contextual-grammar.pdf

CONTENTS CONTEXTUAL GRAMMAR General Information about Contextual Grammar .......................................................................... 1

Verb Semantics ........................................................................................................................................2

Homeworks about verb semantics ...................................................................................................3

Tenses.......................................................................................................................................... 5

Homeworks about tenses .................................................................................................................6

Thematic Roles ........................................................................................................................... 10

Homeworks about thematic roles.11

Causative Voice..13

Voice..14

Causative Inchoative.............................................................................................................................15

Interaction Between Voice Form and Thematic Roles.16

Homework and worksheet about voice17

Passive Voice19

Passive Infinitive21

Homework about passive voice22

Functions of Modal Auxiliaries23

Modals..25

Sentence Structure..27

Worksheet and homework about sentence structure..28

-Ever Words and Corralative Conjuctions..33

Adverbial Clauses.34

Sentence Connectors.35

Reduction of Clauses..36

Participles..39

Gerund or Participle40

Relative Clauses vs. Nominal Relative Clauses40

Adjectives vs. Adverbs..41

Linking Verbs41

Analyzing the Paragraphs42

Researches and Online English Grammar Website.45

References.48

CONTEXTUAL GRAMMAR

Context (of situation) is the groups of ideas, sentences. A context takes place in a place.

*place

*time: When time is given we do not neccessary make the time.

If time is given, time is clear.

In present tense time is clear.

*speaker-hearer

*manner

*intention

Context and Grammer: tenses/ modals/ passives/ conditionals/ noun clauses/ gerund and

infinitive/ adjective-adverbs/ adverbial clauses/ relative clauses.

PLACE: adverbial + noun clauses

TIME: tenses + adverbial clauses of time

SPEAKER-HEARER: passives, reported speech, modals

MANNER: adverbs, modals, adverbial clauses of manner, noun clauses

INTENTION: gerund-infinitive, passives, modals

Parameter: Differences between two languages

Principles: Similarities between two languages

VERB SEMATICS

Tense gives another identity to the sentece.

Verbs can change according to tenses.

An activity verb becomes accomplishment when used in simple past, present perfect, past

perfect and future perfect.

T A M

Tense Modality

Aspect

Progressive Perfect

Aspect Simple Aspect

Aspect

HOMEWORK (study on situation types of verbs )

1.The teacher put Ali and me in the same class.

The verb is action verb because there is an intention and action.

2. He has already taken the books to the library.

The verb is action verb beceuse there are time and activity.

3. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

The verb is an achievement verb because there are no intention and effort.

4. I found her in the kitchen.

The verb is achievement because there are no intention and effort.

5. They are laying the wounded man on the bed right now.

The verb is an action verb because there is an intention, activity, effort and time.

6. I had made my way into the smoking room.

The verb is accomplishment because there is not only an intention but also an activity.

7. We lived in a dream when we were children.

The verbs are state verbs because there is no an intention,activity, effort.

8. The earth revolves around the sun.

The verb is an achievement verb because There is not an intention and effort.

9. I will never forget telephoning Jill for the fist time.

The verb is accomplisment because of intention, activity and time.

10. He was writing the report when I left the office.

The verbs are action verbs because of time, activity.

11. He has been working in Ankara for ten years now.

The verb is action because there is an intention and activity and time.

HOMEWORK 1. He searchs some information about intonation on the internet.

I think verb is an activity verb because there is an intention and also an activity

2. He is searching some information about intonation on the internet right now.

I think the verb is an activity verb because there are motion, intention and period.

3. He has already searched some information about intonation on the internet.

I think the verb is an accoplishment verb because there is end point besides activity and

time.

4. He has been searching some information about intonation on the internet for two hours.

The verb is activity because there are time, activity, intention.

5. He searched some information about intonation on the internet yesterday.

The verb is accomplishment. There is end point addition to activity and intonation.

6. He was searching some information about intonation on the internet when I came home.

I think the verb is activity because there is time.

7. He had searched some information about intonation on the internet.

The verb is accomplishment because there is an end point.

8. He had been searching some information about intonation on the internet for two days.

I think the verb is activity because there is a time, montion, intention.

9. He will search some information about intonation on the internet tomorrow.

I think the verb is activity.There is an intention,time, activity.

10. He will be searching some information about intonation on the internet this time

tomorrow.

The verb is activity because there is an activity, intention, time.

11. He will have searched some information about intonation on the internet by the time we

arrive.

The verb is accomplishment because there is an end point and activity, time.

12. He will have been searching some information about intonation on the internet for two

hours by the time we arrive.

I think the verb is activity. There is an intention, time, montion and effort.

TENSES

The Present Continuous

Tense

He is writing the report now/at the moment.

The Past Continuous

Tense

He was writing the report when I left the Office.

He was writing the report while you are sleeping.

The Simple Present

Tense

He writes a report every week.

The Simple Past Tense He wrote a report last Friday/three days ago.

He wrote a report before he left the office.

The Present Perfect

Tense

He has already written two reports of this kind.

He hasnt written the report yet.

He has written two reports since he started to work here.

He hasnt written a report for a long time.

This is the first time he has written a report.

He has written several reports recently/lately.

The Past Perfect Tense He had already written the report when I left.

He had just finished the report when you called.

He had finished the report by the time you called.

The Present Perfect

Continuous Tense

He has been writing this report for the last three days/since last Monday.

The Past Perfect

Continuous Tense

He had been writing a report for an hour when you called.

The Future Tense He will write a report tomorrow.

He is going to write a report tomorrow.

The Future Continuous

Tense

This time tomorrow he will be writing his report.

The Future Perfect Tense He will have written several reports by the next October.

The Future Perfect

Continuous Tense

He will have been writing the report for two years by next October.

PAST

PRESENT

FUTURE

Simple Past Tense

Past Continuous Tense

Past Perfect Tense

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Simple Present Tense

Present Continuous Tense

Present Perfect Tense

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Future Tense

Future Continuous Tense

Future Perfect Tense

Future Perfect Continuous

Tense

TIME TABLE

TELL THE DIFFERENCE

The class had been waiting for 20 minutes when the teacher came.

(the class had waited then the teacher came)

The class got up when the teacher came.

(two things happened at the same time)

The class had left when the teacher came

(the class left and then teacher came)

The class had left before the teacher came.

(the teacher came s/he found the class left or the class left, after sometime the teacher

came)

time gap between two things

Mary lived with her aunt when her uncle died.

(her uncle died and she started tol ive her aunt)

I will have been living in stanbul for 5 years by 2015.

I will still be living there by 2015.

HOMEWORK Tell the difference

1. a) James lived with Mary for two years. Now James is not living with Mary(the speaker is talking about a past action)

b) James has lived with Mary for two years.

James stared to live with Mary two years ago and now they are stil in the same time.

c) James has been living with Mary for two years.

James started to live with Mary two years ago and stil lives with her.

