Conversion and Narrative

THE MIDDLE AGES SERIES! " # $ % & ' ( ) & ! ! & * , ! " # $ " ! " % $ & ' #+ , -& ! , . + # + ! * , ( ' ) * % $ * + " % $ & ' #

A complete list of books in the series is available from the publisher.

Conversion and Narrative! + & , / 0 1 & 0 , ! + 2 / 1 / ( " * &" # $ ( ! / # 3 / 0 % + , / + 4& 2 . ( 2 + % / 5

Ryan Szpiech

" 0 / 4 + ! * / # 3 ( 6 . + 0 0 * 3 24& 0 / & . ! + * * Philadelphia

© 789: University of Pennsylvania Press

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations used for purposes of review or scholarly citation, none of this book may be reproduced in any form by any means without written permission from the publisher.

Published byUniversity of Pennsylvania PressPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania 9;98<-<997www.upenn.edu/pennpress

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

98 ; = > ? @ < : 7 9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSzpiech, Ryan. Conversion and narrative : reading and religious authority in medieval polemic / Ryan Szpiech. — 9st ed. p. cm. — (Ae Middle Ages series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN ;>=-8-=977-<<>9-> (hardcover : alk. paper) 9. Apologetics—History—Middle Ages, ?88–9@88. 7. Conversion—Christianity—History—To 9@88. :. Religious biography—History and criticism. <. IdentiBcation (Religion)—History—To 9@88. @. Christian converts from Judaism—History. ?. Jewish converts from Christianity—History. >. Muslim converts from Christianity—History. =. Christianity and other religions—Judaism. ;. Christianity and other religions—Islam. 98. Judaism—Relations—Christianity. 99. Islam—Relations—Christianity. I. Title. II. Series: Middle Ages series BT999>.S;> 789:7<=.7'<?8;87—dc7: 789789=8@=

#$/* C(() /* %&,+ .(**/C2+ C3 & 5(22&C(!&#/4+ 1!&0# 6!(% #$+ &0,!+- -. %+22(0 6("0,&#/(0.

E come quei che con lena aDannata,uscito fuor del pelago a la rivasi volge a l’acqua perigliosa e guata,così l’animo mio, ch’ancor fuggiva,si volse a retro a rimirar lo passoche non lasciò già mai persona viva.

[And just as he, who with labored breathing has escaped from the deep onto the shore, turns to the perilous waters and gazes, so my mind, which was still in Eight, turned back to look again at the pass that no living person ever leF.]

—, & 0 # + , Inferno I, 77–7>

5 ( 0 # + 0 # *

Note on Names, Titles, Citations, and Transliteration xi

Introduction: Conversion and History 9

9. From Peripety to Prose: Tracing the Pauline and Augustinian Paradigms :8

7. Alterity and Auctoritas: Reason and the TwelFh-Century Expansion of Authority @;

:. In the Shadow of the Khazars: Narrating Conversion to Judaism ;7

<. A War of Words: Translating Authority in Airteenth-Century Polemic 979

@. Ae Jargon of Authenticity: Abner of Burgos/Alfonso of Valladolid and the Paradox of Testimony 9<:

?. Ae Supersessionist Imperative: Islam and the Historical Drama of Revelation 9><

Conclusion: Polemic as Narrative 79@

Abbreviations 77> Notes 77; Bibliography 7?> Index 7;; Acknowledgments :8;

9

IntroductionConversion and History

Ae past is never dead. It is not even past.—- / 2 2 / & % 6& " 2 ) 0 + ! , Requiem for a Nun

#$+ ,!+&% (6 !&CC/ &C0+!Aere was once a Jew who, well into his adult life, began to think deeply about the trials of his people. One day, he entered a synagogue and, with lamentation and bitterness in his heart, began to pray, “Lord God, I beg you, have mercy on our trials. What is the cause of your anger and fury against your people, the sheep of your pasture? Why will the nations say, ‘Where is their God?’ Lord, hear now my prayer and my cries, and illuminate your desolate sanctuary. Have mercy on your peo-ple Israel.” And with great heaviness of heart, exhausted from the bur-den he had taken upon himself, this Jew grew tired, fell asleep in the synagogue, and began to dream. In his dream he met a great man who said to him, “Why do you sleep? Understand my words, and pay atten-tion: Ae Jews are in such long exile because of their insanity and their ignorance, and because they lack a righteous teacher in whom they may know the truth.” When he awoke from his dream, he began to scour the Bible and books of religion and philosophy for explanations to his questions, but he only grew more doubtful and confused, and vowed to remain steadfast in the faith of his forefathers and not to pay heed to the doubts in his heart. Yet his tribulations and doubts persisted, and his dreams did not stop. A few years later, aFer spending the day fasting, he had another dream in which the same man appeared and scolded him angrily. Ae man ordered the Jew “to arise from his sleep,” telling him,

Introduction7

“You are responsible for the sins of all of the Jews and their children and future generations.” Miraculously, as he said this, the great man made crosses appear all over his clothing. Ae Jew awoke, and aFer dream-ing this same dream repeatedly over many nights, he Bnally vowed to convert to Christianity and to write a book in defense of his new faith.

Such is the story told by the Castilian Jew Abner of Burgos (ca. 97?@/>8–ca. 9:<>), known aFer his conversion as Alfonso of Valladolid or Master Alfonso (Maestre Alfonso), in the opening of his lengthy anti-Jewish polemic, Teacher of Righteousness (Moreh edek), composed in Hebrew in the early 9:78s. Ae text, which survives only in a contempo-rary Castilian translation under the title Mostrador de justicia, is one of the longest anti-Jewish works written in the Middle Ages, comparable to the enormous Dagger of Faith (Pugio ,dei) from 97>= by the Domini-can Ramon Martí (Raimundus Martinus). Unlike Martí’s Dagger, how-ever, Abner/Alfonso’s Teacher is written from a Brst-person perspective that begins with a narrative account of the author’s conversion.

Who was this sorrowful Jew, dreaming of crosses in a synagogue? A variety of sources, including archival documents and polemical trea-tises written by Jews and Christians, conBrm the existence of a real per-son named Abner of Burgos who did become a Christian around 9:78, took the new name Alfonso of Valladolid, and wrote a series of anti-Jewish works in Hebrew, including the Teacher. Was Abner/Alfonso, the double-named author of this Brst-person account, the same man who in the text prayed and dreamed and converted? It seems obvious that the author was also the character in his Brst-person narrative, and at Brst blush there is no reason to doubt that this conversion account describes the author’s experience. Aere is, however, virtually no infor-mation to be found about the real conversion of the author, Abner/Alfonso himself, beyond what can be gleaned from his autobiographi-cal account. We must assume that it happened as he narrates it.

Or must we? Behind the composition of his book, we might imag-ine that there is the experience of the real author that led to the actual event of his conversion, which we know must have occurred shortly before the account of it was composed. Are we correct, therefore, in seeing the elements of this conversion narrative as representations, per-haps embellished but accurate nonetheless, of actual events as well? Ae great historian of Iberian Jewry, Yitzhak Baer, who maintained a life-long interest in Abner/Alfonso, believed we are. AFer summarizing the same account given above, he remarks, “Abner wrestled in spirit for some twenty-Bve years until (shortly before the year 9:79) he announced

Introduction :

his profession of the Christian faith.”1 Historians like Baer can date the public announcement of his new faith and consider it as a historical fact (although since we know of no one else who was there to hear such an announcement and tell of it, even this depends on Abner/Alfonso’s own testimony to a good degree), but Abner/Alfonso’s feelings before his conversion are more problematic. We only know that he “wrestled in spirit for some twenty-Bve years,” as Baer says, because Abner/Alfonso himself tells us he did, and he constructed his story to be read as part of his attack on his former faith. Although one can verify through later evidence external to the text that Abner/Alfonso was a real person who did profess Christianity, the process of that conversion is available only through the account by the author himself written aFer the fact. Per-haps the author Abner/Alfonso did indeed “wrestle in spirit” (whatever this might mean) just as his character did, but his autobiographical tes-timony can only tell us about the struggles of his Bctional counterpart. As Karl Morrison insists in his study of medieval conversion, one must distinguish between the experience of conversion, the “thing felt,” and the document written about it, the “thing made.”

Ais book studies the “thing made” to represent conversion in a variety of medieval works that discuss religious belief and identity, in particular polemical works directed against other religions. In explor-ing the contours of that “thing made,” I consider not only its form and content but also its placement within, and in relation to, other texts. Although my focus is mainly on deliberately constructed accounts like Abner/Alfonso’s, the study includes other sources, such as examples of religious polemic and disputation as well as historiography and exege-sis. I focus on medieval Christian texts, principally from the twelFh century to the BFeenth, but also consider the late antique paradigms on which those texts were modeled, and I contextualize the developments in those stories by comparing them to contemporary narratives of con-version to Judaism and Islam as well. While this broad view includes material from across the Mediterranean, as well as from farther north and east, it focuses on the Western Mediterranean as a center around which there circulated competing and complementary currents of belief in the three Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Ae central question I aim to address is what place such Brst-person stories had in the discourse of religious apology and polemic. Although I focus heavily on Christian sources, I ask the same questions of trea-tises from all three Abrahamic religions: Why did polemical writers tell these stories? What connection did a writer like Abner/Alfonso see

Introduction<

between his story and his theological criticism of Judaism? How would a Jewish reader of this Hebrew text understand such a personal narra-tive? Most important, how did such stories convey meaning as stories? In pursuing these questions, this book attempts to provide a new, inter-disciplinary perspective on medieval writing about religious dispute by viewing it through the lens of literary studies.

