

• Strengthen the role of forest planning;

• Incorporate recent developments in legislation, international agreements, and the way forestry activity is monitored and reported;

• Incorporate recent advances in the scientific understanding of forestry;

• Include national and international initiatives on climate change and the role forests can play in mitigation and adaptation.

Forestry Commission England is the Government agency and statutory body that is responsible for forest regulation in England. The local FC Woodland Officer is the official source of regulatory advice and should be contacted on matters relating to grants and the regulatory framework.

Professional Foresters Forestry is a technical discipline and woodland management encompasses a considerable number of environmental, social and business factors. Therefore it is recommended that the services of a professional forester should be considered when undertaking woodland management.

The professional body of foresters in the UK is the Institute of Chartered Foresters5 which sets out a code of ethics, professional values and rules for professional conduct and practise in forestry. Professional members are Chartered Foresters or Chartered Arboriculturists and entitled to use MICFor after their name.

4 www.forestry.gov.uk/ukfs 5 www.charteredforesters.org

4 Woodland management, conservation and timber production Woodlands are complex ecosystems made up of soils, water courses, historic features, animals, fungi, and flowering plants, including trees and shrubs. Sustainable Forest Management aims to help keep all this diversity in balance.

As part of the management planning process, foresters may leave certain trees or areas of a woodland property or ‘forest management unit’ alone. These areas of ‘minimum intervention’ are often protected as they may have fragile soils, contain sensitive water courses and provide special habitats for wildlife.

The UK Forestry Standard guidance is as follows:

Consider using ecological processes as a way for delivering biodiversity objectives within a forest management plan – both in silvicultural systems6 and minimum intervention.

As part of the management planning process it is necessary to decide which areas of the woodland will benefit from minimum intervention and which areas will benefit from active management that results in useable products whether the principle aim is habitat improvement or timber productivity. In short the two aims are not mutually exclusive.

Ultimately Sustainable Forest Management aims to achieve a balance between ensuring habitat health and the production of woodland derived products, as well as wider benefits such as carbon sequestration, recreation, learning, heritage features and landscape views.

The Forestry Commission England regulates forestry operations, ensuring that designations and protected features are observed, relevant stakeholders consulted and that protected species legislation is adhered to. This is done by ensuring that thinning7 and felling operations have the appropriate licences in place and in certain cases by providing management grants for agreed work.

Woodland Star Rating (WSR) – an introduction to the UKFS The WSR is a self-assessment scheme based on the UKFS. It aims to support woodland owners to advance woodland stewardship (Appendix 1). It supports the woodland management planning process by summarising what good stewardship involves in practise – www.sylva.org.uk/myforest/wsr

6Silvicultural system - a planned series of treatments for tending, harvesting and re-establishing a forest stand of trees 7 Thin or Thinning – the periodic removal of the crop trees, so that the remainder benefit from additional growing space provided.

5 Management Planning

A key element of the Good Woods project is to support woodland owners and managers to create a UKFS-compliant woodland management plan.

The Forestry Commission England (FCE) has produced a template and associated guidance to support the creation of a plan. Currently, in England, there is a grant available to woodland owners who have a woodland area of 3 hectares or more on their property. Further details on the FCE’s Woodland Planning Grant can be found on the FCE website8

The planning template that Good Woods promotes can be accessed on the Sylva Foundation’s myForest Service9. The template is based on the FCE’s management planning template and is UKFS compliant. To find out about management planning in Scotland and Wales contact Forestry Commission Scotland and Natural Resources Wales respectively.

A woodland management plan is a key document as it that sets out:

• the objectives and vision for the woodland;

• the woodland condition, including features, threats, and opportunities;

• how the woodland will be managed to meet the owners objectives and deliver wider economic, environmental and social benefits.

The benefit of a UKFS-compliant plan, signed off by FCE is that it includes felling and thinning licences for the 10 year period. Additionally timber harvested, as set out in the plan, will demonstrate assurance for supply purposes (page 27).

Woodland Inventory An inventory of the species growing in woodland is now a requirement of the FCE UKFS-compliant management plan. Following the FCE convention of mapping your woodland into distinct compartments and sub-compartments, when carrying out an inventory, will ensure compatibility with the regulatory framework. The relevant guidance can be found in the England Woodland Grant Scheme 1 guidance document in the resources section.

Further information on following the mapping convention and completing an inventory, that will form the basis of the Plan of Operations, can be found on the myForest website provided by the Sylva Foundation: www.myforest.org.uk

8 www.forestry.gov.uk/forestry/INFD-6DCCN3 9 www.sylva.org.uk/myforest

6 Assessing a woodland property for timber production

7

The annotated aerial photograph above shows the Farm FMU which is made up of three separate compartments. In this example there is a range of objectives for the sub-compartments based on position in the landscape, habitat value and productivity. The total area of the woodland is 17.5 hectares. This is a typical map that may be included in a management plan and can be created using the myForest service.

The flow chart on page 6 sets out actions that may be taken when developing a management plan for a rural property in England with woodland. It distinguishes between productive and conservation areas as a division is often made between these two management objectives. However, this distinction is somewhat artificial as timber extraction can be an incidental benefit of management for conservation and likewise conservation objectives can be achieved through silviculture. In reality there will be a host of considerations that may determine the objectives for specific areas of woodland.

Example: Estimating timber production for the Farm Forest Management Unit:

Willow (3ha): 1 Sub-compartment: 3ha with YC 10 10 x 3ha x 0.7 = 21 m3/Year (Thinning cycle - 5 years): 21 m3 x 5 years = 105 m3 Mixed Broadleaf (total of 7ha): 4 Sub-compartments: 7ha with YC 4 4 x 7ha x 0.7 = 19.6 m3/Year (Thinning cycle -10 years): 19.6m3 x 10 years = 196m3

Conifer (2ha): 1 x SC: 2ha with YC 12 12x2ha x 0.7=16.8 m3/Year (Thinning cycle -5 years): 16.8m3 x 5 years = 84 m3 Exclude: SSSI (5ha) & Scrub woodland (0.5ha) sub compartments Estimated sustainable annual yield: 57.4 m3 of timber per year

8 Timber Quality Timber, being a natural product, can vary greatly in shape and structure depending on a number of factors such as where and how a tree grows.

A principal factor influencing potential final markets for timber is quality. The quality of timber in many UK woodlands, particularly broadleaf, is currently considered to be poor from a timber perspective. This can be attributed to a general lack of forest management, or specifically, for example, due to damage from pests such as grey squirrels and deer.

The quality of timber and its value is strongly related to the number of straight, defect free logs that can be cut from the stem. In general only logs that are straight and ‘clean’ for at least 3 m are considered first quality. Knots and branches, and small epicormic shoots10 heavily de-value roundwood11. Value is also closely related to the diameter of the stem, for example, generally the sawn timber value of broadleaved species tends to be realised when the diameter at breast height12 exceeds 60 cm. However there are exceptions, for example cherry will tend to be harvested earlier as the tree stem is prone to deterioration at larger diameters and therefore has a relatively short rotation length.