2. a) I was staying with my aunt when my uncle died. I started tos tay with my aunt after sometime my uncle died.

b) I stayed with my aunt when my uncle died.

My uncle died and then I started tos tay with my aunt

c) I had been staying with my aunt when my uncle died.

I started to stay with my aunt and I was stil staying with my aunt when my uncle died.

3. a) I had left my girl friend when I met Mary. First I left my irl friend and then I met Mary.

4. a) I help my sister on Sunday. It is my routin to help my sister every Sunday.

b) Im helping my sister on Sunday.

It is my plan to help my sister on Sunday and my sister knows it.

c) I have been helping my sister since Sunday.

I started to help my sister on Sunday and I continue to help her.

5. a) Every morning when I wake up, I wash my face. It is my routin to wash my face every morning when I hake up.

b) Every morning when I wake up Ive washed my face.

Every morning when I wake up it is my habit to wash my face, but I dont know about the

future.

6. a) When I saw her yesterday, she was crying. Her crying is in progressive

b) When I saw her yesterday, she had been crying.

She started crying sometime ago. When I saw her she was still crying.(bitmite olabilir)

7. a) I never met my grandfather. I didnt know my grandfather and there is no possibility to meet him in the future.

I have never seen him.

b) Ive never met my grandfather

I didnt know my grandfather. But there can be possibility to meet him in the future

8. a) I havent been to the bank today. The spoker is stil at the moment of speaking time.

b) I didnt go to the bank this morning.

The speaker is speaking about the past action.

9. a) I didnt invite John to the party. The party is over.

b) I havent invited John to the party.

The party isnt over so I may invite John. There is possibility of inviting John.

10. a) Someone has been reading my book! Someone started reading book and stil doing it.

b) They had been moking in the room.

They started doing something and did it repeated times.

11. a) He appears to be very busy I understand that he is busy.

b) Hes appearing at the Ritz next week.

He is going to have a show.

12. a) When the company went bankrupt, they opened a new company under a new name. The company went bankrupt and then they opened a new company under a new name.

b) When the company went bankrupt, they had already run up debts.

After they had already run up debts, the company went bankrupt.

Time gap between two things.

c) When went bankrupt, the company had been running for several years.

The company started running when the company went bankrupt, it was stil running.

d) When the compay went bankrupt, they were losing $2000 a day.

They were losing and they will lose.

13. a) She has corn on her feet. She is suffering from corns.

b) She is having treatmet for them.

She is going to see a doctor.

14. a) Im measuring this box. agent

b) this box measures 50cm.

the lenght of this box is 50cm

THEMATIC ROLES

agent(klc): mostly living and intentional things animals and human beings.

movement, instinct, free to move

causer: inanimate

the wind damaged the house

instrument: preposition

experiencer: mostly somebody wh mostly somebody who is affected psyhologicaly

by something in heart and mind. Experincer must be subject position.

I am broken-hearted.

Agent becomes experience

theme: animate and inamniate

the wind is blowing = the wind is theme (doa olaylar)

the wind damaged the house = the wind is causer

recipient(beneficiary): person who makes use of

I made this cake for you.

location: the children are in the classroom.

goal = hedef

patient: fiziksel olarak etklenen

I am melting the butter.

Examples

The kettle blackened on the oven.

theme source

He smashed the radio into pieces in the living room thanks to a stone.

agent patient location instrument

She keeps sneezing, cleaning her nose

patient theme

A friend lent her a handkerechief.

agent beneficiary

HOMEWORK(thematic roles) 1. Tom moved his chair closer to Mary.

agent instrument goal

2. The hole filled with water. theme instrument

3. The teacher stopped the tape, and left the class. agent location

4. She shook her head with disbelief. agent theme

5. The ball rolled down the hill, and came to a halt. theme location

6. She tipped her chair and fell off it. agent theme

7. First heat the oil, and add the tomatoes.

patient theme

Agent Jane killed her husband with a knife in their bedroom.

Agent

The boys caught some fish.

Agent

Instrument Jane killed her husband with a knife in their bedroom.

nstrument

This key opens the door to the main office.

Instrument

Patient Jane killed her husband with a knife in their bedroom.

patient

The falling rocks crushed the car.

patient

Location Jane killed her husband with a knife in their bedroom.

Location

We put the book on the self

location

Causer An epidemic killed off all of the tomatoes.

causer

An econemic downturn put thounsands of workers out of work.

causer

Experiencer The chesus monkey had never seen snow before.

experiencer

Tom annoyed when he heard that Mary abandoned him.experiencer

Beneficiary They gave the workers a raise.

beneficiay

He spared me his usual sad story

beneficiay

Theme Bill kissed Mary theme

Source The rocket was launched from Central Comman

source

We walked in the rain.

source

Goal The caravan continued on toward the distant oasis.

goal

The CAUSATIVE VOICE

There are two major patterns used to form causative contructions in English.

I.Subject Auxiliary Direct Object Past Participle by + Indirect Object

A.He will have His car repaired by the mechanic

B.He will get His car repaired by the mechanic

II.Subject Auxiliary Indirect Object (to) Infinitive Direct Object

A.He will have the mechanic repair his car

B.He will get the mechanic to repair his car

The Causative Form

Tense Subject Auxiliary Direct

Object

Past Participle Remainder of the sentence

The Simple Present He Has his car serviced every month.

The Simple Past He Had his car serviced last month.

The Present

Continuous

He is having his car serviced now.

The Past

Continuous

He was having his car serviced when I arrived.

The Present Perfect He hasnt had his car serviced yet.

The Past Perfect He had had his car serviced before he started the

journey.

The Future Tense

and Modals

He will have

may have

should have

his car serviced tomorrow.

Perfect Infinitives He should have had

could have had

might have had

may have had

must have had

his car serviced yesterday.

VOICE

1. Syntactically: on the sentence = The child was kidnapped. They greeted each other. / He cut himself. / He made his daughter clean the car.

2. Morphologically:

Boya t mak (Trke olarak)

3. Semantically(Lexically):

break ( intention, cause, activity) (semantically causative)

send (intention, cause, activity) (semantically causative)

shave (intention, self) (semantically reflexive)

Reciprocal: one other, another, together, alltogether, each other

= zne en az iki kiiden oluacak ve e zamanl olacak.

They are sitting all together. = sytantically reciprocal

The class is listening to the teacher.

= topluluk ismi kullanlm ve listen kendi bana ite (reciprocal) deil.

Reciprocal olduunu anlamak iin zneyi teke indir. The class is listening to the teacher.

I am listening to the teacher. Reciprocal deil

The class is listening to the teacher alltogether. = reciprocal

I am corresponding with Tom. = reciprocal

Katlmc saysn ikiye kard.

reciprocal, reflexive yapanlar yzde yz agent tr.

Agent istemli davranr.

Causative Testi iin causeto + V1, V

** passive i ayrt edici zellik by alabiliyorsa, sorusuna cevap verebiliyorsa

passive dir.

