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Spinal Cord
brain
Cerebellum
Cerebrum
Medulla Oblongata
Consists of: Brain and Spinal Cord
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The Brain weighs 1300 - 1400 g
made up of about 100billion neurons
“the most complex livingstructure on theuniverse” Society for Neuroscience
makes us who we are
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The Brain
Phineas gage
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Brain structure
Cerebrum
cerebellumhypothalamus
Pituitary glandmedulla brain functions
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Parts of the cerebrum
alcohol and the brain
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Examples of responses
Voluntary actions
Eating a cake Riding a bicycle
Walking
Playing the piano Coming to school
Involuntary actions
Your heart beat Breathing
Blinking
Removing hand
from hot object Choking
Salivating
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Cerebrum Voluntary or conscious activities of the
body-learning, judgment
Cerebellum Coordinates and balances the actions
of the muscles
Medulla
Oblongata
Controls involuntary actions like blood
pressure, heart rate, breathing, and
swallowing
Hypothalamus
Important in homeostatic regulation like
body temperature, blood pressure,
thirst, hunger
Control centre of endocrine system
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Spinal Cord Contains within the vertebral column.
Surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid which
acts as a shock absorber and provide
the spinal cord with nutrients
Two main parts of spinal cord are
Grey matter- shape like letter H
- consists of cell bodies of neurons
White matter- surrounding the grey matter
- consists of myelin-coated axon of neurons
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Dorsal root contains the axon of afferent neurons
Conduct nerve impulse from receptor
to spinal cord
Cell bodies of afferent neurons are
clustered in the dorsal root ganglion
Ventral root contains the axon of efferent neurons
Conduct nerve impulse from spinal cordto the effectors
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Functions of the spinal cordare
Receive and transmit impulsesto and from the brain
Contains the neural pathway
for reflexes
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Consists of: Cranial nerves
and spinal nerves
-includes all
sensory neurons,
motor neurons,
and sense organs
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The Neuron
The basicfunctional unit of the nervous
system. Function: Send
impulses to andfrom the CNS and
PNS and theeffectors(muscles/glands)
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Basic nerve cell structure
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Dendrite Fine hair-like extensions on theend of a neuron.
Function: receive incoming stimuli.
Cell Body The control center of theneuron.
Function: Directs impulses from the
dendrites to the axon. Nucleus Control center of the cell body.
Function: Tells the cell body what to do.
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Axon Pathway for the nerve impulse(electrical message) from the soma to theopposite end of the neuron.
Myelin Sheath An insulating layeraround an axon. Made up of Schwanncells.
Nodes of Ranvier Gaps between
schwann cells.
Function: Situation where speed of animpulse is greatly increased by the
message „jumping‟ the gaps in an axon.
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3 main types of nerve cells
Afferent
(sensory)
neurone
Interneurons
(relay neurone)Efferent
(motor)
neurone
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Types of Neurons There are 3 types of neurons.1. Afferent (Sensory) Neurons Neurons located near
receptor organs (skin, eyes, ears).
Function: receive incoming stimuli from the
environment to brain and spinal cord.2. Efferent (Motor) Neurons Neurons located near
effectors ( muscles and glands)
Function: Carry impules to effectors to initiate aresponse.
3. Interneurons Neurons that relay messages betweenother neurons such as afferent and efferent neurons.(found most often in Brain and Spinal chord).
Participate in integrative functions are interneurones andefferent neurones respond to these integrative decision.
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Sensory
Neuron
carry impulses from
sense organs to
spinal cord & brain
Fun Fact:
Where can the
largest cells in the
wor ld be found?
The giraffe’s sensory and
motor neurons! Some
must bring impulses from
the bottom of their legsto their spinal cord
several meters away!!
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Interneuron
-processes impulses in
brain and spinal cord- connect sensory and
motor neurons
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Motor Neurons
carry impulses from the
brain & spinal cord to
muscles & glands
Axon End
Axons branching out
to muscle fibers
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Stimulus
Receptor
Sensory neurone
Central
Nervous
system
Motor neurone
Effector
Response
Neural Circuit
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Based on: Mader, S., Inquiry Into Life, McGraw-Hill
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Transmission of signals
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SynapsesWhen a nerve ending
meets up with anothernerve ending we get amicroscopic space
This space is called asynaptic cleftThe electrical
message travellingalong a nerve has tocross the synapse as a
chemical message
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Synapses
Neurotransmitter being releasedinto synaptic cleft and attaching
to receptors on dendriteBased on Harvard Medical School
Family Health Guide
Synapticcleft
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When impulses reach the presynapticmembrane, it triggers the synaptic vesicle torelease the neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft.