The increased value for woodfuel is providing an opportunity for broadleaved woodlands with poor quality timber. The increased return will help justify

10 Epicormic shoots – tiny shoots coking out of the trunk which can cause multiple knots and reduce the value of the timber for structural uses. These shoots are triggered when there is a sudden change to light levels. 11 Roundwood – a length of cut tree generally having a round cross section, such as log or bolt 12 Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) – the diameter of the stem of a tree measured at breast height (4.5 feet or 1.37 meters from the ground).

The oak woodland on the left has been managed for timber production since it was planted. The mixed broadleaved woodland on the right, although originally planted for timber production, has suffered from decades of neglect.

9 silvicultural operations in woodlands with a view to growing trees to dimensions and qualities that will give the greatest returns per cubic metre from the produce. There will still be plenty of woodfuel available from future harvests as approximately 40% of wood extracted from even the best managed woods is slab wood, branch-wood or material that is too small for sawing, and only suitable for lower grade purposes such as wood fuel.

It is worth keeping a selection of trees with that are either multi-stemmed or multi-branched trees, as these will provide unique habitat niches within a stand of trees. From a planning point of view this can be considered under veteran tree management as many outstanding veteran trees are multi-branched with unique form.

As with most aspects of forestry, it is all about ensuring a good balance is maintained and this is reflected in the UK Forestry Standard’s Silviculture section under General Forestry Practise Guidelines:

Maintain a range of stand structures and silvicultural approaches across the forest as a whole, including veteran trees, open-crowned trees, open space and areas of natural regeneration.

The schematic diagram on page 10 provides an example of some of the products that can be produced from a tree. In addition to the products detailed in the diagram, there are other products that can be produced, some of which are detailed in the table on page 13.

The diagram is of a broadleaf tree in winter grown in a coppice with standards silvicultural system, however many of the product types also apply to conifers.

10

Example of timber products from a tree in a broadleaved woodland

11 Timber species – considerations Timber Properties British timber is unique due to the climatic conditions under which it grows. British grown softwood timber is characterised by faster growth rates compared to the same species grown in more northerly zones in the northern hemisphere where the cooler climate results in slow growth. This affects the structure of the timber. Timber grown in warmer climates has a higher proportion of early wood (growth in spring and late summer) to late wood (grown in autumn and winter), this can affect the durability and structural strength of the timber.

The properties of timbers of different species are varied. These range from physical features such as size and colour, to shrinkage and mechanical characteristics, durability, drying, sawing and machining, veneering and surfacing characters (e.g. capacity to glue, paint or polish). However, many species are interchangeable with one another for a particular use and the performance of the finished article will not suffer as appearance can be altered with the use of stains and finishes. In recent years there has been a marked shift away from solid wood, especially in the case of hardwoods, and the use of wood veneers on particle board is commonplace.

There are many, sometimes confusing, terms used in describing wood and its properties. For example the terms hardwood and softwood often cause misunderstandings. The distinction between the two categories is a botanical one. Hardwoods belong to the flowering plants known as angiosperms or broadleaved trees, and softwoods are all conifers. However hardwoods are not necessarily harder (or denser) than softwoods. For example, balsa wood, a tropical species, is one of the lightest, least dense woods there is, and it is classified as a hardwood.

Harvesting The harvest dates of agricultural crops, which have annual cycles, are normally known months in advance, sometimes to the very day. Tree crops, by contrast, supply different markets at different stages in their long lives. Young trees can supply foliage or be used as Christmas trees. Early thinning provides poles for the pulpwood or particle board markets. More mature, bigger, trees from late thinnings or from the final harvest always provide the greatest income. They supply sawn timber, or if they have been pruned and are acceptably defect-free, veneer. Trees of almost any age produce firewood.

12 Species choices The choice of species in either woodland creation or restocking is vital to successful woodland management.

The UKFS guidelines are:

Review species suitability and diversity over time as forest management plans are renewed.

The process of species selection can be carried out in three stages:

(1) determining the characteristics of the planting site in terms of climate, soil, pest and disease pressures and other ecological factors13;

(2) deciding which species and provenances are likely to thrive in such conditions and future conditions;

(3) deciding which of one or more species, satisfy the objectives of the planting scheme.

Species table The following table details the main timber species that are grown in the UK and a few minor species. Some of which may be found in parks and garden or grown as street trees. It is designed as a quick guide to allow you to assess the potential of your woodland to supply a variety of products.

It highlights the following for each timber species:

• Common and botanical name • Timber Properties e.g. strength and durability • Forest Management – a brief indication of management requirements • Markets – Indication of markets at different stages of its life cycle. • Comments – any further notes of particular interest.

The table is not comprehensive and the markets detailed are only likely markets. Markets will continue to evolve and with innovation new ways of using particular species will be developed.

Firewood and woodchip are not covered in the table as most species can be used for the purposes of biomass burning. Further information on the woodfuel characteristics of individual species can be found on the Biomass Energy Centre’s14 website.

13 The Forestry Commission’s Ecological Site Classification (ESC) tool aims to support foresters in identifying suitable species for specific woodland areas based on geographical location and soil type: http://www.forestry.gov.uk/website/forestresearch.nsf/ByUnique/INFD-5V8JDG 14 www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk

13

Table Properties of the main British-grown timber species and their management

Conifers (softwoods)

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

True firs European silver fir Abies alba

Similar to spruces but less strong and lower value. Non durable outdoors. Noble can be quite decorative.

A strong shade bearer, suitable for continuous cover systems.

Fencing, pulpwood, plywood, OSB15

Internal joinery, packaging, general purposes.

British-grown timber has a poor reputation among saw millers.

grand fir Abies grandis

Shade-bearer16.

noble fir Abies procera

High tolerance to exposure.

True cedars cedar of Lebanon Cedrus libani

Strong and fragrant, quite durable. Easy to work.

Best grown in warmer areas of Britain. Will grow on calcareous soils17.

Rarely available (e.g., as thinnings)

Joinery including external uses, gates and garden furniture.

Of interest as a timber species for the future.

Atlantic cedar Cedrus atlantica Deodar Cedrus deodara

Larches European larch Larix decidua

Resinous, hard and tough softwood. Resistant to

Dry and sunny climate required

Transmission poles, Pulpwood,

High-pruned (knot-free) larch is valuable for

If grown to large size it may become more popular by sawmills. Production is particularly

15 OSB – Oriented strand board 16 Shade-bearer – A tree species able to become established in the shade of a partial or full canopy 17 Calcareous soils are relatively alkaline, in other words they have a high pH

14

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

Japanese larch Larix kaempferi

preservatives. The three larch species are similar, except faster growing hybrid can be lower in density and strength. Durable.

but not necessarily warm.

plywood, OSB., fencing.

traditional boat building. Internal cladding and joinery. Fencing.

threatened by a Phytophthora disease18.

Hybrid larch Larix x eurolepis

Spruces Norway spruce Picea abies

Non-durable, fast-grown, easier to treat with preservatives than Sitka, lightweight.

A species for low or middle elevations. Useful for growing in mixtures with broadleaves.

Pulpwood, plywood, OSB

Construction, packaging, crates, boxes, fencing, sheds, garden furniture, general purposes.

Popular as a Christmas tree, although other spruce and fir species now preferred by many.

Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis

Non-durable, fast-growing, difficult to treat with preservatives, lightweight. Needs careful drying to avoid distortion.

An accommodating species in terms of site requirements. Well suited to high elevations in the west and north of the UK. Tolerates exposure better than any other common conifer.

Pulpwood, plywood, OSB.

Construction, packaging (especially in contact with food), crates, boxes, general purposes. Only a small proportion suitable for joinery and other high-class structural work.

Choose improved planting material - 'elite' Sitka.

Pines Corsican pine Pinus nigra var. maritima

Non-durable, coarse, moderately resistant to preservatives.

Benefits from high pruning as large knots are a potential zones of weakness in timber.

Fence posts and rails, transmission poles, OSB, plywood, pulp.

Internal structural timbers and joinery, flooring.

Similar to Scots pine but higher sapwood proportion. Knots less likely to be loose. Production is

18 Phytophthora ramorum (P. ramorum) is a fungus-like pathogen of plants which causes extensive damage and mortality to trees and other plants.

15

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

particularly threatened by red band needle blight19.

Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta

Less dense than other pines, otherwise similar.

Will grow on most exposed upland sites.

Pulpwood, plywood, OSB

Usually limited supplies available.

Scots pine Pinus sylvestris

Known in the timber trade as “deal” or “redwood”. Non-durable, coarse, moderately resistant to preservatives.

Benefits from high pruning as large knots are a potential zones of weakness in timber.

Fence posts and rails, transmission poles, OSB, plywood, pulp.

Internal structural timbers and, flooring. Veneer can be made from knot-free material. Excellent qualities for joinery.

The most important European utility timber. Small knots can be loose and degrade timber. In demand even in small sizes.

Douglas-fir Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii

If knot-free, one of the world’s finest coniferous timbers. Light reddish-brown in colour. Stable, but

Grows best in sheltered, wetter western parts of the country. Needs a deep, well-drained soil.

Pulp, OSB, plywood, fencing, poles of all kinds, transmission poles.

Valued for veneering, interior and exterior joinery, and decoration. Good market for knot-free structural

Available in large sections. Slower grown knot-free timber the most valued. Termed ‘Oregon pine’ in the trade. A popular Christmas tree in the US but less so in the UK.

19 Red Band Needle Blight (because of the colourful symptoms it shows on pine), is an economically important disease of conifers. It causes premature needle defoliation, resulting in loss of yield and, in severe cases, tree death.

16

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

tendency to split when nailed. Medium strength to weight (stiffer than pine). With preservative, suitable for external use.

beams which are suitable for carpentry and structural work or for use in the round as transmission poles and fence posts.

Hemlock western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla

Stable, resistant to preservative, non-durable. Timber intermediate between Douglas fir and spruce. Non-resinous. White. Works well.

No marked regional differences in performance within Britain. Does best on deep, moist, well-aerated soils. More shade-bearing than any other species grown in Britain.

Pulpwood, plywood, OSB

Used for interior woodwork and other purposes where a fairly high grade of softwood is needed. Also used for constructional work, where relatively low strength and decay-prone timber are acceptable.

Boles often fluted, reducing value.

Cypress Lawson cypress Chamaecyparis lawsoniana

Strong, lightweight, moderately durable.

Thrives in moister parts of Britain but grows well in drier parts too.

Pulpwood, plywood, OSB, fencing. Clean straight timber used for arrow making.

Fencing, joinery, general purposes.

Known as ‘Port Orford cedar’ in the trade.

Yew Yew Taxus baccata

Dense, fine grained, highly decorative,

Will grow on most soils, but essentially

Turnery, box making and other

Veneer, furniture. Highly decorative figure makes it attractive and valuable for veneers

17

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

difficult to work. Contrast between dark heartwood and pale sapwood.

a lowland tree. Suited to limestone soils. Grows slowly. Stem can be deeply fluted.

small decorative items, durable outdoor structural use.

and furniture making. Small market for traditional longbow making.

Redwood coast redwood Sequoia sempervirens

Heartwood turns red soon after felling. Greatest virtue of wood is its dimensional stability in service. Naturally very durable, but wood can contain many dead knots if trees are not pruned. Non-resinous. Soft, lightweight but high strength for weight. Readily treated with preservatives.

Grows best on fertile soils in the moister, south-western regions. Lacks cold hardiness. Will produce coppice shoots – rare among conifers.

Fencing Garden furniture, general purposes.

The main interest in these species is their potential for rapid growth and high-volume production.

giant redwood Sequoiadendron giganteum

Difficult to establish, but potentially very high yielding. Avoid wet sites, otherwise undemanding.

Red Cedar western red cedar Thuja plicata

Low density, stable, easy to work, highly durable.

Currently a minor species in British forestry it may find an expanded role in diversifying relatively sheltered upland conifer forests.

Fencing, posts, rails, fibreboard, chipboard. Not suitable for pulp or most other wood products, including chipwood, due to colour.

Construction, cladding, outdoor applications including garden furniture, roof shingles, greenhouses, weatherboarding, sheds, general purpose.

Grown on longer rotations will lead to higher quality and more desirable timber.

18

Broadleaves (hardwoods)

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

Plane London plane Platanus x acerfolia

Fine texture, rather brittle, can be highly decorative

n/a n/a Veneer, furniture, inlays.

Not grown for its timber but urban trees can yield valuable timber. Highly decorative form termed ‘lacewood’.

Box Box Buxus sempervirens

Densest and heaviest of British timbers, very slow growing.

Grows on soils derived from chalk and limestone. Wet soils should be avoided.

Limited demand for small diameters.

Does not reach diameters much beyond 20 cm. Used for engraving, instrument making, inlays, turnery.

Poplars hybrid poplar Populus spp.

Soft, light coloured, of low but variable density. Can be peeled with no prior treatment. Timber perishable and resistant to penetration by preservatives. Mostly planted for screening, shelter and ornament. Wood usually white and free of taints and smells, and is therefore valuable for use in contact with food.

Very exacting in site requirements, and suitable sites are few. Sites must be fertile, well drained but aerated and moist, even in conditions of summer drought, usually with a water table within 1–1.5 m of the surface. Strongly light-demanding and must be established at wide spacing.

Grown for “biomass” – short rotation crops for chipping for fuel. Timber for turnery, pulpwood, pallets, crates.

Timber quality of different clones is very variable. Veneers used for vegetable crates. When dry, timber can be used for joinery. Takes a good finish. Veneers are used for separating loads of bricks.

Unlike some parts of continental Europe, the poplar timber market in Britain is not well developed. The demand for poplar for purposes other than biomass is minimal, however there are a small number of small scale specialist procures of poplar wood. Poplars in Britain are prone to diseases.

19

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

Willows willow hybrid White, straight grained, not durable

Very rapid early growth. Usually propagated from cuttings.

Biomass crops on 2-5 year cycle. Also basket making.

Crates

Criket bat williow Salix alba caerulea

Light, tough and shock resistant.

Maintenance is of paramount importance as trees neglected for just one year during their lifetime have little or no commercial value. The life is ideally fifteen to twenty years

na Cricket bats This can be an extremely valuable timber crop with a shorter rotation than most other trees.