**dnl = kii ii kendisi isteyerek yapyor ve de etkileniyorsa dnldr.

CAUSATIVE INCHOATIVE

The sugar dissolves in water.

dissolve=znmek

The sugar is dissolved in water. (by???)

We cannot add by or someone. by bu cmleye deer vermiyor. In causative inchoative there is no by ; however, there is cause. Genellikle doa olaylar ve bir sebebe bal olur. The meal cooked. (yemek piti) = causative inchoative The meal was cooked by my mother. (yemek piirildi) = syn. passive

Passive olabilir fakat anlam deiir.

Eylemerin atlar (zellikle Trkeye evrildiinde) deiebilir.

The sugar was dissolved by the chemist.

zmek

Causative Inchoative = Kendiliinden oluacak = Eylemin kendi anlamnn iinde bir cause olmal

= by phrase almamal, agent yok.

= Passive hale dntrlebilmeli ama by agent olmaz.

boil: kaynamak/ kaynatmak

melt: erimek/ eritmek

fry: kzarmak/kzartmak

thicken: kalnlamak/koyulamak/ koyulatrmak

The water boils at 100C = CI

The ice melts in a hot place = CI

Potatoes and chickens fried = CI

Potaoes and chickens were fried by Mary = syn. Passive

The coffee thickened after boiled = CI

znesinde patient olan eylemler ya passive olmaya yatkndr ya da causative inchoative olabilir.

Her voice records well in the studio. = lexically passive.

Silk creases easily. = causative inchoative

The pilot landed the plane. = lexically passive.

The car reserved and the driver put it into the garage.

lexically passive lexically causative

She photographs well. = lexically passive

She is photographed well by the photographer.

The Interaction Between Voice Forms and Thematic Roles

The snow on the mountain melted and the water filled the rivers.

patient active theme active

lexically causative causer lexically

inchoative causative

Causative Inchoative is mostly patient in thematic roles. Lexically causative = theme, causer, agent. Causative Inchoative differs from lexically causative because in lexically causative

there is a doer.

Melt (V intransitive)

Subject Object

something No object ( Intransitive)

that can melt

in nature

which is suitable

patient

Melt ( V transitive) = agent causer ve doer olabilir.

= ama doer agent ve causer olamaz.

Subject Object

agent patient

causer

doer

[The heat from the fire] caused [the building] to brown. NP(noun phrase) lexically NP

causer/theme causative patient

HOMEWORK 1. I was moved by the pictures of rescued child.

Syntactically passive

2. We agreed on the plan. Lexically reciprocal

3. He quicekned the process by talking to the autorities. Lexically causative

4. We got beaten in the race. Lexically passive

5. The door opened and a soft breeze came in. Lexically passive

6. The book earned him a fortune. Lexically causative

7. They demolished the old buildng. Lexically causative

8. The birds flew together in the same direction. Syntactically reciprocal

9. The storm wiped away all the sand of the coast. Lexically casuative

10. Pull yourself together. Syntactically reflexive

11. Why dont you join us? active

12. I disagree with you. Syntactically reciprocal

13. The two friends kissed each other and left. Syntactically reciprocal

14. The boy hid in the wardrope. Lexically reflexive

15. He got the manager to punish his friend. Syntactically causative

WORKSHEET

1. The cat licks itself to clean. = Syntactically reflexive agent activity activity

2. The frog turned into a prince when the princess kissed him. patient achievement agent activity beneficiery

active(Lexically causative) (active)

3. The line got disconnected. = Syntactically passive theme achievement

4. If yellow and blue is blended, one can have the colour green. theme activity agent state patient

(syntactically passive) (active)

5. I creamed the sugar and the butter together. = active(Lexically causative) agent activity patient patient

6. Brenda and Molly agreed on what to do. = active(Lexically reciprocal) agent agent accomplishment

7. If you separate the oil from the vinegar, the oil comes to the top. accomplishment patient patient patient activity goal

active(Lexically causative) (active)

8. Bill married Helen at the church. = active(Lexically reciprocal) agent accomplishment agent location

9. Narcissus wore himself out due to his love for himself and a white and yellow agent accomplishment theme

(syntactically reflexive)

flower arose on the place he used to stand.

achievement

(active)

10. Do not abuse your power to impress people. activity theme activity theme

(active) active(Lexically causative)

11. The ship was named as Titanic after it was launched. = Syntactically passive theme accomplishment accomplishment

12. The President appointed Sabrina as the spokperson. = active(Lexically causative) agent accomplishment theme

13. You can establish your innocence by showig the letter you have received this agent activity theme achievement or

active(lexically causative) accomplishment

morning.

14. Water filled the pail and the boy took it home. =active(lexically causative) accomplishment agent activity

15. The government keeps asserting that it will not reduce taxes.

theme state activity

(active) active(lexically causative)

16. The paper incorporates the new results.

theme state

(active)

17. The two man greeted before the seminer started.

agent activity

active(lexically reciprocal)

18. The meat cut itself. = active(lexically passive)

theme activity

19. The butcher cuts the meat. = active(lexically causative)

agent activity

20. The book remaind untouched for many years.= active

theme state

21. The mushrooms were sliced by the cook while the sauce was simmering aside.

patient activity agent

syntactically passive

22. This bed was slept on by Atatrk when he visited Mersin.

theme ativity agent agent accomplishment goal

syntactically passive active

23. The problem developed as there was something wrong with the process.

theme achievement

active(lexically passive)

24. The truck rumbled into the garage. = active

theme activity goal

The PASSIVE VOICE

Passive constructions are derived from active constructions.

The active voice Active subject Active Verb Active Object

Ali Killed the bear

The Passive

Voice

Passive Subject To be+V3 Optional Agent

The bear was killed by Ali

Tense The Active Voice The Passive Voice

The Simple Present Tense He paints the house every

year.

The house is painted every year.

The Simple Past Tense He painted the house last

year.

The house was painted last year.

The Simple Future and

Modals

He will paint the house next

year.

He can paint the house next

year.

He may paint the house next

year.

The house will be painted last

year.

The house can be painted last

year.

The house may be painted last

year.

The Present Continuous

Tense

He is painting the house now. The house is being painted now.

The Past Continuous Tense He was painting the house all

last week.

The house was being painted all

last week.

The Present Perfect Tense He has just painted the

house.

The house has just been painted.

The Past Perfect Tense The house looked good

because he had just painted

it.

The house looked good because it

had just been painted.

The Future Perfect Tense He will have painted the

house by next week.

The house will have been painted

by next week.

Perfect Infinitives He should have painted the

house last year.

He could have painted the

house last year.

The house should have been

painted last year.

The house could have been

painted last year.

Questions Does he paint the house

every year?

Did he paint the house last

year?

Who painted the house?

Is the house painted every

year?

Was the house painted last

year?

Who was the house painted

by?

Form The Active Voice The Passive Voice

Negative He hasnt painted the house

yet.

