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Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–11
Chapter 5Chapter 5
•PerceptionPerception
•Understanding PeopleUnderstanding People
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–22
Management Practices and Management Practices and Organizational Affect EmployeesOrganizational Affect Employees
FIGURE IIFIGURE II–1–1
ManagementPractices
OrganizationalDesign
Employee Perceptions,Attitudes, Motivation
& Behavior
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The Importance of PerceptionThe Importance of Perception
•PerceptionPerception The process by which we become aware of, and give The process by which we become aware of, and give
meaning to, events around us.meaning to, events around us. Perception helps define “reality.”Perception helps define “reality.”
Objective realityObjective reality—what truly exists in the physical —what truly exists in the physical world to the best abilities of science to measure it.world to the best abilities of science to measure it.
Perceived reality—what individuals experience Perceived reality—what individuals experience through one or more of the human senses, and the through one or more of the human senses, and the meaning they ascribe to those experiences.meaning they ascribe to those experiences.
Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s perceived reality does not match objective reality.perceived reality does not match objective reality.
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The Perceptual ProcessThe Perceptual Process
1.1. SensationSensation An individual’s ability to An individual’s ability to
detect stimuli in the detect stimuli in the immediate environment.immediate environment.
2.2. SelectionSelection The process a person uses The process a person uses
to eliminate some of the to eliminate some of the stimuli that have been stimuli that have been sensed and to retain others sensed and to retain others for further processing.for further processing.
3.3. OrganizationOrganization The process of placing The process of placing
selected perceptual stimuli selected perceptual stimuli into a framework for into a framework for “storage.”“storage.”
4.4. TranslationTranslation The stage of the perceptual The stage of the perceptual
process at which stimuli are process at which stimuli are interpreted and given interpreted and given meaning.meaning.
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Characteristics of the PerceiverCharacteristics of the Perceiver
•MotiveMotive Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individual’s Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individual’s
current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g., current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g., hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of the stimulus.the stimulus.
•PersonalityPersonality An individual characteristic that creates an increased An individual characteristic that creates an increased
likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the characteristic will be noticed.characteristic will be noticed.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–66
The Perceptual Process (cont’d)The Perceptual Process (cont’d)
•OrganizationOrganization The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into
a framework for “storage.”a framework for “storage.” Stimuli become associated when they:Stimuli become associated when they:
Are similar in Are similar in physical resemblance.physical resemblance. Occur in close physical (space) proximity.Occur in close physical (space) proximity. Occur in close time proximity.Occur in close time proximity. Are used for figure-ground differentiation.Are used for figure-ground differentiation. Are used together to achieve closureAre used together to achieve closure——a perception of a perception of
the whole or to piece together a message.the whole or to piece together a message.
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Figure-Ground IllustrationFigure-Ground Illustration
•Field-ground differentiationField-ground differentiation The tendency to distinguish The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that and focus on a stimulus that is classified as figure as is classified as figure as opposed to background.opposed to background.
FIGURE 5FIGURE 5–3–3
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ClosureClosure
•ClosureClosure The tendency to organize The tendency to organize
perceptual stimuli so that, perceptual stimuli so that, together, they form a together, they form a complete message.complete message.
FIGURE 5FIGURE 5–4–4
Source: Reprinted with permission from Introduction to psychology: Explorations and applications by Dennis Coon. Copyright © 1977 by West Publishing Company. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–99
The Perceptual Process (cont’d)The Perceptual Process (cont’d)
•TransitionTransition The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given meaning.interpreted and given meaning. Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective
reality) of objective reality :reality) of objective reality : Primacy effectPrimacy effect Recency effectRecency effect StereotypingStereotyping Halo effectHalo effect ProjectionProjection Selective perceptionSelective perception Expectancy effectsExpectancy effects
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Transition ErrorsTransition Errors
•Primacy effectPrimacy effect The disproportionately high weight given to the first The disproportionately high weight given to the first
information obtained about a stimulus.information obtained about a stimulus.