Black locust black locust Robinia pseudoacacia

Very tough, hard and durable with a narrow sapwood. A strong tendency to warp. Excellent properties for steam bending

Nitrogen fixing. Will tolerate severe frosts but needs summer warmth to grow well. Main asset is as a nurse on dry, infertile sandy soils. Avoid waterlogged soils. Prolific suckers are a nuisance and vicious thorns are very unpleasant.

Suitable for out- door work.

Larger logs can be used for veneers, and also for structural wood and furniture.

20

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

Cherry wild cherry Prunus avium

Works, polishes and glues reasonably well, but needs careful, slow drying or it will to shrink; rather prone to bowing. Timber coarse texture, moderately durable, attractive figure and rich colour

A lowland species; grows best in deep, light, silty, fertile soils. Often planted at wide spacing, so needs pruning.

Turnery. Sought-after for furniture, veneer, turnery, cabinet making and decorative joinery.

Attractive flowers and autumn colour. Coppices rather poorly, but prolific vegetative regeneration from root suckers occurs. Seldom attacked by grey squirrels.

Sorbus wild service-tree Torminaria torminalis (previously Sorbus torminalis)

Wood of young trees is yellowish-white to light reddish and is much more valuable than older wood. Strong and elastic once dry, stable. Sold by timber merchants as ‘Swiss pear ’.

Species shows a marked preference for soils derived from clays or harder limestones. Excessively low mean annual temperatures might limit distribution of the species.

Valued for furniture, veneers and musical instruments.

A challenging species to grow in Britain. A small, uncommon tree typically scattered in woods. Light-demanding and a weak competitor with other species. Not suited to high forest conditions because of slow height growth. In continental Europe can command high prices.

21

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

Sweet Chestnut

sweet chestnut Catanea sativa

Very durable, even at small dimensions. Splits easily and is stable after processing. Resembles oak but less decorative. Very narrow sapwood.

Has a restricted distribution, mainly in the south of England. Needs deep, reasonably fertile, light soils (especially greensands), with ample but not excessive moisture. Coppices well.

Poles and split fencing (particularly in Sussex, Kent and Herefordshire).

Carpentry and joinery. Furniture and other similar purposes to oak. Joinery (including external), furniture, coffin boards, veneer.

Ring shake20 a frequent defect in the timber, and spiral grain also a serious problem in large stems. Energy crop on short rotations.

Beech Beech Fagus sylvatica

Hard, strong, straight grained, resistant to split- ting and even-textured. Whitish to pale brown. Easily turned and worked. Finishes well and bends exceptionally well,

Difficult to establish on exposed, open ground. Vulnerable to drought. Grows best and is the dominant tree on chalk and soft limestone soils. A strong shade bearer.

Utilitarian furniture, furniture frames, turnery.

Utilitarian furniture, furniture frames, turnery, flooring, plywood and constructional work.

A frequent defect is ‘redheart21’. Trees are highly susceptible to damage by grey squirrels, rendering timber almost valueless.

20 Shake - the longitudinal separations in the wood of standing oak and sweet chestnut trees that can severely reduce the conversion potential of stems. They occur either radially (star shake), or around the circumference of an annual ring (ring shake). The separations, if not already large, tend to extend during timber processing. 21 A special property of beech is the tendency of older trees to develop what is known as ‘redheart’ in the log, which distinguishes itself clearly from the white wood by a strong reddish-brown colouring. The physical properties of the wood are not affected by the change in coloration.

22

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

Oak pedunculate oak Quercus robur and sessile oak Quercus petraea

Durable, hard, strong, heavy and attractive. Rather difficult to work. Wide sapwood.

Frost tender. Tend to produce epicormic22 shoots prolifically if thinned too heavily, or not heavily enough.

Long-life fencing, cleft rails.

High quality furniture, panelling, high class joinery, veneers and barrel making for wine and whisky. Beams for buildings.

The most characteristic, important and common native broadleaved trees. Both species are indigenous to Britain. Wood is often shaken. Trees can be attacked by grey squirrels. Many other diseases are a threat, including Acute Oak Decline23. Traditional cooperage market. Silver colour in medullary rays revealed when quarter sawn and in veneers.

red oak Quercus rubra

Considered inferior to that of the native oaks for furniture and decorative work, because colour and texture are less attractive. Not naturally durable.

Epicormic branches are not a serious problem. Frequent heavy thinnings are necessary.

Fencing Low grade furniture and flooring. Used in France for furniture making and also for flooring and interior joinery.

A North American species. More tolerant of heavy clays and of base-deficient acid soils than the indigenous oaks and will make useful trees on these soils where no indigenous broadleaved species of equal value could be grown. Timber has a reputation for being shaken.

holm oak Quercus ilex

Hard, heavy, can be decorative.

Fencing. Carving, Furniture Evergreen tree.

Alder common alder Alnus glutinosa

Timber lacks strength and is soft

A very hardy, nitrogen-fixing,

Fencing, turnery, pulpwood.

Sluice gates and other structures

22 Epicormic shoots – tiny shoots coking out of the trunk which can cause multiple knots and reduce the value of the timber for structural uses. These shoots are triggered when there is a sudden change to light levels. 23 Acute Oak Decline - AOD is a relatively new condition of oak trees in Britain. Key symptoms are black weeping patches on stems (called stem bleeds); lesions and necrotic tissue underlying the bleed points. The cause of the problem is likely to be complex involving multiple agents.

23

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

and resilient. Resistant to decay when submerged in water. Coarse texture, non-durable.

pioneer species. Needs moist soil of at least moderate fertility. Coppices well when young. A strong light-demander.

along streams and rivers. General turnery work, and medium-priced furniture. Electric guitars.

Birch Birch Betula pendula

One of the strongest timbers commonly grown in Britain. Not naturally durable. Fine texture, pale and usually plain figure.

Very hardy but form can be adversely affected by even quite low levels of exposure. Will grow on most soils.

A limited market for wood suitable for turnery. Pulp. Branch-wood for horse jumps and garden screening.

Trees of good form have a potentially wide range of uses, including plywood, particle board, furniture and high-class joinery as well as pulp. If treated with preservatives it can be used for pallets and fence posts. Decorative wood sought after by cabinet makers.

Rarely with highly attractive and valuable figure for veneers and furniture making. Little tradition of using birches as anything beyond nurses and soil improvers in Britain, but an interest has developed in recent years in their potential as productive native species in upland areas.

Hornbeam Hornbeam Carpinus betulus

Hard, strong, tough and white, and finishes very smoothly. Heavy.

Normally a tree of lowlands. Not demanding with regard to soil. Can be severely attacked by grey squirrels. Shade-tolerant and coppices well.

Turnery, and an excellent firewood.

Used for anything that requires a high resistance to wear - piano mechanisms, drumsticks, billiard cues, chopping blocks and flooring.

Wood is valued for a number of specialized purposes, though never in large quantities.

Hazel Hazel Corylus avallana

Only grows to small dimensions.