The house hasnt been

painted yet.

Reduced Clauses When they paint the house, it

looks beautiful.

The house(which)he painted

last year looked beautiful.

When(it is)painted, the house

looks beautiful.

The house(which

was)painted last year looked

beautiful.

The Subjunctive Form They demand that he paint

the house.

They demand that the house

be painted.

a. Passive of the Gerund He dislikes being called by his firs name.

He was afraid of being recognized.

She acknowledged having been offered a bribe.

b. Passive of the Infinitive She expects to be selected for the scholarship.

He claims to have been tortured.

c. Passive of Participles The policeman simply watch the cars being turned upside down.

d. Passive of the verbs which take -Infinitive They made him clean the houseHe was made to clean the house.

We saw him enter the buildingHe was seen to enter the building.

The teacher let us know that he wouldnt tolerate any misbehavior. The teacher let it be

known that he wouldnt tolerate any misbehavior.

e. Passive of the verbs that take two object They gave him a lot of presents.

He was given a lot of presents.

A lot of presents were given to him.

PASSIVE INFINITIVE

People thinkthat Mary has committed the crime.

Passive of the Gerund

I hate people calling me madam.

Passive of the Infinitive

I would like people to call me madam

= Mary is thought that Mary has commited the crime.

= I hate being called madam.

= I would like to be called madam

Passive or Active

Syntactically passive = aim

If passive is used, there is an aim.

I bear him no ill will. = always in active.

state object object

I was born. = always in passive structure.

The book earned him a fortune.

I wish you luck. = it cannot be put in passive.

They declared him President. = Whom did they declare President?

He was declared President. President is not an object.

He lays stil on the bed. = it cannot be put in passive.

They made him promise. = noun gets article.

He was made to promise.

They mad ehim a promise.

Causative olursa passive olma olasl yksek. Tekrar passive yapmaya gerek yok.

The sun dried their clothes.

object

Their clothes were dried.

This stain will wash out with Kosla.

lexically causative object deil (prepositional phrase)

Kosla will wash out the stain.

passive olabilir object

The stain will be washed out with Kosla.

People think that Tom was dishonest.

Tom is thought to have been dishonest.

People thinkthat Tom was stealing from his friends.

Tom is thought to have been stealing from his friends.

People think that Tom has come.

Tom is thought to have come.

I hate people asking me personal questions.

I hate being asked personal questions.

HOMEWORK (PASSIVE VOICE)

1. The house is painted every year.

2. The house was painted last year.

3. The house will be painted next year.

4. The house can be painted next year.

5. The house may be painted next year.

6. The house is being painted now.

7. The house was being painted all last year.

8. The house has just been painted.

9. The house looked good because it had just been painted.

10. The house will have been painted by next week.

11. The house should have been painted last year.

12. The house could have been painted last year.

13. The house hasnt been painted yet.

Functions of Modal Auxiliaries

Function Modal Example

ABILITY

Present

Past (action repeated over a

period of time)

(a particular past event)

can

am/is/are able to

could

was/were able to

was/were able to

1.Because of her artistic talent,

she can design very well.

2.She is able to swim well.

3.He could play the violin

when he was five years old.

4.He was able to play the

violin when he was five years

old.

5. He was able to play the

violin beautifully last night.

POSSIBILITY

Present

Past

Future

can, be able to

was/were able to

may/might

could

will be able to

may/might

7.The florist can deliver the

bouquet early.

8.Ali and Helen were able to

work out their cultural

differences and got married.

9.Necla may get married this

summer if she decides shes

ready to settle down.

10.We could get married by

next year.

11.We might go to Hawaii for

our holiday.

POLITE REQUEST can/could/may/might/would/will 12.Could I get a price list,

please?

PERMISION can/ may/could 14.May I attend only the

reception?

OFFERS can/ may/could 15.May I drive you home?

OBLIGATION have to

have got to

must

16.Ali and Aynur have to

move.

17.We have got to decide by

tomorrow.

SUGGESTION can/could/ might

should

ought to

had better

have to/must

18.You might try another store.

19.You had better think very

carefully.

EXPECTATION should/ought to/must 20.The divorce rate ought to

down.

HABITUAL ACTIVITY

Present

Past(discontinued past

action)

(repeated past action)

be used to

be accustomed to

used to

would/ used to

21.Hes accustomed to hot

weather.

22.He used to smoke, but he

doesnt any more.

23.When I was in Bursa, we

used to work in the same office

and we would often play cards

together.

ADVICE should/ had better 24.You should/had better take

an aspirin.

DESCRIPTION should(+see, hear, taste) 25.You should see their

wedding rings. They are

beautiful.

DISBELIEF cant 26.You cant mean that. You

must be kidding.

INAPPROPRIACY cant 27.You cant wear that dress.

Its indecent.

FRUSTRATION have to/must/would 28.You had to be late, didnt

you?

PREFERENCE would prefer

would rather

would just as soon

would sooner

29.Id prefer to take the

subway.

30.Id rather make the decision

later.

PROHIBITION mustnt 31.You mustnt smoke in the

classroom. It is strictly

prohibited.

MODALS

modals reflects our points of view, thinks, events, situationsetc. A fact cannot bear a modal. Modals reflect peoples mood. Konumacnn gznden bakmalyz. Konumac ne derse o modal ekillendirir.

He could come tomorrow. Could= possibility

may come

Modality

Modality (kiplik) insanlarn olaylara bak asndan oluur.

= passive

= conditionals

= inversion

= imperatives

= adverbials

What is the difference between modal and auxiliary verb? Her ikisi de tmcede soru ve olumsuz yapmak iin kullanlr.

auxiliary verb = olumsuz yaparken not alabilecek, kendisiyle olumsuz ve soru

yaplabilecek.

modal verb = verb gibi davrananlar

modal like expressions:

to be supposed to

to be expected to

to be to

modal verb modal auxiliary

have to can

need should

be able to must

could

could have

shall

will

have got to

ought to

had better

could = gemite bir zamanda yaptmz i. = zamana yaylyor. = yapyordu

I could run fast when I was young.

was able to = bir eyi yapabildi.

I was able to run fast when somebody chases me.

could have come = yapabilirdi ama yapmad

must = ben yle sanmyorum

had to = zorunda kald, zorundayd

needn t = gerek yok

needn t have done = gerek yoktu ama yapt

should have done = yapmalyd ama yapmad

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Predicate: yklem

From, for, to = ditransitive

Complement is the neccessary part of the verb.

Adjunct is the unneccessary part of the verb.

All reduced forms are non-finite.

Any inverted structure is finite. Which sentence has a fullstop is finite.

Complement & Adjunct:

Adjunct answers when, where, how, why

Complement answers what, who, whom

Mary is ill today = complement = what comes after the verb and complete the sentence is

complement.