By including examples from such separate historical moments and places of origin, I do not at all mean to blur the essential diDer-ences that deBne them or to suggest an absolute homogeneity of either thought or purpose across languages, religions, or historical periods. I do, however, wish to signal a coherence of understanding and of writ-ten form that constituted the backbone of various overlapping or inter-secting traditions of representation. Interpreting late medieval scenes such as those embedded within Abner/Alfonso’s dreams through the lens of late antique and early medieval depictions of conversion will not only oDer a wider historical scope in understanding conversion, but will, I hope, lead us to rethink what we (as postmedieval readers) mean by the term religious conversion and to redraw, or at least challenge, the generic boundaries between the archival, doctrinal, and narrative sources that represent it. As these boundaries change, so also the disci-plinary boundaries between history, religious studies, and literary criti-cism might need to be adjusted in accord with new insights.

I have deliberately used Abner/Alfonso’s story, a confession embed-ded within an anti-Jewish treatise, to raise theoretical and conceptual questions about the nature of individual identity and belief, not to pro-vide deBnitive answers to them, but as a way to adumbrate the premises on which the arguments of this book are based: that there is a funda-mental connection between conversion stories and medieval polemi-cal writing, and that even though these stories are patterned on the model of Christian hagiography (saints’ Lives), the analysis of conver-sion narratives found in disputational texts requires a diDerent set of critical tools than conversion accounts in other forms of historical and devotional writing. As I will show, the connection between conver-sion and polemic is most evident in their shared arguments concern-ing individual and collective identity, arguments that, in turn, share a fundamentally narrative structure. By narrative, I mean not merely, in Gerald Prince’s deBnition, “the representation of events or changes in states of aDairs,” but more speciBcally H. Porter Abbott’s words: “the representation of events, consisting of story and narrative discourse,” in which “story is an event or sequence of events (the action); and narrative

Introduction @

discourse is those events as represented.”2 By narrative structure, I imply the sequence of events as represented in language according to a coher-ent but not necessarily chronological order and unity, one that unfolds from scene to action to eDect and that is enhanced through repetition and retelling. Robert Alter calls this, in the context of biblical prose, the “narrative continuum,” which he deBnes clearly as “a coherent unfold-ing story in which the meaning of earlier data is progressively, even sys-tematically, revealed or enriched by the addition of subsequent data.”3

In stressing their shared structure and form, I aim not only to sig-nal the admittedly obvious connection between conversion stories and polemical argument (the very representation of conversion through narrative is, in the Middle Ages, a form of religious apologetic, an aggressive way to deBne and defend one’s beliefs). Taking this connec-tion as given, this book has three main goals, each tied to the core argu-ments I defend in the remainder of this introduction. Ae Brst goal is to consider the place of conversion narratives in religious dispute, to ask why and how the form of conversion stories serves to express their polemical intentions. In attempting to answer this question, I argue that narrative serves as a Btting vehicle for medieval Christian argu-ments because both the individual conversion story and the general polemical ideas are expressions of a shared understanding of Christian history.

My second goal is to explore the reasons for the renewed impor-tance of stories of conversion in Christian arguments beginning in the twelFh century. In particular, I hope to show the place of conversion stories among the various aspects of Christian disputational writing that began to change in the twelFh century, aspects that also included an increasing use of philosophy, a new focus on non-Christian Scrip-tures, and a heightened interest in the original languages of those sources. I argue that conversion stories, as expressions of sacred his-tory, also become a basis for authoritative proof oDered in light of this evolving deBnition of Christian auctoritas.

Aird, I aim to contextualize the changing importance of conver-sion accounts in Christian texts by comparing them to a few parallel examples from Jewish and Muslim traditions. In Christian writing, the natural conEation of conversion with apology points to the fundamen-tal narrative structure underlying Christian conceptions of religious identity and diDerence within the framework of salvation history. Ae question emerges, in considering contemporary examples from Jew-ish and Muslim traditions, whether the same structure holds beyond

Introduction?

a Christian framework. In comparing Christian, Muslim, and Jew-ish texts, I argue that narratives of conversion play a more prominent role in Christian polemics than they do in Muslim and Jewish treatises because they more Bttingly reEect Christian notions of revelation, sal-vation, and time.

!+!+&,/01 %+,/+4&2 5(04+!*/(0Ae close link between apologetic writing and conversion narrative develops in late antiquity in a unique way in Christianity. Ae devel-opment of antipagan and anti-Jewish texts from the earliest written documents in Christianity (the New Testament letters of Paul of Tar-sus) becomes at the same time a development of the rhetoric of nar-rating conversion. Starting with this connection allows us to see con-version not, or not only, as a type of experience among believers but as a category of discourse alongside other basic categories of Christian expression such as polemic and, even more broadly, biblical exegesis. As it evolves, writing about conversion does not develop in isolation as an independent sort of “life writing” (or ego document) and even less as a subgenre of historiography. Instead, it constitutes part of the debate about a variety of theological and doctrinal problems in Chris-tian thought, problems that, with few exceptions, give way to defensive and oDensive rhetoric as well. Conversion narratives in medieval apol-ogetic sources combine inward-looking apology and outward-looking polemic not through autobiography or historiography, but through what can be better described as a combination of hagiography and her-esiography, an allegorization of the life of an individual believer com-bined with a defensive reEection on the boundaries of acceptable belief. Ae predominance of heresiological concerns is especially evident in early representations of conversion such as those of Christian apologist Justin Martyr (988–9?@), in which conversion is merely one concept in the construction of a nascent vocabulary of anti-Judaism. Similarly, as Nock has noted, the description by the ex-pagan convert Arnobius (d. ca. ::8) of his “having been led into the paths of truth [in vias veritatis inductus]” is couched in a scathing viliBcation of pagan ideas.4 Even the famous narration of the conversion of Augustine of Hippo (:@<–<:8) in his Confessions, hailed so oFen as a foundational moment of mod-ern autobiography, can also be understood as part of his larger oDen-sive against Manichaeism, a project evident in most of his key texts from the :;8s and culminating a few years aFer the Confessions in his

Introduction >

monumental anti-Manichaean treatise Against Faustus. In most of the examples that follow, the narrating of conversion points less to individ-ual experience than to community standards of belief.

My reason for giving more attention to Christian narratives and dis-course than Jewish and Muslim examples is that conversion and con-version stories become particularly important in Christian treatises aFer the twelFh century because Christian notions of argumentative authority and proof begin to change at this time. Most medieval conver-sion stories in Latin polemical texts before the twelFh century rehearse the same themes as earlier biblical and patristic models: the theologi-cal replacement of Israel by the Church, the prophetic fulBllment of the Old Testament in the New, and the obdurate rejection of Christ by the “stiD-necked” Jews. Ae dominant medieval model of such writing, at least up to the eleventh century, is Augustinian. It closely follows the insights and images of Augustine’s intricate exegetical combination of the theological rhetoric of the Pauline Epistles with the narrative depic-tion of the character Saul/Paul in the New Testament book of the Acts of the Apostles. A need to elaborate a new image of textual authority in Christian writing emerges around the twelFh century following a shiF in this Augustinian paradigm of conversion. Ais shiF, I believe, resulted from the introduction of extrabiblical sources into traditional disputational and apologetic writing. While numerous scholars have made a similar claim about Christian, and especially anti-Jewish, policy and debate, I approach the same topic of the twelFh-century evolution of Augustinian ideas in terms of both polemical content and the pre-sentation of that content through narratives of conversion. As the cam-paign against Jews and other non-Christians began, in the late eleventh century and the twelFh century, to blend Augustine’s biblically based interpretations with new positions derived from philosophical reason, the representation of conversion shiFed in tandem, blending imagery from Acts and Augustine with philosophical arguments derived from non-Scriptural sources. In these twelFh-century reformulations, con-verts themselves emerge as characters within their narratives, playing the role of mouthpieces for the elaboration and defense of a new, ratio-nal apologetic.

Ae inEuence of philosophy, however, went beyond the reasons adduced in dispute. TwelFh-century conversion texts do not sim-ply repeat the theological formulas of old but mix philosophical lan-guage and reasons into the warp and weF of their changing discourse. Just as the very concept of what constituted an auctor—a venerated

Introduction=

and credible source cited in authorization of one’s own discourse—expanded in the twelFh century to include not merely biblical testi-monia (citations of well-known verses) but also philosophical authors such as Aristotle and his commentators, so too did other related con-cepts. Most important, the concept of auctoritas—the authority by which proofs were credible—expanded to include the ratiocination of contemporary authors alongside (although never quite equal to) bibli-cal auctores. As the supplanting of the synagogue by the church began to be explained not only through exegesis but also through syllogism, conversion accounts began to include the personal testimony of their authors as a new source of authoritative proof.