Usually a multi-stemmed shrub in

Fencing, wattle hurdles, stakes, pea

n/a Hazel was once a species of considerable economic importance,

24

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

Produces very flexible stems. Flexible and lightweight.

the understorey of broadleaved woodland.

and bean sticks, thatching spars, turnery.

but today it is much less valuable except as a native component of traditional woodland systems.

Walnut Common walnut Juglans regia and black walnut Juglans nigra

Sapwood white, soft and comparatively valueless. Heartwood dark brown and often beautifully figured. Stable and easy to work. Withstands shock well. Uniform and slightly coarse texture.

An exacting species, requiring a warm and sheltered site with a long growing season. Easily damaged by spring frosts. The importance of shelter can scarcely be overstated. Grows best on a good, fertile agricultural soil. Plant at wide spacing. Improved stock difficult to acquire. Formative and high pruning essential.

Turnery. Furniture, boxes and other small decorative items. Traditional wood for gunstocks. Veneers, preferably from “burrs”, for cabinet making and decorative panels.

Avoid fruiting cultivars although these may yield burrs for veneers. Black walnut more capable of growing in typical forest conditions.

Lime Large-leaved lime Tilia platyphyllos and Small-leaved lime

Wood soft and light with a uniform, fine texture. Does not warp.

Rarely planted except for conservation purposes.

Turnery. Main uses are based on its softness, stability and ability to resist

Soft and easy to carve. Neither of the native limes have been treated as a commercial species in the UK since the 19th century. A notable

25

Tree Timber properties Forest

management Markets Comments

group species Small diameter &

poles Sawnwood or

Veneer

Tilia cordata splitting. Piano and organ keys, turnery and carving. Frames for bee hives.

difference between the species is that large-leafed lime does not produce many shoots from the base of the trunk, a feature of small-leaved lime.

Maples Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus and Norway Acer platanoides

White or creamy coloured. Wood hard, strong and can be worked to a very smooth finish; stable.

An easy species to grow. Naturally regenerates easily, but grey squirrels are a major problem.

Turnery. Furniture making and joinery, also suitable for flooring but not durable outside without preservative treatment. Kitchen cabinets. Veneers from ‘wavy grained’ sycamore.

Rippled and bird’s eye figures highly sought after, especially for veneer. Small but valuable market for musical instruments. Among the most easily saleable of all British hardwoods as there is a market for all grades. Not worth growing unless grey squirrels can be controlled adequately.

Ash Ash Fraxinus excelsior

Highly flexible, moderately resistant, easy to split.

No climatic limitations, but benefits from shelter. Good sites are rare. Must be thinned regularly.

Turnery, tool handles, cleft rails.

Veneer, furniture, flooring, sports goods. Olive heart highly prized.

Specialist market for hurley stick making. One of the best firewoods. A major threat is ash dieback24 (Chalara fraxinea).

24 Chalara dieback of ash is a serious disease of ash trees caused by a fungus called Chalara fraxinea (C. fraxinea), including its sexual stage, Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus (H. pseudoalbidus). The disease causes leaf loss and crown dieback in affected trees, and is usually fatal.

26

Timber supply from UK Woodlands – regulation and assurance There are various channels that timber from UK woodlands can enter UK wood supply chains and this section briefly highlights different mechanisms.

This section does not attempt to explain all the factors involved in marketing timber. For information on a range of marketing methods and considerations please see “A Marketing Guide25” produced by Small Woods.

Harvesting trees - assurance of legality and sustainability The felling of trees in the UK is regulated through the Forestry Act 1967. In addition to this there are mechanisms in place to assure that woodlands are managed sustainably as well as legally: UK Forestry Standard (UKFS) and UK Woodland Assurance Scheme (UKWAS).

Detailed below are four general timber evidence mechanisms that provide increasing levels of sustainability assurance in the UK.

Where a felling licence is not needed – felling licence exempt In most cases to carry out felling operations in a woodland a felling licence is required. A felling licence is obtained by applying to the regulatory authority.

There are certain cases where a felling licence is not required. A licence is not needed:

• to fell less than 5 cubic metres in a calendar quarter (Please note that you cannot sell more than 2 cubic metres in a calendar quarter);

• for trees that have the following diameters when measured 1.3 metres from the ground

o 8 cm or less o 10 cm or less for thinnings o 15cm or less for cutting coppice.

Please note that in certain situations trees in woodlands can be in a Local Conservation Area or have a Tree Preservation Order placed on them which will restrict certain woodland operations. The Local Authority will hold information and grant permission for these designations.

25 http://sylva.org.uk/myforest/documents/Woodland_owners_marketing_guide.pdf

27

Felling Licence information If the volume of timber to be felled exceeds the exemptions detailed above then felling licence from the regulatory authority is required. In most cases there will be a condition to replant attached to the permission given.

Timber sold that has a felling license only means that proof is available that is it legally sourced but not necessarily conducted as an operation detailed in the context of a management plan for the whole woodland property.

A UKFS-compliant management plan The production of a management plan is the first and vital step towards sustainable forest management. In the UK producing a management plan that is compliant with UKFS is the standard that the regulatory authorities will require to approve the management plan. As well as giving access to a range of grants, producing a UKFS-compliant management plan will enable woodland owners and managers to sell timber into Government supply chains.

Timber sold that has an associated UKFS-compliant management plan is proof that the timber has been supplied legally from a sustainably managed woodland.

Independent certification and UK Woodland Assurance Standard (UKWAS) UKWAS26 is an independent certification standard for verifying sustainable woodland management in the United Kingdom; it is not a certification scheme but, is designed as a single national certification standard for common use by international forest certification schemes operating in the UK such as Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC) and Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes (PEFC).

To achieve independent certification an audit of your woodland is required through an independent certification body. Once approved timber can be supplied as independently certified timber.

The independent certification mechanism is referred to as ‘category A’. The other three (Felling licence exempt, Felling licence only and UKFS-compliant management plan) are the principle examples of ‘category B’ mechanisms.

Currently ‘Grown in Britain27’ is developing a standard aimed at UK forestry to demonstrate that timber meeting the criteria is sustainable and British grown.

26 ukwas.org.uk/ 27 www.growninbritain.org/wp-content/files_mf/1405330578GiBstandardRev1.2020714.pdf

28

Further resources:

Forestry terms

A Glossary of Tree Terms. The Royal Forestry Society’s reference guide Forestry standards

UK Forestry Standard - http://www.forestry.gov.uk/ukfs UK Woodland Assurance Scheme http://ukwas.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/UKWAS-Third-Edition-version-3.1-20122.pdf Woodland Management

Starr, C. Woodland Management – A Practical Guide. ISBN 1 86126 789 4 Hart, C. Practical Forestry for the Agent and Surveyor. 1991. ISBN 0-86299-962-6 www.sylva.org.uk/downloads/Woodland_Management_Leaflet_trifold_A4.pdf Forestry Commission England and forestry grants

General Guide to English Woodlands Grant Scheme – EWGS 1 Felling licences

Forestry Commission - Tree Felling, Getting Permission http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/treefellingaugust.pdf/$FILE/treefellingaugust.pdf Pruning

Savill,P., Kerr, G., and Hemery, G. High pruning for profit. Leaflet published by Woodland Heritage, PO Box 168, Haslemere GU27 1XQ. Hemery, G., Savill,P., Kerr, G. Formative pruning. Leaflet published by Woodland Heritage, PO Box 168, Haslemere GU27 1XQ.