Gerekli olmayan ama cmlenin de anlamn bozmayan adjunct

CLAUSES-SENTENCES

A sentence can have one or two or more than two clause. Simple clause has a clause.

Each complex sentence has at least two simple sentence.

Small Clause

Small clause is verbless, adjunct clause and non-finite.

Susan found the job (to be) very difficult.

The job is difficult and Susan found so.

The NP will have two roles: object should be both object and subject of small clauses.

I saw Tom going home.

Tom was going home and I saw him doing so.

I consider Sawyer to be handsome.

Sawyer is handsome and I consider him so.

Tom made me go shopping= small clause.

Complex cmle iki yklem alr.

gerund ve infinitive cmlede zne ve nesne boluunu doldurur.

Examples

1.I considered Tom hardworking.

Tom is hardworking. I considered him to be so.

2.I remember Tom going to school on rainy days.

Tom was going to school on rainy days. I remember him doing so.

3.A husband criticizing me everytime is the least thing I want.

A husband criticizes me everytime. This is the least thing that I want.

4.That John answered the phone surprised me.

John answered the phone. This surprised me.

WORKSHEET

1.Unless you practice, you will have nothing to obtain.

-You have to practice, or you will have nothing to obtain.

2.You must account for every penny you spend.

- You spend the penny. You must account for it.

3.People accuse him of lying to the lawyer.

- He lied to the lawyer. People accuse him of doing so.

4.If an engine is maintained regularly, it lasts twice as much as it is supposed to.

- An engine is maintained regularly in that case it lasts twice as much as it is supposed to.

5.He laid the table with difficulty as he could not walk owing to the fracture.

- He could not walk owing to the fracture, so he laid the table with difficulty.

been doing = in Turkish -mekte Ive been studying English.= almaktaym

doing = in Turkish yor Im studying English.= alyorum

6.People watch processions go past on the pavements of the stress on celebration days.

- Processions go past on the pavements of the streets on celebration days. People watch them do so.

7.They found the man lying on the floor after two days of absence.

- The man was lying on the floor. They found him doing so after two days.

8.He lay on the bed listening to the slow music with his eyes shut.

- He lay on the bed, at the same time he listened to the slow music with his eyes shut.

9.I could not make myself heard due to the high volume of the disco music.

-The volume of the disco music was high, so I couldnt make the other people hear me.

10.I heard this story told by some other people.

-Some other people told this story. I heard them do so.

11.We must have our car serviced for the tour we will have next week.

- We will have a tour next week, so we must have the repairman service our car.

12.They are contemplating going to England once they finish with their childrens education.

- They are contemplating going to England, but first they must finish with their childrens education.

13.Not having seen either a Chinese or Japanese man before, I found it hard to tell apart

which one is which.

- I hadnt seen either a Chinese or Japanese man before, so I found it hard to tell apart which one is which.

14.Tom agreed to come with us on condition that we would stop to have something to eat on

the way.

- We would have to stop to eat on the way. Then, Tom would come with us.

15.Tom pretended that he hadnt met Susan before, but he gave himself away when she called

him by the name.

- Tom had met Susan before, but he pretended not to have done so. She called him by the name and at that time he gave himself away.

16.While trying to help raise some money for the charity, we had to make some dolls and sell

them the people on the street.

- We were trying to help raise some money for the charity, at the same time we had to make some dolls and sell them the people on the street.

17.You must commit yourself to working hard to be able to cope with the economic situation.

- You will be able to cope with the economic situation, so you must commit yourself to

working hard. / You must commit yourself to working hard in that case you will be able to cope with the economic situation.

18.Despite being seriously hurt, the footballer refused to stop playing in the match.

- The footballer was seriously hurt, but he refused to stop playing in the match.

19.As well as the income from the funds allocated for the organization, the charity enjoys a

great deal of public contribution.

- There are some funds. These funds are allocated for the organization. Besides, the charity enjoys a great deal of public contribution.

20.If dealt with extreme care, this letter of intention will clearly display or goals.

- This letter should be dealt with extreme care, it will clearly display our goals.

21.I wished I hadnt objected to your offer of working together now that I am in trouble.

- I regret objecting to your offer of working together, for Im in trouble.

22.I wonder who the teacher meant when she said there were some people who were doomed

to fail.

- The teacher said that there were some people. These were doomed to fail. At that time (when teacher said so) I wondered who teacher meant.

23.What these words mean to you is none of my business.

- These words mean something to you, but it isnt my business.

24.Mary proved that she could make a perfect teacher if given time.

- Mary was given time. In that case, she could make a perfect teacher and she proved this.

25.The only candidate found worthy of an interview did not turn up.

- Only one candidate was found worthy of an interview, but he didnt turn up.

26.The invitations to be sent to people were left in the drawer by mistake.

- The invitations would be sent to people, but they were left in the drawer by mistake.

HOMEWORK

1.I didn t realize that Brain wasnt feeling well.(complex & noun clause)

2.We learned that pineapples dont grow on trees. (complex & noun clause)

3.I found the keys which were missing. (complex & relative clause)

4.Debbie only drinks juice made from fresh fruit. (complex & reduced relative clause)

5.There are several things that we need from the shop. (complex & relative clause)

6.What theyre doing seems wrong. (complex & relative clause)

7.I came as soon as I heard the news.(complex & adverbial clause of time)

8.Since his wife left him, he has been depressed. (complex & adverbial clause of time)

9.Looking outside, he saw the police car. (complex & reduced form of adverbial clause of

time)

10.Not feeling very well, she sat down. (complex & reduced form of adverbial clause of

reason)

coordinators make compound sentence. Coordinators just come after a comma. Coordinators: for,and, nor, but, or, yet, so

subortinators make complex sentence. Complex Sentence:

1.Adverbial clause beginning with a subortinator such as when, while, because, etc.,

2.A dependent adjective clause beginning with a relative pronoun or relative adverb such

as where, when, why, etc., These clauses function as an adjective, they modify a noun.

3. A dependent noun clause beginning with that, a wh- question word, whether and

sometimes if.

Compound sentence have two clauses and these are indepentent clause.

Complex sentence have also two clauses, but one of them is independent other one is

dependent.

Because I was ill I didnt go to school.(complex)

I didnt go to school, because I was ill. (compound)

SUBORDINATING CONJUCTIONS

Time:

after: -den sonra when: -dii zaman

before: -den nce while,as: -iken

since: -den beri now that: -madem ki

as long as, so long as: -dii srece whenever, everytime: her ne zaman

as soon as, the moment, immediately, once: -mez, -maz

no soonerthan, hardlywhen, barelywhen: -mez, -maz

afterwards: sonradan, sonralar = subordinater deil, time maker dr.