Aose conversion narratives appearing at the beginning of longer polemical treatises might thus be compared to the form of the stan-dard medieval prologue. Frequently aGxed to the beginning of common school texts from diDerent branches of learning in the trivium and qua-drivium, such prologues (called variously an accessus in the arts, materia in legal writing, and introitus or ingressus in some exegesis) came in a variety of evolving forms but oFen included some comment on the cir-cumstances of the work’s genesis (the life of the poet, the title, the inten-tion, the contents and order, etc.).5 Ae well-known conversion stories of the twelFh century such as those of Judah/Herman of Cologne and Moses/Petrus Alfonsi (which I consider in more detail below) vividly reEect the theological changes taking place within biblical and Augus-tinian paradigms, above all in their conception of authority. Aey also share important characteristics with the more recognizable examples of academic prologues, oDering the circumstances under which the author came to acquire the authority to speak against his former religion.

Aroughout this book, I use the terms apology and apologetic to refer to writing intended to defend one’s ideas or the ideas of one’s group, and I use polemic and polemical to refer to works intended to denounce the ideas of another individual or group. Aese terms are not mutually exclusive. On the contrary, insofar as polemical discourse itself is inher-ently a form of apologetic, aimed at deBning or reinforcing boundar-ies of group identity against a foil of heterodox diDerence—and apol-ogy always implies a comparative rejection of opposing views—the two terms form an almost indivisible pair. My use of each term in this book aims to highlight the primary mode of the text (oDensive or defensive) but does not assume a Brm distinction between them.

Ae transformation in what constituted authoritative proof in twelFh-century Christian polemical output, embodied so lucidly in the

!"#$%%#&"'%#('"&#)*+$#)%,)-#.+$+)/##

*))0/11222340%553%6410%550'%$$17""819:;:<3*)&=##

Abd al- aqq al-IslHmI, 7;, 9>?, 9;9; al-Sayf al-mamd-d f. l-radd ‘al/ ahb/r al-yah-d, 9;?–788, 78>, 797, 7?8n@, 7?7n<=, 7?:nn@?–?7, 7?<n;9

Abd AllHh ibn SalHm (companion of Muhammad), 799. See also Ibn Is Hq

Abd al-LatIf al-BaghdHdI, 9=:, 7?9n7<Abner of Burgos. See Alfonso of ValladolidAbraham bar iyya, 9<=Abraham (Biblical character), as model of

conversion, ;=, 98:, 9@>Abraham Ibn Ezra , 9<=, 9?<, 9;9Abrogation, 7<, ;8, 977, 9:<, 9>:, 9=<,

9;8–;9, 9;?, 9;;–788, 78>, 798–9:, 79;–79; naskh, 9;?, 788, 797. See also Supersessionism

AbJ al- AbbHs A mad ( af id ruler), 789, 78<, 78?–>

AbJ l-BarakHt al-BaghdHdI, 9=8, 9;9, 7?7n<?

AbJ FHris Abd al- AzIz ( af id ruler), 789, 78?–>, 78;

Accessus ad auctores, =, ><, 7<<n@< Acts of Paul (apocryphal book), 7:@n9Acts of the Apostles (Biblical Book), >,

98, 9=, :8–:7, :<–:@, :;–<8, <@, <=, @9, @<–@>, =>, 777, 7:?–:>; conversion in, 98, 9=, :8–:7, :<–:@, :;–<8, <@, <=, @9 7:=n:>; inEuence on Augustine, :9–:7, <8, @9, @<–@=, 7:=n:>, 7:;n<?;

inEuence on Juan Andrés, :7, :<–:>, <8; inEuence on Solomon Halevi/Pablo de Santa María, :7, <9, <@–<=, @>; as model for later representation of conversion, :8–:9; narrative in, :;–<8; Verses: 0:12, 7:@n?8; 3, <8; 2, <8; 2:13, :@; 11:13–41, 7:@n?8; 15:0, 7:@n?8; 44, <8; 44:0, :@; 44:6, :@; 46:13, :@; 46:2–13, <8; 46:47, 7:@n?8. See also Augustine of Hippo, and Acts of the Apostles; Bible; Paul of Tarsus

Adelard of Bath, ??, 7<7n7>Adorno, Aeodor, 979, 9<<Aelred (abbot of Rievaulx), >@, 7<<n@?Agency, 9:, 9@–9?, ;>, 9;>–;=, 7:9n77,

7:;n@7Agobard of Lynos, ?@, >>, 7<7n7:, 7<:n<=A mad al- HnafI (Morisco author), 78<–@Akiva (Rabbi), 9@9Alain of Lille, ?>, =7, 9=>, 7<7n:8Albert the Great, ?=Alfonso Buenhombre (Alphonsus

Bonihominis), 9>@–>?, 7?8nn:–<; Epistola Rabbi Samualis 9>@, 7?8n:; Disputatio Abutalib, 9>@, 7?8n<

Alfonso of Valladolid (Abner of Burgos), 9–<, ;–9:, 7=, <9–<:, =;, 97:, 9:8, 9:<, 9<7–>?, 9;9–;7, 9;@, 78<, 78?, 78=, 799–97, 79>, 7:=n::, 7@<–?8nn7–;@; ambiguity in, 9?>–>7; authorial voice of,

/ 0 , + K

Index:88

9<@, 9<;–@9, 9?>–?=, 9>7; authority in, 9<;–@:, 9?<–??; conversion narrative of, 9–:, ;–98, 9@>, 9?8–?<; lost and spurious works, 7@@n;; responses to, 7@<n:; rhetorical strategy of, 9<=–?8; views on Muslims, 9><–>@; views on Talmud, 9@7–@:, 9@?–@;, 9?@–??, 9>9;

Alfonso of Valladolid (Abner of Burgos), works of: Libro de la ley, 9<?, 7@@n>, 7@=n><; Min at Qena ot/Ofrenda de Zelos, 9<?, 7@@n>, 7@?n:8, 7@>n:?, 7@=nn?7, ><; Moreh edek/Mostrador de justicia, 9–7, 98, 97, 9<<–><, 9<>, 9;@, 78?, 78=, 7@<nn7, <, 7@@n=, 7@?–?8; Sefer Mil amot Adonai/Wars of the Lord, 9<?, 9?8, 7@@n=; Teshuvot la-me aref/Respuestas al blasfemo, 9<?, 9@8, 9@:, 9@=–@;, 9??, 7@:n:, 7@@n>, 7@?nn9>, 79, 7;, 7@=nn@:, >7, 7@;nn=8, =:, 7?8n;@. See also Dreams and Dreaming

Alfonso X (King of Castile), 97<, 9<?Alonso de Cartagena, <<–<@, <=Alonso de Espina, 9<<, 9?8, 7@=nn@>–@=Alpertus (Albert) of Metz. See WecelinusAlter, Robert, @, 79=, 77;n:, 7?@n@Álvaro de Luna, <:–<<Andraeas (Bishop of Bari), 999–97, 99<Andreas (poem), 79Annals of St. Bertin, ;:, 7<?n9Ansary, Tamim, 79=Anselm of Canterbury, Cur Deus homo, ??,

?=, 7<7nn7@–7?Anselm Turmeda ( Abd AllHh al-

TurjumHn), 7;, 9>?, 788–9:, 79?–9>, 7?8n@, 7?:–?<nn?<–;8, ;:; ambiguity in, 78=–99; Christian ideas of, 78=–99; conversion narrative of, 788–79:; double authorship of, 798–99; and Nicolao Martello, 787–:, 78=–98, 797, 7?:n>8, 7?<n=:; Paraclete in, 78:, 78@, 78>–=, 797;

Anselm Turmeda ( Abd AllHh al-TurjumHn), works of: Cobles de la divisió del regne de Mallorques, 7?<nn=8, =@, =>; Disputa de l’ase, 78@, 78=, 799, 7?<nn=8, =<–=@, =;; Llibre de bons amonestaments, 7?<nn=8, =<–=@; Prophecies, 7?<nn=8, =<; Tu fat al-ad.b f. al-radd al/ ahl al- al.b, 789, 7?8n@, 7?:–?<nn?<–=:, ;8, 789–9:, 79?; authorship of, 78<–@

Anthony (Saint), @9–@:, 999, 7:=n:?Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles

(Apocryphal book), 7:@n9Apollinaris (Saint), ?>Apuleius, Golden Ass, :9Aragon, crown of, 98, 99, 97, <9, 979, 9@>,

9@;, 7:8n97. See also Archival sourcesArchival sources, 7, <, 99–9:, 79, 7:, 78=;

Archivo municipal de Burgos, 7:8n97, 7?<n=:; Arxiu de la Corona d’Aragó, 77;–:8n=; Archivo de la Catedral de Valldolid, 7@@n@

Aretology, 78Aristotle, =, 77, @>–@=, ><, 9:>, 9@@, 7:>n78Arnobius, ?Asad, Talal, 9@, 7:9nn9=, 77Auctor/Auctoritas, @, >–=, 79–77, ?8, ?7–>>,