Timber measurements

Mackie, E.D & Matthews R.W. 2008. Timber Measurement Field Guide – Forestry Commission. ISBN: 978-0-85538-749-5

29

Supplying timber markets

Forestry Commission England – Operations Note 22: Enabling Woodlands to Comply with Government Timber Procurement Policy

www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/ON022-Gov-Timber-Procurement-Policy-V1.0-issued-100624.pdf/$FILE/ON022-Gov-Timber-Procurement-Policy-V1.0-issued-100624.pdf

Timber marketing

A Marketing Guide for Owners of Small Woodlands – Small Woods Association

www.sylva.org.uk/myforest/documents/Woodland_owners_marketing_guide.pdf

Ralph, J. (2012) Maximising Timber Value for Woodland Owners in England www.nuffieldinternational.org/rep_pdf/1342548134Ralph_Jez_edited_report_110712.pdf Tree species and properties

Savill, P. (2013) The Silviculture of Trees used in British Forestry, 2nd Ed. CAB International. ISBN: 9781780640266 Hemery, G and Simblet, S (2014) The New Sylva: a discourse of forest and orchard trees for the twenty first century, Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781408835449. www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/PF2011_Tree_Species.pdf/$FILE/PF2011_Tree_Species.pdf

Courses

Woodland Heritage – Woodlands to Workshop Course:

An innovative course linking ‘tree growers with wood users’, to broaden horizons and raise awareness by educating participants from the forest through to the workshop and beyond:

www.woodlandheritage.org/woodland-to-workshop-courses/itemlist/category/39-next-w2w-courses

30

Good Woods

BioRegional, the Sylva Foundation and Lantern worked in partnership to deliver the first year of Good Woods in 2013. The project, funded by B&Q, aimed to improve the stewardship and condition of British woodlands.

www.sylva.org.uk/myforest/goodwoods

BioRegional

BioRegional is an entrepreneurial charity which initiates and delivers practical solutions that help people to live within a fair share of the earth’s resources – what is termed ‘one planet living’.

www.bioregional.com

Lantern

Lantern is an innovative environmental consultancy dedicated to making a positive difference to businesses, communities and the environment.

www.lantern.uk.com

The Sylva Foundation

The Sylva Foundation is a tree and forestry charity. Their work involves carrying out forestry research, promoting trees and their management to the public, and supporting the production and availability of home-grown timber.

www.sylva.org.uk

Every effort is made to ensure that the information provided in this document is accurate and up to date, but no legal responsibility is accepted for any errors, omissions or misleading statements.

There are a number of website references in this document, these may change as organisations manage and change their websites.

31 Appendix 1 – Woodland Star Rating - Questions

PROPERTY NAME: .............................................................................................. Please circle one answer per question

General Forestry Practice

Do felling & thinning operations comply with the Forestry Commission Felling Regulations? YES NO

Is there a Pests & Diseases plan in place that identifies the potential risks, sets out a monitoring schedule and details measures to combat these risks? YES PLANNED NO

Is there a control programme for voles, deer, rabbits, hares and grey squirrels? YES PLANNED NO

Is the use of pesticides and fertilisers minimised where possible? YES NO

Forests & Biodiversity

Has advice been sought from the Forestry Commission or a nature conservation agency regarding priority habitats and priority species? YES NO

Have opportunities for enhancing habitats in the woodland been identified and acted upon? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Does ecological management consider the wider landscape (e.g. how the woodland relates to and connects with other habitats)? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Have areas for minimal intervention been identified that will deliver specific habitat objectives? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Is there a veteran tree plan in place (e.g. managing veteran existing trees, suitable replacement individuals have been identified)? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Are suitable quantities and dimensions of deadwood left in place deliberately for habitat purposes? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Are areas of partial tree or shrub cover created and maintained to encourage diversity of woodland structure? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Is there a policy for invasive species control? YES IN PROCESS NO

Climate Change

Has an assessment been carried out to estimate the annual sustainable yield potential in the woodland?1 YES PLANNED NO

Based on the sustainable yield potential assessment, what proportion of the yield is harvested currently from the woodland? 100-67% 66-34% 33-0%

Has a review of species suitability and diversity been conducted as part of the management strategy? YES PLANNED NO

1 Forest management should contribute to climate change mitigation over the long term through the net capture and storage of carbon in the forest ecosystem and in wood products.

The WSR is a short set of questions to help introduce and communicate important elements of the UK Forestry Standard. It aims to assess the level of activity in woodland and helps identify actions to improve woodland condition. The assessment is on the entire woodland property and answers can be entered into a myForest account. The property owner/manager can choose to carry out as many assessments as they wish on their myForest account and can download a certificate each time to help chart their progress.

32 Historic Environment

Are all historic features (e.g. scheduled ancient monuments) identified and protected in the woodland? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Are all people working in the woodland aware of the historic features and protect them accordingly? YES NO

Landscape

Is the woodland managed with the wider landscape in mind? YES IN PROCESS NO

People

Has the local community been encouraged to engage actively with the woodland? YES IN PROCESS NO

Are all woodland workers suitably trained and do they operate in compliance with guidance from the Health and Safety Executive? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Does the woodland support local enterprises (e.g. using forestry contractors, local woodsman, selling wood products)? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Is public access provided to the woodland that is additional to that required by statute (e.g. permissive paths)? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Are all public access routes inspected regularly to identify hazards and minimise risks? YES IN PROCESS NO

Soil

Have the soil properties been assessed in the woodland? YES NO

Are all woodland operations carried out in a manner that minimises soil disturbance? YES NO

Water

Is there a suitable handling and storage policy for fuels, oils and other polluting substances in the woodland? YES NO

Have all opportunities to restore forest wetlands and to increase flood storage been assessed? YES PLANNED NO

Has consideration been given to woodland riparian areas and have buffer areas been identified and established where appropriate?2 YES PLANNED NO

2 If the woodland has been surveyed and no riparian areas on the woodland property have been identified then please answer YES to this question.

Management Plan

Does the woodland have a management plan that is compliant with the UK Forestry Standard? YES IN

PROCESS NO

Has the management plan been approved officially by the Forestry Commission? YES IN PROCESS NO

To use the Woodland Star Rating – create a myForest account – www.myforest.org.uk

33 Appendix 2 – Field key for identification of common forest and woodland trees

P.S. Savill28, with illustrations by M. Taylor

This key has been devised for use only in British forests and woodlands—not in parks and gardens. It should cover at least 95 per cent of all trees, native and exotic, likely to be found that are capable of growing to heights of 20 m or more. A few generally much smaller, but common, broadleaved species have been included too, including holly, rowan, hazel and field maple.

The choice of the 29 broadleaved species and 14 conifers included in the key has been somewhat arbitrary since over 500 species can easily be encountered by anyone looking in parks and gardens in Britain. If special collections are also included, the number rises to about 1700. If used outside woodlands, the key could prove very misleading, and other publications should be consulted, such as A. Mitchell’s (1974) Trees of Great Britain and northern Europe (Collins).