Cause:

so/such..as to +V1..: yapacak kadar

not because..but because: iin deil,.iin

Purpose:

for fear that: korkusuyla

for the purpose of

so that/ in order that +would/ could

lest/ in case + should

He speaks as if he is British.(I think he is English)

He speaks as if he were British.(I know he isnt English)

Likeness:

Just as..so = Just as Tom is hardworking, so is his sister.

by the same taken

-EVER WORDS AND CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

A.-Ever words versus Relative clauses

whoever a)Whoever wants to come will be welcome.

b)Anyone who wants to come will be welcome.

whichever a)Study whichever article you prefer.

b)Study any article that you prefer.

whatever a)Write down whatever comes to your mind.

b)Write down anything that comes to your mind.

however a)It is an informal party. You may dress however you wish.

b) It is an informal party. You may dress in any way that you wish.

whenever a)You may call me whenever you wish.

b) You may call me at any time that you wish.

wherever a)If you have a car, you can go wherever you want to go.

b) If you have a car, you can go any place that you want to go.

B.-Ever Words used as Noun Clauses and Adverbial Clauses

-Ever word Noun Clause Adverbial Clause

whatever Whatever I said seemed to annoy him. a)Whatever I said, I couldnt

persuade him.

b)No matter what I said, I

couldnt persuade him.

whoever Whoever he is isnt important. a)Whoever he is, he must obey

the law.

b) No matter who he is, he must

obey the law.

however However you cook it is all right with me. a)However you cook it, he wont

eat it.

b)No matter how you cook it, he

wont eat it.

whenever Whenever you come is convenient for me. a)Whenever you come, you cause

problems.

b)No matter when you come, you

cause problems.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Basic Relation Basic sentences Subordinate Clause+Main

Clause

Time The telephone rang.

I woke up.

When the telephone rang, I

woke up.

Contrast Bill entered the contest.He won first prize. Although Bill entered the

contest, he won first prize.

Cause- Effect We dont have any money. We cant buy

food.

Since we dont have any

money, we cant buy food.

Purpose He has to earn a lot of money.He wants to

provide a good education for his children.

He has to earn a lot of money

so that he can provide a good

education for his children.

Type of Clause and Subordinating Conjunction

Time Until/till, after, before, as, as long as, as soon as, no

sooner... than, hardly... when, once, scarcely... when,

by the time, the moment, whenever, while, when,

since

Place Where, wherever, everywhere, anywhere

Reason Because, since, as, now that, seeing that, because of

the fact that, due to the fact that , owing to the fact

that, on account of the fact that, in view of the fact

that, inasmuch as, on the grounds that, in that

Direct Contrast While, whereas

Concessive Contrast/Opposition Although, even though, though, despite the fact that,

in spite of the fact that, even if, while

Result So+adj+that, so+adv+that, Such+a(n)+adj+N +that,

abstract noun+be+such that, such+a lot of+N +that,

so+adj+a(n)+N+that, so many...that, so few..that, so

much....that, so little..that

Purpose So that, in order that, in case, for fear that, lest

Manner As, as if, as though(showing actions that are probable),

as if, as though(showing actions that are improbable)

Degree(proportion) The...er, the...er/the more..,the more../to the extent

that, to the degree that, in so far as, as.. so

Condition If, only if, suppose x happens, if x should happen,

assuming that, in the event that, unless, as long as/so

long as,provided( that), providing(that), whether..or, if

it hadt been for, if it werent for, but for

Comparison As...as, er..than, more...than, ...the est, the most...,just

as... so

SENTENCE CONNECTORS Contrast Direct opposition/direct contrast

However, on the other hand, conversely, in contrast

Denial of expectation/concessive contrast

However, yet, still, nonetheless, nevertheless, even so, in spite

of this

Result As a consequence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, as a

result, consequently, hence, thus

Addition and Listing Also, besides, further, moreover, furthermore, in addition

First(firstly, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, for

one thing)

Secondly(second, in the second place),for another thing

Finally(lastly, last of all)

Time At first, afterwards, later, then, in the meantime, meanwhile

Examplification For instance, for example, to illustrate

Particularization In particular, particularly, specifically

Explanation That is, namely, in other words, that is to say

Similarity Likewise, similarly, correspondingly, by the same taken, in

the same way

Emphasis In fact, indeed, as a matter of fact, actually

Refutation On the contrary

Reformulation In other words, to put it in a different way, put differently

Correction Rather, to be more precise

Transition As for, as to, with regard to, with respect to, as regards,

regarding, as far as, x is concerned

Alternative Alternatively

Negative Condition Or else, otherwise

Summation/conclusion In summary, in brief, in short, in conclusion, to be brief, to

sum up, all in all

others After all, incidentally/by the way, above all, all the same,

anyway,anyhow, in any case, instead

REDUCTION OF CLAUSES A finite clause has a subject and a finite verb which must agree with the subject.

A verbless clause is a clause from which a form of the verb to be has been deleted.

Finite(full) Clause Verbless(reduced) Clause

The woman who is in the shop

The women who are on the boat

The book which is on the shelf

The books which are on the table

The woman in the shop

The women on the boat

The book on the shelf

The books on the table

I. Finite Clauses versus Verbless(reduced) Clauses

Finite(full) clause Verbless(reduced) Clause

While we were in stanbul, we visited all

the major museums.

While in stanbul, we visited all the major

museums.

When she was in London, she met very

interesting people.

When in London, she met very interesting

people.

Though he was popular with teenagers, the

singer was criticized by adults for his

suggestive movements.

Though popular with teenagers, the singer

was criticized by adults for his suggestive

movements

Use a comma where it is necessary Use a comma where necessary

Mathematics, which was once my favorite

subject, no longer interests me.

Mathematics, once my favorite subject, no

longer interests me.

Mary Thatcher, who is a well-known

fashion designer, earns a lot of money.

Mary Thatcher, a well-known fashion

designer, earns a lot of money

The students who were present at the

meeting signed petition.

The students present at the meeting signed

petition

II. Finite versus Non-Finite(reduced) Clauses

Form Non-finite verb Used for

-ed participle Written Passive constructions

-ing participle Writing Active constructions

-to infinitive To write/to be written Both active and passive

constructions

Finite verbs Non-Finite verbs

The student who is shouting....

The students who are shouting....

The man who was killed yesterday...

The men who were killed yesterday...

As it was mentioned above, it....

The student shouting....

The students shouting....

The man killed yesterday...

The men killed yesterday...

As mentioned above, it....

III.Passive Constructions in Finite and Non-Finite Clauses

A.Adverbial Clauses

Finite Clauses Non-Finite Clauses

Although it was begun many years ago, the

road is still not completed.

Although begun many years ago, the road

is still not completed.

Though it was written for children, the

book is popular among adults as well.

Though written for children, the book is

popular among adults as well.

As soon as it was announced, the plan came

under attack.

As soon as announced, the plan came under

attack.

Once it is learned, language cannot easily be

forgotten.

Once learned, language cannot easily be

forgotten

When it is cooled, the vapor condenses and

forms droplets.

When cooled, the vapor condenses and

forms droplets.

If this method is used properly, it will be

higly effective.

If used properly, this method will be higly

effective.