>;–=:, =@, =>, =;–;7, 997, 978, 977–7;, 9:?–:>, 9<9–<:, 9?<–?>, 9>7–>:, 9=7, 9=<, 9;7, 789, 78?, 7<8n@>, 7<9n9<, 7<7nn79, 7>, ::, 7<:nn:=, <9, <?, 7<<n@;, 7@:nn@8, @7; and ratio, >–=, ?7, ?@–>8, >>–>=, =;, 9=<, 78?, 7<7nn79, 7>, 7<:nn<9, <@; criteria of intrinsic worth and authenticity for, >:–><, >?–>>, =>–;9, 977, 97;, 9:8, 9::–:@, 9<9, 9?@, 9>7–>:, 799, 77:; rejection of, :<, >7–>:, =8, ;<–;@, 98@, 977, 97@–7?, 97=, 9:?–:>, 9:=, 9<=, 9@9, 9@=, 9??–?>, 9=7, 9=>, 9;=, 79;; and testimony, =–;, 79, ?8–?7, ?=–?;, >:, =;, 998, 978–7:, 9::–:<, 9:=, 9<:–<@, 9?@–?>, 9>7–>:, 9>@–>?, 9;:–;<, 78?, 78=–;, 797, 7@:n@7, 7@>n:=. See also Convert, as auctor/auctoritas; Naql; Qur Hn, and auctoritas; Talmud, and auctoritas

Augustine of Hippo, ?–>, 9=, 77, 7?, 7=, :9–:7, <8–<9, <<, @9–@=, ?8–?9, ?@, ?>, >@, =?, ;8, 997, 978, 9>7, 9;>, 789, 77@, 7:9n:8, 7:=–<8nn:@–@=, 7<9nn<–=, 7<7nn79, ::, 7?<; and Acts of the Apostles, :7, @9, @<–@>, 7:=n:?, 7:;nn<?, @9; conversion of, @8–@>, 7:9–:7n:9, 7:=n<7, 7:=–:;n<:, 7:;n<<; legacy of, @>, 77@–7?, 7<8n@>; theory of grace, @<–@>, ?=, 7:;nn<;–@7; theory of typology and ,gurae, @@–@?, 777, 7<8n@:;

Augustine of Hippo, works of: Against Faustus, >, @<; Against Julian, 7<7n79; Cassiciacum dialogues, @<; City of God, 7<7n::; commentaries on Romans,

Index :89

@:–@?, 7:;nn<=, @7; Confessions, ?, 9=, 7?, @9–@>, ?8, 997, 9;>, 7:9–:7n:9, 7:=–:;nn:?–<@; Letters, 7<9n>; Literal Commentary on Genesis, @>, 7<8n@=; On Christian Doctrine, 7:;n<?; sermons, 7:;nn<;, @9; To Simplicianus, @7–@<, 7:;nn<?, <;, @7. See also Acts of the Apostles, inEuence on Augustine; Time, in Augustine

Augustinian Order, ?8, =7, 7<8n@> Authenticity, 9@, 7<, 7=, >:–><, >>, ==–;8,

98=, 978–77, 97?, 97;–:8, 9::–:<, 9:;–<7, 9<<, 9<;, 9@>, 9?@, 9>7–>:, 78?, 78=, 799, 79>, 77:, 7:9n77

Autobiography, ?, 7@, >@, 9=;, 7:<n@<, 7?@n9@

Averroes. See Ibn RushdAvicenna. See Ibn SInHÁvila, messianic movement of, 98, 9?8, 9;@Avitus (Bishop of Clermont-Ferrand), ?<,

7<9n9=Ayllón, messianic movement of, 98, 9?8, 9;@

Badiou, Alain, 7:7n:?, 7:?n9@Baer, Yitzhak, 7–:, 9<=, 77;n9, 7:8n99,

7:>n79, 7@9nn=, 78–79, 7@7nn7?–7>, 7@@n>, 7@?n9<, 7@=n>>

Bakhtin, Mikhael, 7<, 7::n<=al-BakrI, 98< al-BalHdhurI, 9>> Barcelona, ::, 9:?; Disputation of, ;,

979–77, 97>–7;, 9??, 9>9, 7@8n9Barukh ben Isaac of Aleppo, 999Bede, 79Bellah, Robert, 7@, 7:9n9=, 7:<n@?, 7?@n>Benedictines, =7–=:, ==, ;?Benedict XIII (Antipope Pedro de Luna), <7Benjamin, Walter, 7?Berenger of Tours, ??Berger, Peter, 9@, 7:9n9;Bernard of Clairvaux, ?>, 7<?n99=Bernard of Gordon, Lilium Medicinae in

Hebrew, 78>, 7?:n>=Bernat Nadal, 98–9:, 7:Bible, 9, @–=, 9;, 79, 7?–7>, :8–:7, :<, :?–

<8, <7, <@–<;, @>, ?9–?>, ?>–>7, >>, ;7, ;=–988, 98:–<, 98>, 997–9:, 99>–9;, 97:, 97>–:8, 9:7, 9<7, 9@?, 9?<, 9??, 9=8–=7, 9;7, 9;<–;@, 9;;, 79;, 7:<n?8, 7:?n9>, 7<>n9<, 7?8n>; canon of, :9, <?, @<, 7:;n<?, 7<7n::; conversion in, :8–:7, :<–<8, <=–@8, ;=–;;, 7:@n7, 7:?nn9:,

9>, 7<>n9<; Gospels (New Testament), :?–:=, ?@, 97@, 9:9, 9>@, 9;7, 9;<–;@, 9;;, 787–78<, 78?, 798, 797, 777, 7:<–:@n?8, 7:>n78; Gospels in Hebrew, 9:9; Judeo-Latin, 99:; translation of, :=, <>, <;, 99:, 9:9–::, 9<>–<;, 9=7; Books: Acts. See Acts of the Apostles (separate entry); Colossians, 0:2–17, ;8; 0:17, 7:?n9:; 9Corinthians, 1:47, :@; 1:40, :@; 2:1, 7:?n9>; 2:16–18, 7:?n9>; 15:5–8, 7:?n9>; 7Corinthians, 9:6, 7:?n9>; 14:4–9, 7:?n9>; 0:16, 7:?n9>; Daniel, ;@, 9:9; 8, 778; 14:4, 9?<; Deuteronomy, 9=@; 6:8, @8; 13:1, <=; 41:11–10, 97;; 00:4, 9==; Ecclesiastes, 11:17, 7@?n78; Ephesians, 9:44–49, 7:?n9:; Esther, 3:18, 7<> Exodus, 14:92, ;;; 09:09, 7:?n9>; Ezekiel, 9?8; 1:1–0, 79; 19:6, 7?; 08:45, 7@>n::; 95:2, 9?9; Galatians, 1:14, :;; 1:10–15, <@; 9:9:–9>, 7:?n9>; 1:19, :@; 9:2, 7?, 7:?n9>; 9:49–6, 9==; Genesis, @>, >=, 7<8n@=; 14:5, 7<>n9?; 14:6, 7@8n@;; 95:17, 7@>n::; 92:17, ;@, 97>; Isaiah, 9?8, 7:<–:@n?8; 03:12, <@; 99:44, 9?:; 51:18, 9?9; 64:4, ;?; Jeremiah, 1:9–10, 79; Joel, 4:01, 99:, 99>, 7@8n@?; Jonah, 1:6, 9?9; John, :=, 78:, 78>; 1:19, 7?<n=@; 15:45, :>; 15:46, 78:; 9Kings, 3:98–93, 988; Leviticus, 12:09, ;;; 49:44, ;;; Luke, :;, 7:@n?8; 5:04, :>; 10:0, :>; 15:18, ?8; 18:9, 7:@n?8; Mark, 19:92, :>; Matthew, :?, :=, @9, @7, 9:41, :?; 5:18, :>; 14:91–94, 7:@n?8; 46:56, :>; 7Peter, 4:44, 7?; Philippians, 0:4–11, 7:?n9>; 0:3, :@; 0:10, <>; Proverbs, 6:2, 9?:; 10:44, 7@>n::; 44:18, 7@?n78; 46:11, 7?; Psalms, 9;<–;@; 56:5, =?; 52:11, @8, 7:=n::; 83:5–8, @8; 82:17, 9?9; Revelation, 4:2, 7<@n;7; 0:2, 7<@n;7; Romans, 1:1, :;; 6:11, ;8; 17:4, ==; 10:10, @:; Ruth, ;=, 7<>; 9Aessalonians, 1:2, 7:?n9>; Titus, 0:9–8, 7:?n9:. See also Acts of the Apostles; Acts of Paul; Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles; Shepard of Hermas

Birkat Ha-minim, 9@=Blanca de Portugal (Princess of Castile),

9<?, 7@@n=Blanche of Castile (Queen of France), 97<Bodo (Eleazar), ;:–;=, 98<, 99>, 7<?nn9–>.

See also Paulus AlvarusBook of Ahitub and Salman/Sefer A i ub

ve- almon, 79@–9>, 7?@n9

Index:87

Bourdieu, Pierre, 9;;, 7?:n?:Brown, Peter, 7<, @<, 7::n<;, 7:;n<;Bulan (King of Khazars), 987–:. See also

Khazars Bulliet, Richard, 98, 9>>, 9>;, 77;n>,

7:<n@:, 7?9nn=, ;, 97Burgos, 98, 9:, <9–<7, 9?8, 7:8n97. See also

Alfonso of Valladolid; Archival sources Burman, Aomas, 7<:n@:, 7@:nn@8–@9,

7@;n=<BurzLM, 9=;–;8Bynum, Caroline Walker, =>, 77:–7<,

7<?n998, 7??n9?