Neurotransmitters moves across the synapticcleft to bind at specific protein known asreceptor on the surface of postsynaptic
membrane
The binding of the neurotransmitter to the
receptors leads to generation of new impulse
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Voluntary action
Eg walking and talking are underconcius control
Govern by cerebral cortex of cerebrum in our brain
ReceptorAfferent
neuronesinterneurones
Efferent
neuroneseffector
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Reacting without thinking
Sometimes a stimulus requires an
immediate response.
This is called a reflex action.
It is an involuntary response and we do
it without thinking.
These automatic responses do not
have to be learned. They can be very important in
preventing injury to ourselves.
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A reflex is an
involuntaryresponse that is
processed in the
spinal cord notthe brain.
Reflexes protect
the body beforethe brain knows
what is going on.
Reflex Arc
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oA reflex arc
-The nerve pathway taken in a
reflex action is called a reflex arc.
-The nervous message goes tothe spinal cord, then a message
passes from the spinal cord
directly to an effector to give animmediate response.
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A reflex arc
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The knee jerk reflex action
Sometimes
called arelay orConnectorneurone
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Another reflex action
I l i i l h
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Involuntary action involves smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles or glands
Eg: heart beat rate, blood pressure,breathing rate.
Govern by autonomic nervous system
that connects the medulla oblongataand hypothalamus with internal organs
Does not involve cerebrum, thus no
perception is generated. Allow vital function to continue even
during sleeping and fainting.
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Autonomic Nervous System
Sympatheticdivision
Parasympatheticdivision
Situation emergency relaxed
Heart beat,blood pressureand breathing
rate
increase decrease
Digestive system Slow down theactivities
Stimulate theactivities
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Diseases
Parkinson disease Usually affects victims around 60 years old
and above
Due to lack of dopamine in the brain
Causing the trembling of arm, jaw and legs
Alzheimer disease
Affects victims around 60 years old and
above The cause is unknown but ageing and
genetic factors can lead to the disease
Causing the patient lost abality to read,
write, eat and walk
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Main Function:
It releases hormones into the blood to signal
other cells to behave in certain ways. It is a
slow but widespread form of communication. Maintain homeostasis and physiological
processes such as menstrual cycle,
development of secondary sexual characteristicand growth
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Endocrine glandsRelease hormones
into the bloodstream.
Hormones are
chemicals released in
one part of the body
that travel through thebloodstream and affect
the activities of cells in
other parts of the body.
Consists of:
N E d i
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Nervous system Endocrine system
Control voluntary andinvoluntary action
Control involuntaryaction only
Use electrical signal(impulse)
Use chemical signal(hormones)
Signal transferred usingneurones
Signal transferred usingblood via bloodstream
Signal transferredrapidly
Signal transferredslowly
Messages carried to
specific location
Messages carried
through various locationThe effect aretemporary andreversible
The effect are long-lasting and irreversible
Pit it Gl d
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Pituitary Gland
Function: It secretes nine hormonesthat directly regulate many bodyfunctions and controls functions of other glands.
Disorders: To much growthhormones (GH) in early childhoodcan result in a condition calledgigantism. To little GH can resultin Pituitary Dwarfism.
RobertWadlow
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Thyroid Gland Function: plays a major role in
regulation the body’s metabolism. Disorders: If the Thyroid Gland
produces to much Thyroxin, it can causea condition known as Hyperthyroidism. If
to little thyroxin produces it is calledHypothyroidism.
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Pancreas Function: The Insulin
and Glucagon in thePancreas help to keepthe level of glucose inthe blood stable.
Disorders: When thePancreas fails toproduce or properly useInsulin, it can cause a
condition known asDiabetes Mellitus.
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Adrenal Gland
Functions:
-The adrenal glandsrelease Adrenaline in
the body that helpsprepare for and dealwith stress.
-Also regulates kidney
function.
O i
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Ovaries
Functions:
Pair of reproductive organs found inwomen that produce eggs.
Also secrete estrogen and
progesterone, which control ovulationand menstruation.
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Testes
Functions:
Pair of reproductive glands that
produces sperm.
Also secrete Testosterone to give
the body its masculine
characteristics.
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Interaction of Glands
The hypothalamus islocated in the brainand controls therelease of hormones
from the pituitary gland. It is animportant linkbetween theendocrine andnervous systems.
http://www.biocfarm.unibo.it/aunsnc/images/3D%20Obje
cts/Hypothalamus.gif
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Regulation of Hormone Secretion
1. Impulse from nervous system
1. Neurosecretory cells inhypothalamus produced theHypothalamic Releasing Hormoneand Hypothalamic InhibitingHormones which can control the
secretion of hormone in pituitarygland.