He began shouting as though he were

annoyed at what he had seen.

He began shouting as though annoyed at

what he had seen

B.Adjectival Clauses


The method which has been used in

England for the last 3 years has been very

effective.

The method used in England for the last 3

years has been very effective

The man who was arrested yesterday

refused to answer any questions.

The man arrested yesterday refused to

answer any questions.

The courses which are offered by our

department are basically elective.

The courses offered by our department are

basically elective

Being+past participle

Ali had to look for a job for months after he

was dismissed from the factory.

Ali had to look for a job for months after

being dismissed from the factory.

Students must be given sufficient training in

the use of computers before they are

allowed to use them freely.

Students must be given sufficient training in

the use of computers before being allowed

to use them freely.

He fainted while he was being questioned at

the police station.

He fainted while being questioned at the

police station.

The subject which was being discussed

interested me.

The subject being discussed interested me.

Reduction is a grammatical process. Reduction is equal to Ellipsis.

IV.Active Constructions in Finite and Non-Finite Clauses

A.Adverbial Clauses


Adults sometimes do not realize their

strength when they deal with children.

Adults sometimes do not realize their

strength when dealing with children.

The prime minister has held his second press

conference since he took office.

The prime minister has held his second press

conference since taking office

Though he was dying of cancer, he painted

everyday.

Though dying of cancer, he painted

everyday

He moved his lips as if he wanted to say

something.

He moved his lips as if wanting to say

something

While he accepts the proposed plan in

principle, he has some reservations about its

content.

While accepting the proposed plan in

principle, he has some reservations about its

content.

While he was walking past the post office,

he ran into one of his friends.

While walking past the post office, he ran

into one of his friends

The president consults his aides before he

makes his final decision.

The president consults his aides before

makeing his final decision

B.Adjectival Clauses


People who live in big cities have some

advantages.

People living in big cities have some

advantages.

The factories which pollute the environment

should be closed down.

The factories polluting the environment

should be closed down.

V.Reducing Finite Clauses with Infinitives(Active or Passive Voice)

A.Adjectival Clauses


Charles Lindbergh was the first person who

flew across the Atlantic Ocean.

Charles Lindbergh was the first person to

fly across the Atlantic Ocean

I have a lot of work which I must do. I have a lot of work to do.

B.Noun Clauses


He cant decide what he should do. He cant decide what to do.

She cant decide whether she should sell

her car or not.

She cant decide whether to sell her car or

not.

C.Adverbial Clauses


He was in such bad health that he was

obliged to resign.

He was in such bad health as to be obliged

to resign.

His work was so good that it made him

internationally famous.

His work was so good as to make him

internationally famous.

I studied hard so that I could get a passing

grade in the exam.

I studied hard to get a passing grade in the

exam.

PARTICIPLES

Type Active Voice Passive Voice

Present Writing being written

Past written

Perfect having written having been written

Perfect Progressive having been writing

Active The journalist writes articles for a local

newspaper. He earns his living.

The journalist earns his

living, writing articles for a

local newspaper.

The journalist was writing an article. He

suddenly had a bright idea.

Writing an article, the

journalist suddenly had a

bright idea.

The journalist wrote an article. He showed it to

his boss.

Having written an article, the

journalist showed it to his

boss.

The journalist has been writing this article for

a long time. He feels rather tired.

Having been writing this

article for a long time, the

journalist feels rather tired.

Passive The article was written by a well-known

journalist. It interested many people.

Written by a well-known

journalist, the article

interested many people.

The article was written. It went to press

immediately.

Having been written, the

article went to press

immediately.

PARTICIPLES

Present Past Prefect

Ving V3 having V3 *Progressive Tenses *Adjective *Reduction of Relative Cl

*Reduction of Relative Cl. *Reduction of Relative Cl.(pas.) * Reduction of Adverbial Cl

*Reduction of Adverbial Cl. *Reduction of Adverbial Cl.(passive)

GERUND or PARTICIPLE

Participle ile Gerund arasndaki farklardan biri , dr.

Seeing is believing. (gerund)

Seeing my friends, Im going near them.(participle)

Gerund cannot be omitted from the sentence. Because it is complement. It answer the

questions who? what?

Participle answers the questions when? how? where? why?

Walking in the park, I smiled at the flowers.(when)

Walking in the park, I missed the bus.(when/because/as)

Walking in the park, she injured her leg.(when/how)

RELATIVE CLAUSES vs. NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

I havent seen what he left.= the thing which he left. What havent you seen?

Noun Cl. Nominal Relative Cl.

I havent seen where he put the book.= the place where he put the book.


I know how he succeeded it.= the way in which he succeded it.


I know why he said so.= the reason why he said so.


Nominal Relative functions as noun.

ADJECTIVE vs. ADVERB

1.The river froze solid. (Correct)

2.Tom slid the door shut.(Correct)

3.The vase broke clean.(Correct)

4.He fell flat on the face.(Correct)

5.He got his answer right.(Correct)

6.I closed the lid tight.(Correct)

7.The film fell short of my expectations.(Correct)

8.Wipe the floor clean.(Correct)

9.It is raining hard.(Correct)

10.The razer feels sharp.(Correct)

Definition:

An adverb defines the verb in terms of direction,manner,place, ect.

An adjective defines the noun in terms of quality, quantity, etc.

Adjective state konumuna gemi durumdan bahseder ve sondur.

Adverb de son nokta yoktur, processdir ve sreci kapsar.

Liking verb+adjective

appear He appears confident.

become He became famous as an artist at the age of thirty.

emerge He emerged triumphant from the power struggle.

fall The court room fell silent.

feel This material feels soft.

get He got ill.

go The milk went sour.

grow He grew interested in the course as time went by.

keep Keep silent, please.

lie A bird lay dead in the snow.

look She looks pale, doesnt she?

remain The prices remained stable for a long time.

seem He seems quite energetic for a man of seventy.

smell The room smells terrible.

stay Bill stood motionless for at least a minute.

taste The food tastes very good indeed.

turn Leaves turn yellow in autumn.

Note: Here the verbs fall, go, grow, turn mean become

ANALYZING THE PARAGRAPHES

[[[[For as long as peole can remember,][small towns like Stone Creek and

Pineville in northern Alabama have been hit by storms every spring.]]]] They are as predictable as [the apple blossoms that are always shaken loose from the trees and blown

along the country roads.][[Some trees maybe knocked over,]or[the roof of a building might

be slightly damage,]][but usually the effects of the storm are more incovenient than deadly.]This yaer was really different.

[[[[For,][smallspring.]]]] matrix clause.

ten da ikinci parantez cmlelerin birleimi iin, nc parantez interaction iin, son

parantez de matrix clause u belirtmek iin kullanlr.

Surface structure: Matrix Cl.

deep structure

1.interaction between something.

2. [subordinate clause]+[main clause]

Matrix iin cmle complex olmal ve subordinate clause olmal.