Cairo, 989, 98:, 99:, 7?9n9>. See also Egypt; Genizah, Cairo

Calvin, John, 77@, 7<8n@>Cancionero de Baena, 97, 7:8n;Castile, Crown of, 9:, <9, <7, 9<:, 9<?, 9@;,

9?:Chazan, Robert, 9??, 7<9n99, 7<:n@8,

7@8n?8, 7@9nn:, ?, =, 9=, 7@<n:Chenu, Marie-Dominique, ?>, 7<9n9<,

7<7nn7>, 7;, :9, 7<:n<?Chilperic I (King of Neustria), debate with

the Jew Priscus, ?<–?@Cicero, @:, ?@, 7:=n<:Clement V (Pope), 9:@Clovis I (King of Franks), ?<Cohen, Jeremy, 9=, ?9, ?;, 7:7n::, 7:>n77,

7<9nn>–;, 99, 7<:nn:=, <@, <=–<;, 7<<n?7, 7<@n;:, 7@8n@@, 7@9nn@–?, =, 7@7n:9, 7@:n@9, 7@<n:

Conrad of Hirsau, ?>Constantine, 9?8Conversion, as aDective, 78–77, 7@, =@,

=;, 7:<n@@; anthropological views of, 9<–9?, 7:9nn9=–9;; and apostasy, 7?–>, ==, ;7, ;<, ;>–;=, 988, 99>, 979–77, 9<:, 9@<, 9@>, 9;9, 799, 79>, 778, 7:<n@;, 7:@n?9, 7<>n9>, 7?8n>; of children, 9:, 79, >@, =<, 989, 9@>, 7:8n97; as Christian concept, @–>, 7>, :8–:9, ;9–;7, 99>–78, 778–77, 77@, 7:9n77; and conquest, 7?, ::, >8, 9>>, 9=?, 9==, 9;<, 77?, 7:<n@=; deBnition, ;–98, 9:–9<, 9?–9>, 7?–7>; as epistroph:/epistreph;, :9, :;, 7:<–:@n?8, 7:?n9>, 7?8n>; facticity of, 7–:, ;, 9=–9;; forced, 9:, 7:, <9–<<, @=, >7, ;:, 9@=, 77?, 7<>n9>, 7?7n<>; as giyyur, ;;–988, 98<, 999, 7<>n9>; through grace, 7?, <?, @<–@>, ?=, 98>, 9@<, 9>;, 9=@, 9;>–;=,

77?, 7:=n:8, 7:;n<;, 7<8n@>; as ironic inversion, 77, 7?, :<, :?–:>, <?–<>, ?8, =9, =@–==, ;:–;<, ;?, 999, 9<9, 9;8, 79:; as Isl/m, 9>>, 9;<, 78>; to Islam, 98–9:, 7?–7>, 9><–79:, 7?8n>; to Judaism, 7?–7>, ;7–978 7<>n9>; of Karaites, 9@>–=; mass, 79, 7:, 7@, <9–<:, 987, 7:>n:9; as metanoia/repentance, :9, :?–:>, :;, ?8, ;;–988, 98<, 9>7, 7:<–:@n?8; as movement from blindness to insight, 98; as narrative, 7–?, ;, 77–7:, 7@, 79>–9;; pietistic understanding of, 9=, 78–79, 7@; as “placeholder,” 9?; platonic notion of, 9<, :9, :=, 7:@n:; as plot climax, 9=, :9, :>, @9 @:, 99?, 9@;, 9?:, 9>>, 9;=, 7:<n@>, 7:>n78, 7:;n<:; as process vs. as event, 98, 97, 7:7n:?; reality vs. representation of, 7–?, ;–9<, 9>–7<; as reform, :?–<8, <?, ?8, >@; as representation, 7, <–>, 9@–9;, 77–7?, 7=–7;, @;–?9, 989, 99<–9@, 99;, 97>, 9>8–>:, 9>?, 9=>, 9;8, 797, 79?, 79;–77, 77;n7, 7::n<?; as rereading, ?, <@–@:; as revelation, 7?, :@, :;, <@–<?, @8, ?<, ?>–?=, =@, 98?, 99>, 9<8, 9?7–?:, 9>>, 9==, 9;8, 9;<, 9;?–788, 787–78<, 78?, 78;, 797, 79>, 79;–77, 7:?n9>; as rupture, :?–<8, =7, =;, 99;, 77:, 7?@n9@; scholarly approaches to, 9<–9?; as shuv/teshuvah, 7?, 988, 98<, 999, 7:<–:@n?8, 7?8n>; sociological views of, 9<–9?, 7:9n9=; terms for, 7?–7>, 7<>n9>, 7?8n>; as tahawwada, 98@, 98=, 7?8n>; as teshuvah/repentance, 988, 98<, 999; and translation, 7=, :<, <>, <;, >7, ;8, ;:, 99:, 978–7:, 9:8–:<, 9:=, 9<?–<;, 9=7, 9=;, 9;;, 78?–;, 799, 7<:n@:, 7@@n=; of/by women, 79, =?, 989, 98<, 9@>, 7:<n@@, 7<?n98@. See also Acts of the Apostles, conversion in; Augustine, conversion of; Convert; Prophetic calling

Convert, as apostate, 7?–7>, =7, ;8, 799; as auctor/auctoritas, 79, ?8, ><–>@, =>, =;–;8, 98=, 977, 9::–:<, 9<9, 799, 7?@–??n9@; as character in narrative, >–=, 7<–7?, >>, =9, ;?, 999, 9>9, 9=;, 799, 79?; as chronotope, 7<; as double, 7, 9>, 7?, 7=, :>–:=, <8, <;, @?, >>, >;, =@, ;8, 9<9, 9?<, 9?>–?;, 9>7, 9=>, 9=;–;8, 799, 79?–9=, 77:–7<, 7??n9?; as “fair captive,” 97;–:8, 7@7n:<; as ger/stranger, ;;–988, 998, 7<>n9>; as hybrid, 79, 7@, :8, >:–><, >;, =7, ;8, 99:,

Index :8:

9<9, 9?@, 9>8, 799, 79>, 77<, 7<?n99=, 7??n9?; limpieza de sangre and, <<; as lost sheep, @;–?8, =>–==, ;9; as mythic hero, 79?–9>; as new self, 9<, 7?, :9, <<, <>, >;, ;8, 77<; as racially inferior, <<, ;@, ;;–988, 98?, 99@; “real” vs Bctional, 9;–7<, ?9, >:, =;, 989, 77?; as symbol of communal history, 77, 7<, :9, @8, ?9, >:–><, =7, 98?, 99@, 778–79; as witness, :<, ?8–?9, =9, =<–=@, 9::, 9?@, 9><, 9;9, 9;:, 798–99, 7:?n9>. See also Converison

Crusades, chronicles of, >@, 7<<n@>; Brst, >8, >@, 999, 99?

Dahan, Gilbert, >8, 7<9nn;, 9?, 7<:nn:;, <9–<7, 7@:n@8, 7@<nn??–?>

Dante Alighieri, 7<, ?:, 77<, 7<9n9:Danto, Arthur, 7:7n:?David Kim i, 9<=DHwJd ibn MarwHn al-Muqammi , 98>Decartes, René, 77?Deleuze, Gilles, 7:7n:?DeWeese, Devin, 9@–9?, 9>=–>;, 7:9n7<,

7<=n77, 7?9nn98, 9<Dominicans, ;, 7:, 7=, >7, 977–7>, 9<>, 9@9;

“missionizing” of, 97?–7>Donin, Nicholas, 97:–7@, 97>, 9@=–@;,

7@9nn@–=Dreams and Dreaming, 9–7, <, 98, >@,

=:–=?, 98@, 997–9:, 99@–9>, 9:;, 9<>, 9@8, 9?9–?@, 9?>, 9=7, 9=<–==, 9;8, 9;:–;?, 9;;, 778, 7<@n;9, 7@=nn?7, >8–>7, 7?9–?7n7;, 7?:n>=; in Abner of Burgos/Alfonso of Valladolid, 9–7, <, 98, 9<>, 9@8, 9?9–?>, 7@=nn?7, >8–>7; in Giuàn/Obadiah, 997–9:, 99@–9>; in Guibert of Nogent, >@; in Islam, 9=>, 7?7nn7;, :>; in Juan de Aviñon, 7?:n>=; in Judah/Herman of Cologne, =:–=?, 7<@n;9; in the Kuzari, 98@, 99@; in Ramon Llull, 9:;; in Sa Id asan of Alexandria, 9;:–;?, 9;;; in Samaw al al-MaghribI, 9=8–=7, 9=<–==, 9;8, 9;@–;?, 9;;

Durkheim, Émile, 9<, 7:8–:9n9>

Ecclesia and Synagoga, ?7, 7<9n98 Egbert (Bishop of Münster), =7, =?Egypt, 78, ;;, 997, 97;, 9>?, 7?8n@. See also

Cairo; Genizah, CairoEleuchadius (Saint), ?>Eliade, Mircia, 99;, 7:?n99Eusebius, 9?8, 7@=n@;

Ferdinand I (King of Aragon), ::Ferrán Martínez (archdeacon of Écija), <9Figuralism and typology, in Christianity,