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2. Other Hormones
1. Pituitary is master endocrinegland because it secreteshormone that control the otherendocrine gland.
2. E.g ACTH can stimulate adrenal
cortex to release hormones forreabsorption of mineral salt inkidney.
Regulation of Hormone Secretion
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3. The level of specificsubstances in body
1. Pancreas can detect the levelof glucose in our blood andproduce the glucagon to
increase it or insulin to reduceit.
Regulation of Hormone Secretion
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What is Homeostasis?
The maintenance
of a constantenvironment in
the body is calledHomeostasis
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The kidney
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Kidney and bladder position
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Kidney transplant
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Cross section
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X section to nephron
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nephron
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filtration
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Filtration diagram - bowmans
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Filtration & reabsorption
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2 – Controlling Water
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2 – Controlling Water
Concentration
Blood
-important part of internalenvironment
-constantly changing waterconcentration
-e.g. exercising
drinking lots of water
The body uses negative feedbackcontrol to regulate water content of
the blood
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How does it work?
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How?
Homeostatic mechanism is carriedout through a negative feedback mechanism in the body.
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Controlling Glucose levels
Your cells also need an exact levelof glucose in the blood.
Excess glucose gets turned into
glycogen in the liver This is regulated by 2 hormones
(chemicals) from the pancreas called:
Insulin
Glucagon
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If there is
too muchglucose inthe blood,Insulin
convertssome of it toglycogen
Glycogen
Glucose in the
blood
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If there isnot enough
glucose inthe blood,Glucagonconvertssomeglycogen intglucose.
Glycogen
Glucose in the
blood
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Diabetes
Some people do not produceenough insulin.
When they eat food, the glucoselevels in their blood cannot bereduced.
This condition is known as
DIABETES. Diabetics sometimes have to inject
insulin into their blood. They haveto be careful of their diet.
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Time
Glucose
Concentration
Meal eaten
Insulin is produced
and glucose levelsfall to normal
again.
Glucose levels rise
after a meal.
Normal
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Time
Glucose
Concentration
Meal eaten
Insulin is not
produced soglucose levels stay
high
Glucose levels rise
after a meal.
Diabetic
Penguins huddling
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Penguins huddling
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Controlling body temperature
All mammals maintain a constantbody temperature.
Human beings have a bodytemperature of about 37ºC.
E.g. If your body is in a hotenvironment your body temperature is37ºC
If your body is in a cold environmentyour body temperature is still 37ºC
What mechanisms are there to
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What mechanisms are there to
cool the body down?
1. Sweating When your body is hot, sweat
glands are stimulated to releasesweat.
The liquid sweat turns into a gas(it evaporates)
To do this, it needs heat.
It gets that heat from your skin.
As your skin loses heat, it cools
down.
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Sweating
Theskin
What mechanisms are there
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What mechanisms are thereto cool the body down?
2. Vasodilation Your blood carries most of the heat energy
around your body.
There are capillaries underneath your skinthat can be filled with blood if you get toohot.
This brings the blood closer to the surfaceof the skin so more heat can be lost.
This is why you look red when you are hot!
This means more heat is lost from the surface
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If thetemperaturerises, theblood vessel
dilates (getsbigger).
This means more heat is lost from the surfaceof the skin
What mechanisms are there to
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What mechanisms are there to
warm the body up?
2. Piloerection This is when the hairs on your skin
“stand up” . It is sometimes called “goose
bumps” or “chicken skin”!
The hairs trap a layer of air next tothe skin which is then warmed bythe body heat
The air becomes an insulating layer.
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1. What is a nerve?-a nerve is a thread like structure
containing a bundle o neurone
fibers2. Define a synapse
- A narrow gap between the axon
terminal of one neurone andthe dendrite of adjacentneurone
Wh t i l t ti ?
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1. What is voluntary action?
-action that is controlled by the
conscious will of a person. Itinvolves the integration andinterpretation of information in thecerebrum
2. What is an involuntary action?
- Action that occur automatically inthe body without conscious control.
- Involves receptor, medullaoblongata and effectors.
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1. Define hormone- Hormone are chemical
messenger produced by
endocrine gland and secreteddirectly into the blood stream.
2. What is an endocrine system?
- Endocrine system is a systemmake up of the endocrineglands of the body.
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Sensory homunculus
Motor strip andh l
Motor strip
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homunculusMotor strip
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The Brain
Can you
Describe the structure and function ofthe brain
State the function and location ofcerebrum, cerebellum, medulla andhypothalamus
State the location of sensory and motorstrip