To use the key, first decide whether the tree is broadleaved or coniferous.

Broadleaved species typically have:

• Leaves that are usually flat and thin, some hard, dark and evergreen, but then flat, not needle-like nor linear.

• A deciduous habit—the leaves fall in autumn (except holly). • Poor apical dominance: the stem divides long before the top of the tree into many

branches (poplars and cherry are often exceptions). • The trees produce seed from flowers or catkins, (though female catkins of alder are hard

and cone-like).

Conifers typically have:

• Leaves (needles) that are many times longer than broad, (or scale-like leaves in the cases of Lawson’s cypress and western red cedar).

• An evergreen habit (larches are exceptions). • Good apical dominance—the trunk is continuous from the bottom to the top of the tree. • Seed produced in cones (yew is an exception).

When you are sure which type of tree you are looking at use the appropriate key, with a leaf or branchlet in your hand, to determine which of two or more descriptions fits best. Each description has a number or name to the right of it in a grey-shaded column. If a number, find this in the left hand grey-shaded column and continue in this way till you find the name of the tree.

28 Dr Peter Savill, former Reader in Forestry at the University of Oxford and trustee of the Sylva Foundation, kindly granted permission to include this key in this guide.

HollyAsh

Rowan

Horse

chestnut

Sessile oakPedunculate

oak

SycamoreNorway

maple

Field maple

Wild service

treeWhite poplar

Alder

Wych elm English

elm

Hazel

uppercrown

lowercrown

under

surface

KEY FOR BROADLEAVED SPECIES

1a Leaves compound, consisting of several distinct leaflets growing from the leaf stalk. 2

b Leaves with lobes or deep indentations around the margins. 3

c Leaves simple, without lobes or deep indentations. 7

d Evergreen with glossy dark green, hard, leaves; 6–8 cm long, in lower parts of crown with 6–8 spreading, sharp, yellowish spines.

Holly (Ilex aquifolium)

e Leaves digitate with 5–7 long (to 20 cm) stalkless leaflets. Large buds, sticky in Spring. Spectacular flowers and ‘conkers’.

Horse chestnut (Aesculus

hippocastanum)

2a Leaves and leaflets opposite. Leaflets usually more than 6 cm. long. Bark light coloured, smooth at first, becoming evenly and shallowly fissured in older trees. Buds black and velvety. Seed winged.

Ash (Fraxinus excelsior)

b Leaves alternate, leaflets opposite, regularly toothed, not more than 6 cm. long. Flowers white, fruits red. Small tree to 15 m.

Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)

3a Leaves longer than broad and lobed, usually arising in clusters at the ends of twigs. Bark evenly fissured. Crown large. Bears acorns.

4—Oaks

b Leaf about as broad as long with 5 (occasionally 3) lobes pointing outwards. Leaves opposite. Seeds winged and in pairs.

5—Maples

c Leaves similar to (b) but alternate, often with fewer than 5 lobes 6

4a Leaves wedge-shaped at base; petiole long, 1–2.5 cm. Acorns in clusters of 2–6, on very short stalks of 5–10 mm.

Sessile oak (Quercus petraea)

b Leaves with auricles at base; petiole short, 3–7 mm. Acorns in clusters of 2–3, on long stalk of 4–8 cm. (Intermediate forms between these two sometimes occur, indicating hybrids).

Pedunculate oak (Q. robur)

5a Leaf stalks often red, to 15 cm; leaf up to 18 x 26 cm, with three main lobes and two minor basal lobes; very coarsely and unevenly toothed; leathery and dark. A large tree to >30 m.

Sycamore (Acer

pseudoplatanus)

b Leaf stalk to 15 cm, leaf 12 x 15 cm, similar to (a) except leaf is thin textured, bright, shiny green, with finely pointed lobes and teeth.

Norway maple Acer platanoides)

c Leaf stalk to 5 cm; leaf to 8 x 12 cm, teeth rounded. Usually a small tree, rarely to 20 m. Field maple (A. campestre)

6a Leaves with 3–5 pairs of lobes, rather like a maple, but alternate, 10 x 8 cm. Buds globular. Wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis)

b Leaves of sucker shoots and ends of long shoots deeply palmately 5-lobed, those of short shoots almost circular, broadest below the middle. All leaves persistently hairy white beneath. Petioles flattened.

White poplar

(Populus alba)

7a Leaf tips broadly rounded or slightly indented, 10 x 7 cm, margin slightly wavy, irregularly and very shallowly toothed, dark green, with 7 pairs of veins. Buds on 3 mm stalks. Female catkins hard and cone-like. Generally found near streams or in damp places.

Alder (Alnus

glutinosa)

b Leaf tips pointed. 8

8a Leaves very hairy and roughened above. 9

b Leaves smooth, or at least not roughened above. 10

9a Bark smooth, silvery for many years, becoming darker and ridged with age. Leaves quite large shouldered with abrupt long points, 10–18 cm x 6–9 cm, very unequal at base, c. 17 pairs of veins, very harshly hairy above. Leaf stalks short (<3 mm), hairy, thick.

Wych elm (Ulmus glabra)

b Leaves variable in shape and size but oblique at base, short pointed, very double toothed, often curled or puckered, harshly hairy above, 10–12 pairs of veins, petiole 5 mm. Due to Dutch elm disease, only small trees growing from suckers, usually in hedgerows.

English elm (U. procera)

c A tall broad bush as coppice and undershrub. Bark smooth, light grey to coppery brown, often peeling. Young shoots and leaf stalks densely hairy, and hairs have swollen tips. Leaves almost circular, 10 x 10 cm, heart-shaped at base, sharp, triangular, unequal teeth which are themselves serrated, very hairy. Produces hazel nuts.

Hazel (Corylus avellana)

10a Leaves almost circular in outline. 11

b Leaves almost triangular in outline. 14

c Leaves oval to oblong in outline. 15

d Leaves at least four times as long as broad. 16

11a Leaves large (to 15 x 15 cm), oblique at base, heart shaped, abruptly pointed at tip; serrated edges, only hairy on veins on both sides; leaf stalk coarsely hairy at first. Twig ends and buds crimson; buds with two unequal outer scales, appearing ‘humped’.

Large-leaved lime (Tilia platyphyllos)

b Leaves to 5 x 5 cm, undersides with prominent buff or orange tufts of hairs in axils, leaf paler

beneath than (a), leaf stalk hairless. (Hybids between these two species of limes—T. x europaea—are commonly planted)

Small-leaved lime (T. cordata)

c Leaves not as above. 12

12a Leaf margin crinkled, teeth blunt. 13

b Leaf margin flat, teeth pointed. 14

13a Bark grey and smooth, with conspicuous rhomboidal lenticels. Leaves rounded, coarsely toothed with up to 10 teeth, hairless, up to 6 cm long, broadest about the middle, often broader than long; petiole up to 6 cm strongly compressed laterally allowing leaves to tremble. Tree to 20 m, suckers freely

Aspen

(Populus tremula)

b Similar to (a) but leaves coarsely toothed with c. 4–6 obtuse, triangular teeth each side, greyish-white hairs generally persistent.