7<–7@, 7;, :>, :;, <;–@8, @@–@?, ?7, ?<, =;–;8, 98?, 99=–9;, 9??, 9>?, 9==, 9;9, 788, 79:, 778–77, 77:–7<, 7<8n@:, 7@8nn@;–?9; in Islam, 9==, 797–9:, 779; in Judaism, 98?, 99=–99;, 779; narrative ambiguity and, 9>7–>:; 77:–7<

Fletcher, Richard, ;<, 7::n<9, 7:<n@:, 7<?n:

Foucault, Michel, 7:@n:Franciacans, ;, <7, >7, 97<, 9<9, 787, 78<,

78?, 78=, 7@:n@<Fredriksen, Paula, 77–7:, @<, @>, 79;,

7::n<@, 7:?n9?, 9=, 7:;nn<>, <;, @9 Funkenstein, Amos, 99;, 7::n<>, 7<9n99,

7<:nn<9, <@, <=, 7<@n?;, 7@8nn@;–?8

Galen, 9=;Garci Ferrandes de Jerena, 97, 7:8n;Geertz, CliDord, 9@, 7:9nn9=, 79Genette, Gérard, 77;n7, 7:>n78, 7<8n@<Genizah, Cairo, ;=, 989–9>, 77@, 7<>n=,

7<=nn78–79, 7<;nn7:>–:=, <<, 7?9n9=. See also Khazars; Judah Halevi, Kuzari; Nestor, Polemic of; Giuàn/Obadiah of Oppido

al-GhazHlI, 97@, 9>=, 9=;GhHzHn KhHn, 9;@Gilbert Crispin, ??, ?=, >9, 9@?, 9>8, 7<:n:=;

Disputatio Judei et Christiani, ??, ?=Gilbert of Poitiers, ?<, 7<9n9?Giuàn/Obadiah of Oppido, 998–9>, 789,

7<;nn<<–@8, 7@8nn@9–@<; polemic in, 99?–9>. See also Dreams and Dreaming

Goitein, S.D., 7<=n79, 7@8n@7Golb, Norman, 989, 998, 99?, 7<=nn78–77,

7?–7>, 7<;nn<<, <?, <;, 7@8nn@:, @?Greece, 78, :8–:9, :=, 98:, 778Gregory IX (Pope), 97:Gregory of Tours, ?<, =9, 7<9n9=, 7<7n9;Guibert of Nogent, >@, 7<<nn@@, @?, @=;

works of: Gesta Dei per Francos, >@, 7<<n@=; Monodiae, >@, 7<<n@@

Guillaume d’Auvergne (Bishop of Paris), 97:

Guillaume de Flaix, >@, 7<<n@@Gui Terré (Guido Terreni, Bishop of

Mallorca), 9<9, 7@<n?>

Index:8<

adIth, >7, 97<–7@, 9;<, 7@9n99Hagiography, <, ?, 9;–79, 7:, 7@, 7=, =?,

9:=, 9>=, 77@, 7::n<8; Aelfric’s Lives of Saints, 79; in Islam, 9>=, 77@, 7?9n99

Hahn, Cynthia, 78, 7::n<8Hames, Harvey, 9:?, 9<8, 7<;n<:, 7@9n:,

7@:n<;, 7@<n?<Harpham, GeoDrey, 7:, 77:, 7::n<?,

7:<n@<, 7?@n9<asdai ibn Shaprut, 987

Hecht, Jonathan, 9<;Heilsgeschichte. See Salvation HistoryHeinrich II (King of Germany), ;>Heinrich V (King of Germany), =:Herman of Cologne (Judah), =, 9=, 78,

@;–?7, >?–>>, =7–;9, 98<, 99>, 9:;, 9<@, 9=>, 78=, 7@=n>8; ambiguity in, =;; anti-Jewish polemic in, ==; inversion in, =?–==; Opusculum de conversione sua, 9=, @;–?7, >?, =7–;9, 78=, 7<9nn9–:, 7<@nn=:–989, 7<?nn987–99?, 978

Herod Agrippa II, <8Honorius Augustodunensis, ?=Host-desecration accounts, 79, 7<. See also

Ritual murder accountsHugh of St. Victor, ?;, 7<7n::

Ibn Daud, 9<=Ibn FadlallHh al- UmarI, 7:8n;Ibn Is Hq, 799. See also S.rat Ras-l All/hIbn KammJna, 9=9Ibn Rushd, 97@Ibn SInH, 97@, 9=:, 7?9n7<Idel, Moshe, 99=, 7@8n@>Ignatius of Loyola, 77@IkhwHn al- afH (Brethren of Purity), 78@,

7?:n>:Innocent IV (Pope), 97<Inquisition, Spanish, ::, <<, 77?Iogna-Prat, Dominique, >7, 7<:nn<:, <@,

<>, <;Isaac ibn Ezra , 9;9Isaac Pollegar, 9<?, 9@:, 9@=, 9??, 9>7,

7@<n:, 7@=n>7Isabel I (Queen of Castile), 9:, ::Isidore of Seville, 7<7n::Islamization, 7@, 9>>–>;, 9=?

Jacob ben Reuben, 99<, 9@7James, William 9<–9@, 7:8n9@Jameson, Fredric, 7::n<?Jaume I (King of Aragon), 979

Jerome, 9:7Jerónimo de Santa Fe (Joshua Halorki),

9<<Jesus, and authority, ?8–?9, ?<–?@, >9–>7;

and conversion, :@–:;, <@, 9:=, 9<8, 9?:, 7:8n;; and cosmic irony, =>, ;<; in Islam, 97@, 9:8–:9, 9><–>@, 9=<, 9;9, 78:, 78?, 797, 79=–9;; rejection of, >, 99, ;?, ;=, 98=, 79;, 7:8n;; in Talmud, 979, 97>–7=, 9<>, 9@:

Jethro (Biblical character), as model of conversion, ;=, 7<>n9:

Jews, as disbelievers of authority, >9–>:; conversion to/among, ;7–978; Bguralism in, 99=–978; as hermeneutical “witnesses” to Christianity, @8, @=, ?8–?9, >9, =9, =<–=@, 9::, 9>8, 9>7, 9;9, 77<, 7<?n99=; as less than human, ?;, >9, =<, 7<:n<@, 7<@n;7; “StiD-necked,” >, 9:?, 9@<–@;, 9>8–>9

John Scotus Eriugena, ?@–??, 7<7n77Jones, Linda, 9=8, 7::n<7, 7?9n9@, 7?@n97Joseph and Aseneth, 7:@n9Joseph ben Nathan OGcial, 7@9n=Joseph Kim i, 99<, 9<=, 9@8, 9@7Juan Andrés, 7>, :7–<9, 9>:, 789, 7:@–

:?nn<–=; historical identity of, ::–:<Juan de Aviñon (Moses ben Samuel of

Roquemaure), translation of Bernard Gordon, 78>, 7?:n>=

Juan I (King of Castile) <9Juan II (King of Castile) <7Judah (Herman of Cologne). See Herman

of CologneJudah Halevi, 988, 98<–98>, 99;; Kuzari,

98<–98>, 99<–9@, 7<=n7=, 7<;nn:8–:?; view of converts, 988, 98?–>. See also Dreams and Dreaming

Judah Ibn Tibbon, 98<, 99< Justin Martyr, ?, 9@?

Kabbalah, 99=, 7@<n:. See also ZoharKal.lah and Dimna, 9=;–;8Karaites, 9@>–@=, 9?7, 7@>n<=Keane, Webb, 9@, 7:9nn9=, 77Kellner, Menachem, 988, 7<=nn99=–9;Khazars, 987–98>, 98;, 99<–99?, 978,

7<=nn77–7;; Khazar Correspondence, 987–<, 7<=n7:; Schechter Letter (Cambridge Letter), 98:–<, 999, 7<=n7?. See also Judah Halevi, Kuzari

Index :8@

Konrad I (Duke of Carinthia), ;>KrstiN, Tijana, 79:, 7?:n>7, 7?<n;7Kruger, Steven, 9>, 7@, =@, 7:9n7=, 7:<nn@@,

@>, 7<<n@=, 7<@nn;9, ;=, 7<?n99;Lanfranc (Archbishop of Canterbury), ??,

7<7n7< Lasker, Daniel, 98@–?, 7<:n<9, 7<;nn:7,

:@, :;, <: Legenda Aurea, 79, 7::n<9Life of Godfried of Cappenberg, =7, 7<@n=<Lifshitz, Felice, 78, 7::n:;Louis I, the Pious (King of Aquitaine), ;:Louis IX (Saint, King of France), 97<

Maimonides, <>, 988, 9<=, 9??, 9;9, 7<>n9?, 7<=nn9=–9;, 7@=n>9, 7?8n;:, 7?7n<>;

Maimonides, works of: Iggeret Ha-Shemad/Epistle on Forced Conversion, 7?7n<>; Iggeret Teman/Epistle to Yemen, 7?7n<>; responsa on conversion to Obadiah, 7<>n9?