•Recency effectRecency effect The disproportionately high weight given to the last The disproportionately high weight given to the last
information obtained about a stimulus.information obtained about a stimulus.
• StereotypingStereotyping The generalization (application) of a person’s prior The generalization (application) of a person’s prior
beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during encounters with members of that class of objects.encounters with members of that class of objects.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–1111
Transition Errors (cont’d)Transition Errors (cont’d)
•Halo effectHalo effect The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation
of an individual to specific characteristics of the person.of an individual to specific characteristics of the person.
•ProjectionProjection The process by which people attribute their own The process by which people attribute their own
feelings and characteristics feelings and characteristics to other people.to other people.
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Transition Errors (cont’d)Transition Errors (cont’d)
• Selective perceptionSelective perception The selection of things consistent with one’s own The selection of things consistent with one’s own
personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are inconsistent with that viewpoint; inconsistent with that viewpoint;
A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs that conflict with new information.that conflict with new information.
•Expectancy effectExpectancy effect The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that
confirm expectations.confirm expectations. Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs
when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to reflect their expectations in a situation. reflect their expectations in a situation.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–1313
Self Perceptions: The Johari WindowSelf Perceptions: The Johari Window
FIGURE 5FIGURE 5–5–5
Openly shared data
A’s unshared data
B’s blind spots
Unknowns in therelationship
Future potential
B’s unshared data
A’s blind spots
Known to A
Relationship from A’s position
Unknown to A
Un
kn
ow
n t
o B
Kn
ow
n t
o B
Re
lati
on
sh
ip f
rom
B’s
po
sit
ion
One way to conceptualize the possible combinations of what you know about yourself and what others know about you.
Source: This model is a modification of the “Johari Window, “ a concept presented in J. Luft. 1970. Group Processes. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books.
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Characteristics Affecting the Characteristics Affecting the Perception of OthersPerception of Others
Person PerceivedPerson PerceivedPerson PerceivedPerson Perceived
OrganizationOrganizationOrganizationOrganization
PerceiverPerceiverPerceiverPerceiver
Group membershipGroup membershipStatusStatus
Group membershipGroup membershipStatusStatus
Organizational cultureOrganizational cultureCompetitive conditionsCompetitive conditions
Organizational cultureOrganizational cultureCompetitive conditionsCompetitive conditions
Attribution errorsAttribution errorsAttribution errorsAttribution errors
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Perceiving OthersPerceiving Others
•Characteristics of the person perceivedCharacteristics of the person perceived Implicit personality theory—the tendency to ascribe Implicit personality theory—the tendency to ascribe
personality traits to people because they share certain personality traits to people because they share certain characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with others.others.
•Characteristics of the organizationCharacteristics of the organization An individual’s association with an organization affects An individual’s association with an organization affects
the perception of that individual.the perception of that individual. Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how
other individuals are perceived within the organization.other individuals are perceived within the organization.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–1616
Perceiving Others (cont’d)Perceiving Others (cont’d)
•Characteristics of the perceiverCharacteristics of the perceiver Attribution theory—explains how people assign Attribution theory—explains how people assign
responsibility and the cognitive processes by which responsibility and the cognitive processes by which they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the behavior of others.behavior of others.
Locus of causality—the attribution of the observed Locus of causality—the attribution of the observed behavior of others to internal or external causes.behavior of others to internal or external causes.
Fundamental error—the tendency to overestimate the Fundamental error—the tendency to overestimate the effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects of external causes when we judge other people’s of external causes when we judge other people’s actions. actions.
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Reducing Perceptual ErrorsReducing Perceptual Errors
• Self-understandingSelf-understanding The acknowledgement that you and people who interact The acknowledgement that you and people who interact
with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.
•Conscious information processingConscious information processing Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual
process and consciously questioning process and consciously questioning the accuracy of what you perceive.the accuracy of what you perceive.