[[[[[SC][SC][MC]]]]]= cmle eer iki subordinate clause a sahipse be bracket alr.

[[[[[They,][apple blossoms..][ apple blossoms.]]]]]

[He had already had the day from hell, testifying at the sentencing hearing [for a man

who had acted as his informant for more than a year,][and then watched the guys daughter

pratically collapse in the courtroom as the tough-on-crime judge handed her father ten years

in federal prison, despite [Nicks promises and][the old guys co-operation.]][[Then he had

spent what was left of the day sparring with high-priced lawyers who were trying to paint him

as a whack job as he had testified in a related case, giving despositions, filling out the

mountains of paperwork that followed the conclusion of every case like a tail follows a dog,]

[and then, finally, on his way situation that had resulted in one of the hostages, a woman,

being killed.]]

and then

0[1[[[[He][a man.]]]] 2 [[[[watched][as...]]]] ]0 .

.Then[[[[[He][what .]]]] [who.]]]] [that.]]]]]

Some say the earth will [end in fire,][some say in ice],[[[[but from what Ive tasted

of desire,][I hold with those who favor fire]]]],[[[[[but if I had to perish twice,][I think I

know enough of hate to say that for destruction,][ ice is also great and would suffice.]]]]]

*Her but bir independent clause yapar.

I owed my security to the masterly air of the copyist, who disdaining the letter, gave but the

Main clause

full spirit of his original for my individual contemplation lying inside me.

There was no replay to my questions; and 1 on looking around I was only Joseph

bringing in a poil of porridge for the dogs, and 2 Mrs. Heathcliff leaning over the fire,

diverting herself with burning a bundle of matches which had fallen from the chimney-piece

as she restored the tea-canister to its place. 3 The farmer, when he deposited his burden, took

a critical survey of the room; and, in cracked tones, grated out.

1.Matrix Clause

1.Main Clause: I saw only Joseph.

1.1.Subordinate Clause: On.around. (reduced form of adverbial clause of time)

1.2.Subordinate Clause: Josephdogs.(small clause)

2.Matrix Clause

1.Main Clause: I saw Mrs.Heathcliff

1.1.Subordinate Clause: leaning over the fire (small clause)

1.2.Subordinate Clause: divertingmatches (small clause)

1.3.Subordinate Clause: which had..chimmey-piece (relative clause)

1.4.Subordinate Clause: as she restored.its place. (adverbial clause of time)

son subordinate clause 1.yan cmledir ve birinci dereceden main clausea baldr.

*Main clause subordinate clause un balad yerde biter.

2.Matrix Clause

1.Main Clause: The farmer..

1.1.Subordinate Clause: when he.burden(adverbial clause of time)

RESEARCHES and ONLINE ENGLISH GRAMMAR WEBSITE

http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/passive_prepositions.htm

http://www.1-language.com/englishcourse/index.htm

Grammar

1. Present Simple

The Simple Present is used to make statements about the present time. It is used in the

following ways.

- Permanent facts: These sentences give facts which are always true.

It is cold in winter. - The sun shines. - Fish live in water.

- Present facts: These sentences are true now.

I work at home. - She plays the piano.

"I work at home" doesn't mean I am working right now, but it does mean that in my present

condition I work at home.

- Habitual actions: I get up at 8.00. - They come here every day.

These actions are repeated regularly, so they are considered a present reality and are

expressed in the Simple Present.

Here is the verb "to give in the Simple Present:

Singular

I give

You give

He gives

She gives

It gives

Plural

We give

You give

They give

2. Spelling Rules for the Present Simple

If you look above you'll see the spelling doesn't change, except for the third person singular

(He, She, It) which adds an "s" to the verb. For example "I eat - He eats".

Sometimes other spelling rules also apply to He, She and It. All the following verbs add "es"

instead of "s":

The short forms for the negative verb "to be" are as follows:

Verb Endings

Verbs ending in -o add -es

Verbs ending in -s add -es

Verbs ending in -x add -es

Verbs ending in -ch add -es

Verbs ending in -sh add -es

-----

Verbs ending in a consonant and -y often

change the -y to -ies:

Verbs such as "buy" have no consonant

before the "y", so you simply add -s

as usual.

Spelling Examples

do - does, go - goes

pass - passes, kiss - kisses

fix - fixes, mix - mixes

match - matches, catch - catches

push - pushes, rush - rushes

try - tries, cry - cries

buy - buys, pay - pays.

Thematic Roles

Thematic relations were introduced in generative grammar during the mid-1960s and early

1970s (Gruber, 1976; Fillmore, 1968; Jackendoff, 1972) as a way of classifying the arguments

of natural language predicates into a closed set of participant types which were thought to

have a special status in grammar. A list of the most popular roles and the properties usually

associated with them is given below.

Agent -- A participant which the meaning of the verb specifies as doing or causing

something, possibly intentionally. Examples: subjects of kill, eat, hit, smash, kick and

em watch.

Patient -- A participant which the verb characterises as having something happen to it, and as

being affected by what happens to it. Examples: objects of kill, eat and smash but not

those of watch, hear and love.

Experiencer -- A participant who is characterised as aware of something. Examples: subject of love

or object of annoy.

Theme -- A participant which is characterised as changing its position or condition, or as

being in a state or position. Examples: objects of give and hand, subjects of walk and

die.

Location -- The thematic role associated with the NP expressing the location in a sentence with

a verb of location. Examples: subjects of keep, own, retain and know and locative PPs.

Source -- Object from which motion proceeds. Examples: subjects of buy and promise,

objects of deprive, free and cure.

Goal -- Object to which motion proceeds. Examples: subject of receive and buy, dative

objects of tell and give. (Adapted from Dowty (1989))

Since its inception, the classification of argument positions into role types was meant to be

carried out in terms of primitive semantic properties of predicates. Jackendoff (1972)

suggested that thematic relations should be defined in terms of the three semantic

subfunctions CAUSE, CHANGE and BE which constitute some of the primitive building

blocks of lexical meanings. For example, the semantic representation of a transitive verb like

open would be that of (154) where, according to Jackendoff's characterisation of roles in

terms of semantic subfunctions, NP is agent and NP theme

http://www.ilc.cnr.it/EAGLES96/synlex/node68.html#gru76http://www.ilc.cnr.it/EAGLES96/synlex/node68.html#fil68http://www.ilc.cnr.it/EAGLES96/synlex/node68.html#jac72http://www.ilc.cnr.it/EAGLES96/synlex/node68.html#dow89http://www.ilc.cnr.it/EAGLES96/synlex/node68.html#jac72http://www.ilc.cnr.it/EAGLES96/synlex/node62.html#4ex109

REFERENCES

General information about grammar and tables are from the book Building Skills in

Proficiency by Cesur ZTRK.

The information about Thematic Roles is from

http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~beatrice/syntax-textbook/box-thematic.html

http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~beatrice/syntax-textbook/box-thematic.html

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