Grey poplar (P. x canescens)

14a Shoot roughened by raised white warts. Leaves 3–7 cm, pointed; six pairs of veins to protruding pointed teeth that are separated by 2–3 small triangular teeth. Leaf stalk 1.5 cm and hairless. Bark often white or silver, smooth in young trees. A small tree on light soils.

Silver birch (Betula pendula)

b Similar to (a) except that shoots are covered in short, soft, shiny white hairs, leaves more rounded and uniformly toothed, leaf stalk densely hairy. Bark brown. Grows on damp soils. (Intermediate forms between these two birches sometimes occur, indicating hybrids).

Downy birch (B. pubescens)

c Bark dark and fissured. Leaves pointed, 5–10 cm, with narrow translucent borders and numerous (c. 20) forward-curved, hooked teeth; petiole 3–6 cm, flattened laterally. Trunk and larger branches often with large burrs.

Black poplar (Populus nigra)

15a Bark always smooth and pale grey in colour. Buds red-brown, long (2 cm) and pointed. Leaves oval, hairless except on margins, 4–9 cm long with wavy margin and short teeth at the ends of 6–7 veins each side. Often a large tree. Characteristic seeds (‘mast’) and seed cups.

Beech

(Fagus sylvatica)

b Leaves 3–10 cm long with about 15 pairs of parallel veins, and finely and sharply double toothed, otherwise very similar to beech. Bark light grey, often fluted. Branches ascending at 20–30o..

Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus)

c Leaf ovate, usually 8 x 5 cm, irregularly shallowly toothed. When mature, yellow-green above but densely hairy and pure white beneath.

Whitebeam (Sorbus aria)

d Bark smooth, often shiny, reddish, with prominent bands of pale lenticels; can be peeled in horizontal strips. Leaves to 10 cm long x 4.5–7 cm wide with short points and sharp forward-pointing teeth. Leaf stalk grooved, red above, with 2–5 glands near leaf base.

Cherry (Prunus avium)

e Bark with fissures tending to spiral round trunk in older trees. Leaves large, 15–20 cm long x c. 10 cm wide, hard, glossy dark green with about 20 prominent, parallel main veins each side each ending in a large, abruptly spined tooth, elongated, with pointed apex, and pronounced saw-tooth edges. Produces edible chestnuts that have husks covered in sharp, 1.5 cm long spines.

Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa)

16a Leaves 5–10 cm long, and often at least 6 times as long as broad, finely serrated and covered with white silky hairs on both surfaces; petiole c. 5–8 mm. Tree to 10–25 m with branches quite steeply ascending at 30–50o, forming a narrow, silvery-grey crown.

White willow (Salix alba) (includes cricket bat and weeping willows)

b Leaves 6–15 cm and often about 7 times as long as broad, usually asymmetric at apex, rather coarsely serrated, underside hairless (except when very young), bluish or paler green than top surface; petiole 1–3 cm with 2 small glands at top. Tree to 10–25 m branches spreading widely at 60–90o, forming a broad crown.

Crack willow (Salix fragilis)

Aspen

Grey poplar

Silver

birch

Black

poplar

Large-leaved limeSmall-leaved lime

BeechHornbeam

Whitebeam

Cherry

Sweet

chestnut

White

willow

Crack

willow

under

surface

under

surface

under surface

Downy

birch

Scots pine

Corsican

pine

Lodgepole

pineCedar

European larch Japanese larch Sitka spruce

Norway

spruce

Grand fir Western hemlock

Douglas fir Yew Lawson’s cypress Western red cedar

under

surface

under

surf

ace

KEY FOR CONIFERS

1a Needles arising from twig in pairs, 5 cm or more in length. 2—Pines

b Needles arising from twigs in whorls (short shoots) as well as singly. 3—Larches and Cedars

c Needles arising from twig singly. 4

d Adult leaves scale-like, completely covering and pressed to twig. 7—‘Cypresses’

2a Needles dark blue-green in colour, not more than 7.5 cm in length. Buds 1.5–2 cm rather squat and abruptly pointed. Bark deeply fissured at base, and red towards top of tree.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris)

b Needles very dark green, more than 7.5 cm in length, terminal bud drawn out to long fine point. Bark slightly fissured or scaly and grey in colour. Planted at low elevations only.

Corsican pine (Pinus nigra)

c Usually an upland species. Buds dark brown, long, cylindrical, needles deep green, twisted. Cones in whorls of 2–4, pointing back down stem.

Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia)

3a Needles evergreen, stiff and sharp. Cedar (Cedrus spp)

b Leaf-bearing twigs pale yellow. Leaves deciduous, soft, usually 2–3 cm, green. Cones tall, egg-shaped, scales are not turned outwards as in L. kaempferi.

European larch (Larix decidua)

c Leaf-bearing twigs reddish. Leaves similar to (b) but broader and greyer, about 4 cm with two broad grey bands beneath. Cones flattened, bun-shaped, with edges of scales strongly turned out and down like a rose. (Hybrids between these two larches are commonly planted).

Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi)

4a Leaves hard, pointed, stiff and spiny, mounted on small woody pegs, stem smooth to scaly. 5—Spruces

b Leaves arising direct from twig or small swelling. Leaves soft. 6

5a Needles flat but strongly keeled, 2–3 cm, sharply pointed, very stiff, with two blue-white bands beneath. Foliage appears blue-grey. Bark tending to flake off, particularly on older trees.

Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)

b Needles moderately stiff, spreading each side of and above shoot, 1–2 cm, four sided and each side the same dark green. Bark slightly fissured at base, reddish.

Norway spruce

(P. abies)

6a Leaves long, 2–5 cm, very flat and arranged like a comb , two bright, narrow, silver bands beneath; highly aromatic with a fruity orange-scent, leaving a disk-like scar when they fall. Bark smooth and often containing many resin blisters.

Grand fir (Abies grandis)

b Leaves parted each side above shoot, of mixed sizes: upper rows c. 0.6 cm, lowest rows c. 1.7 cm, dark green above with two bright white bands beneath. Bark closely and vertically fissured. Leading shoots drooping by 50–60 cm.

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)

c Buds pale brown, to 7 mm spindle-shaped like a beech. Leaves 2–2.5 cm, soft with two variably bright white bands beneath. Cones with characteristic three-pronged bracts. Bark dark grey-green and resin-blistered in young trees, deeply fissured in older trees.

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

d Shoots grooved below leaves. Buds minute. Leaves 2–4 cm, linear, narrowing abruptly to a sharp point. Needles soft, dark green above, lighter beneath. Bears crimson arils, not cones.

Yew (Taxus baccata)

7a Leading shoot drooping. Finest branchlets only 2 mm across. Foliage gives a resinous parsley-like scent. Translucent glands in centre of median leaves (difficult to see). Bark finely vertically fissured and dark brown in colour. Cones, when green, are globular, when mature dry, brown and open.

Lawson’s cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana)

b Leading shoot erect. Finest branchlets at least 2 mm across, usually 3 mm. Has fruity aroma of pineapple. Bark finely vertically fissured and dark reddish brown in colour. Cones oval, leathery 1.5 cm long, scale tips spreading as spines.

Western red cedar (Thuja plicata)