Manichaeism, ?–>, @:–@@, 7:=n:?, 7:;nn<>, @9; rejection of Old Testament, @<; rejection of Acts, @<, 7:;n@9

Marian miracle accounts, 78–79Marius Victorinus, @:, ?8, 999–97, 9;>,

7:=n:?Martín García (Bishop of Barcelona), ::Martin Luther, <:, 77@, 7:>n7:, 7<8n@>Meir ben Simeon of Narbonne, 9@7Michel de Montaigne, 77?Midrash, <:, <>, >7, >>, 988, 97=–:8,

9<=, 9?>; Halakhic vs. Aggadic, 97=, 9??–?>, 7@;nn=9–=7; Genesis Rabbah, 03, ;=; 98:17, 7<>n9?; 87:6, 7@8n@;; Lamentations Rabbah, 97=; Leviticus Rabbah, 4, 7<>n9?; Tan uma, Lekh Lekha, 14, 7@8n@;

Miles, Jack, 9;, 7::n:>Minnis, Alastair J., >:–><, ;8, 77;n@,

7<9n9<, 7<7n7=, 7<:n@9, 7<?n9>Monica (mother of Augustine), =?, 7:=n:?Moore, R.I., >8, 7<9n99, 7<:n<:Morrison, Karl, :, 98, 9?–9>, =>, 9>>–>;, 79:,

7:9nn7?, 7;, 7:7n::, 7::n<:, 7:<n@@, 7:@n?9, 7<?n98>, 7@=n>8, 7?8n?, 7?@n99

Moses Chiquitilla, 9<=Moses Narboni, 9<?, 7@<n:, 7@@n@Muhammad, 99–97, ::–:@, 97<–7@, 9=<–=;,

9;9–;@, 9;>–;=, 788, 78:–@, 799–97, 79=Muslims, and conversion to Islam, 9>>–79:;

ideas of history, 9=:, 9=>–9;8; 9;;–788,

797–9:; as hermeneutical “witnesses” to Christianity, 9><–>@. See also Conversion, as Isl/m; Conversion, to Islam; Polemic, Muslim anti-Christian; Polemic, Muslim anti-Jewish; Time, in Islam

Nahmanides, 99;, 979, 97>–7;, 9<=, 9@<, 9??, 7@8nn@;, 7, 7@9–@7nn77–7@; typology in, 99;, 7@8n@;

Naql (received tradition), 9=<, 9=>, 78@–?Narrative and narration, <–@, 7<–7@; as

constituting identity, 9;–78, 77–7<, 79=–9;, 777, 7?@n>; continuum, @, ;8, 79=; delay and drama, 98, @;–?8, ;8, 9?=, 9;>–;=, 79?, 79;, 777; diegesis in, <8, 7:>n78; mimesis in, 7<, <8, 7:>n78; opposed to argumentation, 77@; peripety (peripeteia) in, 77, =;, 9=?, 79?, 7:>n78; structure, <–@, :7, 78>, 79>–9=, 777, 7:7n:?, 7<8n@:; repetition, @, <8, @8–@:, 99=–9;, 9>?, 777–7<

Nasi Todros I of Narbonne, 989Nestor, Polemic of (Sefer Nestor Ha-Komer),

98=–98, 99<, 99>, 9<=, 7<;n<:. See also Qis at Muj/dalat al-Usquf

Nicholas of Lyra, <7–<:, <;, 9<9, 7:>nn77, 7?, 7@>n:>

Niemeyer, Gerlinde, 9=, 7:7n::, 7<<n?8Ni a on Vetus, 99<Nock, A.D., ?, 9<–9@, 9=, :>, 7:8n9?,

7:7n:<, 7:@nn7–:, 7:?n;, 7:=n:?

Obadiah ha-ger. See Giuàn/Obadiah of Oppido

O’Donnell, James J., @:, 7:7n:9, 7:;n<@, 7<7n79

Odo of Cambrai, =>, >9Oldradus de Ponte, 9><–>?, 7?8n7Otloh of St. Emmeran, >@, 7<<n@?Ovid, Metamorphoses, :9

Pablo Christiani. See Pau Cristià Pablo de Santa María (Solomon Halevi), ;,

7>–7=, :7, <9–@9, @:, @>–@=, 9<9, 9<<, 9?8, 9>:, 7:>nn77–7:, 7@–7?, 7:=nn7>–:<, 7<8n@=; conversion narrative of, <:–@9;

Pablo de Santa María (Solomon Halevi), works of: Additiones, <7, <;–@8, @>, 9<9, 79?, 7:>nn77–7?, 7:=nn7>–:<; Scrutinium Scripturarum, <7–<:, <;,

Index:8?

9<9, 9<<, 79?, 7:>n77, 7@=n@>; Siete edades del mundo, 9<9–<7

Paris, 97:–7<, 9:=, 9<8, 78@, Fra Pau Cristià in, 977, 97=–7;, 9??

Pascal, Blaise, 77?Pau Cristià, ;, 979–77, 97>–7;, 9:?, 9??, 9>9Paulinus of Nola, ?8Paul of Tarsus (Saul), >, 98, :9–:7, :<–<8,

<7, <@, <>–<=, @9–@=, =>–==, ;8, 9==, 7:7n:?, 7:?–:>nn97–9=, 7:=n:?; conversion of, 98, :9–:7, :<–<8, <@, <=, @9, @@–@>, =>–==, ;8, 7:?n9>, 7:?–:>n9=; Epistles, ?; names “Saul” and “Paul, 7:?n97

Paulus Alvarus, ;<–;?, ;=, 9@<, 7:=. See also Bodo

Pelikan, Jaroslav, ?:, 7<9n97Pero Sarmiento, Sentencia-Estatuto, <<Peter (Saint), :;, ?>Peter Abelard, Collationes (Dialogus inter

Philosophum, Iudaeum et Christianum), ?>, 7<7nn7=–7;

Peter Damiani, ?>–?=, 7<7nn:@–:?; Dialogus inter Iudaeum Requirentem et Christianum e Contrario Respondentem, ?=; 7<7n:?

Peter Lombard, ?;; Sententiae, 7?:n?=Peter of Blois, ?;Peter the Venerable (Abbot of Cluny), ?;,

>9–>:, =:, 99?, 97<–7@, 7<:nn<8, <@, 7@8n@@, 7@9n9>; works of: Adversus Iudaeorum Inveteratam Duritiem, ?;, >7, 7<:nn<8, <@; Contra Sectam Sarracenorum, >7, 7@9n9>

Peters, Gerald, 9<, 7:8n9<, 7:@n7Petrus Alfonsi (Moses), =–;, 7=, <:, ?9–?7,

>9–>7, >?–=7, =@, =;–;8, 98<, 99>, 977, 97<–7@, 9:;, 9<@–<?, 9<=–<;, 9@?, 9=8, 9=>, 789, 797, 79>, 7:=n::; Dialogus contra Iudaeos, >7, >?–=7, =@, =;–;8, 9<;, 7<<nn?8–?=, 7<@nn?;–=9, 7@>n:;; ambiguity in, =;–;8; authority in, >=–=9; Qur Hn in, >=; rabbinical writing in, >;

Plato/Platonism, 9<, :9, ?>, 9:>, 7:@n:, 7:;n<<

Plotinus/Neoplatonism, :9, :=, @:, 7:@n:Polemic, :–=, 79–7?, :;, <7–<:, ?:, 98>–;,

97?–7>, 9:<, 9:?, 9:=, 9<=–<;, 9?>–?=; and apology, =; auctoritas and ratio in, ?7–><, 9;@; Christian anti-Jewish, 9–7, ?–>, <9–@9, @;–?7, ?<–;9, ;:–;=,

97:–7<, 97>–:<, 9<<–>:, 778, 777; Christian anti-Muslim, ::–<9, 97@–7?, 9:8, 9:<–<7, 9><–>?; deBnition of, @; and history, 79;–77; Jewish anti-Christian, 98=–98, 99<–9@, 79@–9?, 779; Muslim anti-Christian, 789, 78@–?, 78=–98, 79:, 779–77; Muslim anti-Jewish, 9=8–=9, 9;8–;7, 9;<–788, 79:, 779–77; as narrative, 79=–7<

Ponticianus, @7–@:, 7:=n:?Porton, Gary, ;;, 7<>n9@Premonstratensian Order, =7, ==Pritsak, Omeljan, 987, 7<=nn77–7:, 7?–7>Prophetic Calling, 79, :8, :>, :;, 997, 99@,

99;, 9?8, 9?:–?<, 7:?n9=, 7?:n>=Proudfoot, Wayne, 97

Qis at Muj/dalat al-Usquf, 98=, 99<. See also Nestor, Polemic of

Quintillian, ?@ Qur Hn, ::–:<, <8, >7, ><, >?, >=, 977,

97<–7@, 9:8–:9, 9><–>@, 9;7–;<, 78<, 7<:n@:, 7@9nn99–9>; and auctoritas, >7, ><, >=, 977, 97<–7@, 9:8–:9, 9>@; in Hebrew characters, 9:9; Jesus/Mary in, 9:8, 9><–>@ 7@9n9@; translation of, :<, >7, 97@, 9:8, 9:9, 9::, 7<:n@:, 7@9n9:; Suras: 1, 9;:; 9:181, 9:8; 96:51, 9;<; 59:1, 7@9n9:. See also, Robert of Ketton

Rabanus Maurus, ?@, 7<7nn77, ::Rahab (Biblical character), as model of

conversion, ;=, 7<>n9:Rambo, Lewis 98, 7:9nn7:, 7@, 7:<nn@>, @;,

7:@n?9, 7?7n7;Ramon Llull, ;; on authority, 9:?–:=,

7@:nn@8–@7; “conversion” of, 9:=–<9, 7@:n@<; at Council of Vienne, 9:@; criticism of Ramon Martí, 9:@–:>; Miramar, 9:<, 7@7n<7;

Ramon Llull, works of: Ars brevis, quae est de inventione iuris, 9:>; Ars compendiosa inveniendi veritatem, 9:>; Liber de acquisitione terrae sanctae, 9:@; Liber de convenientia ,dei et intellectus in obiecto, 9:?; Liber de ,ne, 9:@; Libre de contemplació en Deu, 9:?; Vita coetanea, 9:=–<9

Ramon Martí, 7, ;, 977–7?, 97>, 97;–:;, 9<9, 9<:, 9<?, 9<;, 9@<–@?, 9??, 9>9, 9>@, 9=7, 7<<n@;, 7@9nn98–9@, 7@7nn:9–<9, 7@:n<<, 7@<nn9, :, 7@?nn9=, 7=;

Index :8>

citation of New Testament in Hebrew, 9:9; citation of Qur Hn in Hebrew characters, 9:9; inEuence of, 9<9–<7; theory of language, 9:8–:<;

Ramon Martí, work of: Capistrum Iudaeorum, 97;–::, 9<;, 7@7nn:9, ::, :@–:?, :=, <8, 7@?n9=; De Seta Machometi, 97<–7@, 9:8, 9::, 7@9n9:, 7@7n:@; Explanatio simboli apostolorum, 97<–7@, 97;, 9::, 7@9nn99–97; Pugio ,dei, 7, 97@, 97;, 9:9–::, 9??, 7<<n@;, 7@9nn9<–9@, 7@7nn:9–:7, :>, :;, <9, 7@<n:, 7?8n;7. See also Ramon Llull, criticism of Ramon Martí

Rashi, <>, 9<=, 9??, 7<>n9?Reason, as ratio, >–=, ?9, ?@–?;, >>–>=,

=>–=;, 9<:, 9=<, 7<7nn79, 7>, 7<:n<9; as aql, 9=<, 9=>, 78@–?. See also Naql

Reformation, 78, 7:9n99, 7<8n@>Rekhmire (vizier of Autmose III and

Amenhotep II), :9Resnick, Irven, >=–>;, 7<<n?9, 7<@n><Reynolds, Dwight, 9=@, 7:8n;, 7::n:=,

7?:n?=Riccoldo da Monte di Croce, ;, 97@, 7@9n9?Richard of St. Victor, ?<, 7<9n9>Ricoeur, Paul, 9;, 79=, 7:7n:?, 7::–:<n@7,

7<8n@<, 7?@n<, 7??n9>Riots of 9:;9, 7:, <9–<:, 7:>n79Ritual murder accounts, 79; martyrs of

Blois 7@8n?8. See also Host-desecration accounts

Robert of Ketton, >7, 7<:n@:Roscelin of Compiègne, ?>Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 77?Rubin, Miri, 7<, 7::n@8Rubin, Nissan, 99=, 7@8n@=Rupert of Deutz, =7–=?, ==, 7<@n;7, 7<?n9<

Sa adya Ga on, 988, 9<=, 797Sa Id asan of Alexandria, 7;, 9>?, 9;9–;?,

9;=, 788, 78>, 7?8n@; Mas/lik al-Na ar f. nub-wati sayyid al-bashar, 9;7–;?, 7?7nn<=–@7, 7?:nn@<–@@

Salvation History, @–?, 7:–7<, :7, @8, @?, ?8, 989, 98?, 99=–78, 9>?, 788, 79:, 777–7:, 77?, 7:?n9@, 7?:n?:

Samaw al al-MaghribI, 7;, 9>?; If Hm al-Yah-d, 9=8–788, 78>, 79:, 7?8n@, 7?9nn9>–7:, 7@@–7=, 7?7nn:8–<?, @9

Samuel (Prophet), 9=@, 9=>–==Samuel ben Isaac ha-Sefardita, 989

Saperstein, Marc, 99;, 7@8nn@;, ?9Schechter letter (Cambridge letter). See

Khazars Schleiermacher, Friedrich, On Religion, 97Schmitt, Jean-Claude, 78, @;, =<, ==,

7:7n::, 7::n:=, 7<9nn:, 98, 7<<n@?, 7<@nn=<, ;9, 7<?n99<

Sefer Yosippon, 9<=Sefer Zerubavel, 9<=Seidman, Naomi, =9, 7:9n7=, 7<@n=8Sergius Paulus (Proconsul of Cyprus),

7:=n:?Shepard of Hermas, 7:@n9Sicily, 999, 78<, 78?, 78;, Christian

conquest of, >8 Simplicianus, @7, @<S.rat Ras-l All/h (Al-S.ra), 799, 7@9n99Solomon Ibn Adret, 9@;–?8, 9>9–>7, 7@<n:,

7@=n@?; Perushei Aggadot, 9>9–>7, 7@<n:Spiegel, Gabrielle, 7@8n?8Stock, Brian, @?, 7:;n<:, 7<8n@@Stromberg, Peter, 9@, 7::n<>, 7::–:<n@7SuBsm, 9>=, 9=@–=?, 9=;Supersessionism, >, 7;, :=, <>, @? ;9, ;?, 98?,

99>, 99;, 9>:, 79;, 779–77, 77<. See also Abrogation

Ta rIf (falsiBcation), 9>:, 9=<, 9;7, 9;?, 9;=–;;, 797, 79;

Talmud, <:, <>, @>, >7, ><, >?–>;, 979–7>, 97;–:7, 9<9, 9<<, 9<=–<;, 9@7–@<, 9@?, 9@=–@;, 9?@–??, 9?;, 9>9, 7<>n9<, 7@9n?, 7@7n:9, 7@>n@8, 7@;n=9; and auctoritas, >7, ><, >?, >;, 977–7@, 97>–:7, 9<;, 9@7, 9?@–??, 9>9; burning of, 97:–7<, 9@=–@;; and heresy, >7, 9@=, 9??, 7@9n?; Tractates (Bavli): Berakhot 7>@n@8; 09b, 988; 58b, 7?7n@:; Bava Me ia 0b, 7@;n>=, 7?8n;:; Gittin 97b, 7@;n>=, 7?8n;:; agigah 0b, 7@?n78; 10a, 7@>n:=; Kiddushin 65b, 7@;n>=; Niddah 10b, ;;; Rosh Ha-Shanah 4b, 9:9, 7@7n:?; Sanhedrin 2a, 7@>n::; 02b, ;;; 97a, 9?@; 99a, 7<>n9>; Shabbat 55a, 9?:; Shavuot 02a, 7@>n::; Yebamot 98b, ;;; Zeva im 116b, 7<>n9:

Targum, 9=7. See also Bible, translation ofTaylor, Charles, 9;, 7:7n:@, 7<8n@>Aomas Aquinas, @>, ?9, >9, 9:@, 7<8n@=,

7<9n=, 7<:n<?; works of: Summa contra Gentiles, >9, 9:@, 7<:n<?; Summa <eologica, 7<8n@=

Time, ?, 9>, 9;, 7<, :7, ;>, 99?, 9><, 7:7n:?;

Index:8=

in Augustine, @@–@>; in Christianity, ?, 7<, :7, :>, @@–@?, ;>, 99=, 79=–7:, 7:?n9@, 7:>n78, 7<8n@<, 7?@n=, 7??n9>; in Islam, 9=:, 9==, 9;;–788, 7?:n?:; in Judaism, 99=–78, 7@8nn@>–?8; kairos vs. chronos, 7:>n78

Tolan, John, 7<7n7>, 7<:nn<=–<;, 7<<nn?8–?9, 7@9n9>, 7?8n?

Toledo, <:–<<, >8; anti-converso legislation of 9<<; in, <:–<<, 7:>n7<; Christian conquest of, >8

Tortosa, 99–97, 79?; Disputation of, 79?Trivium and Quadriviuum, =, ?:, ><

Urban II (Pope), 99?–9>

Valencia, ::, :@, <9Venantius Fortunatus, ?<, 7<9n9=Vitz, Evelyn, =?, 7<?n98<

Wasserstein, David, 9>;, 7@8n@7, 7?9n9:

Weber, Max, 9<–9@, 7:9n9=Wecelinus, ;:, ;?–;=, 989, 98<, 99>,

7<?–<>nn=–97; in Cairo Genizah, 7<=n78

White, Hayden, 7@, 7::n<>, 7:<n@>Wiegers, Gerard, ::, 7:@n@William of Conches, ?>, 7<7n7;William of Saint Aierry, ?>, 7<7n7;Wills, Garry, 7?, @:, 7:7n:9, 7:@n?9,

7:=n:?

Xanthippe and Polyxena, 7:@n9Xàtiva, :7–::

Ya qJb ibn Killis, 9;9, 7?7n<?Ye iel ben Joseph of Paris, 97<, 9@;, 7@9n=Yerushalmi, Yosef, 99=, 7@8n@=

Zimmerman, Michel, ?<, 7<9n9@Zink, Michel, :;, 7:?n9@, 7@:n@<Zohar, 988, 99;. See also Kabbalah

!"#$%%#&"'%#('"&#)*+$#)%,)-#.+$+)/##

*))0/11222340%553%6410%550'%$$17""819:;:<3*)&=##