•Reality testingReality testing The comparison of developed The comparison of developed
perceptions about a stimulus object perceptions about a stimulus object to another (objective) measure of the object.to another (objective) measure of the object.
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PersonalityPersonality
•Personality (individual differences)Personality (individual differences) The characteristics or traits that describe how people The characteristics or traits that describe how people
are likely to behave in a given situation.are likely to behave in a given situation. Determines how a person will react to a managerial Determines how a person will react to a managerial
practice.practice.
•Pitfalls in assessing personalityPitfalls in assessing personality Making hasty judgments about personalities.Making hasty judgments about personalities. Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm
judgments.judgments.
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Determinants of PersonalityDeterminants of Personality
•Nature (heredity)Nature (heredity) The assumption that part of personality is biologically- The assumption that part of personality is biologically-
based and predetermined.based and predetermined.
•Nurture (environment)Nurture (environment) The assumption that The assumption that
personality is shaped personality is shaped primarily by life primarily by life experiences, experiences, especially those especially those of early childhood.of early childhood.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–2020
Dimensions of PersonalityDimensions of Personality
• Self-esteem (self-concept)Self-esteem (self-concept) How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their
abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.
LowLow Self EsteemSelf Esteem HighHighLowLow Self EsteemSelf Esteem HighHigh
Incapable Incapable IncompetentIncompetentInsignificantInsignificant
UnworthyUnworthy
Incapable Incapable IncompetentIncompetentInsignificantInsignificant
UnworthyUnworthy
CapableCapableCompetentCompetentSignificantSignificant
WorthyWorthy
CapableCapableCompetentCompetentSignificantSignificant
WorthyWorthy
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Self-Esteem DimensionsSelf-Esteem Dimensions
•Global self-esteemGlobal self-esteem
•Role-specificRole-specificself-esteemself-esteem
• Job-basedJob-based self-esteemself-esteem
•Organization-basedOrganization-basedself-esteem (OBSE)self-esteem (OBSE)
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–2222
Other Dimensions of PersonalityOther Dimensions of Personality
•Locus of controlLocus of control The degree to which people believe their actions The degree to which people believe their actions
determine what happens to them in life.determine what happens to them in life. Internal locus of controlInternal locus of control—occurs when people believe —occurs when people believe
that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the determinants of their destiny.determinants of their destiny.
External locus of control—External locus of control—occurs when people believe that occurs when people believe that external factors such as luck, external factors such as luck, other people, or organizations other people, or organizations are the determinants of are the determinants of their destiny.their destiny.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–2323
Measuring Locus of ControlMeasuring Locus of Control
TABLE 5TABLE 5–1–1
I more strongly believe that
Internal Control External Control
Promotions are earned through hard work and persistence.
Making a lot of money is largely a matter of getting the right breaks.
In my experience I have noticed that there is usually a direct connection between how hard I study and the grades I get.
Many times the reactions of teachers seem haphazard to me.
The number of divorces indicates that more and more people are not trying to make their marriages work.
Marriage is a legal gamble.
When I am right I can convince others.
It is silly to think that one can really change another person’s basic attitudes.
Source: Derived from Rotter’s I-E test. J. B. Rotter. 1971. External control and internal control. Psychology Today 5(1):37–42, 58–59.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–2424
Other Dimensions of Personality Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)(cont’d)•MachiavellianismMachiavellianism
Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional behavioral approach by individuals to organizational behavioral approach by individuals to organizational participation in meeting their personal objectives. participation in meeting their personal objectives.
The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner that will meet one’s own needs.that will meet one’s own needs.
The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as a means to further one’s own ends, regardless of its a means to further one’s own ends, regardless of its impact on others.impact on others.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–2525
Other Dimensions of Personality Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)(cont’d)•The “Big Five” personality theoryThe “Big Five” personality theory
The view that all personality traits can be distilled into The view that all personality traits can be distilled into five big ones:five big ones:
ExtroversionExtroversion—outgoing/withdrawn—outgoing/withdrawn AdjustmentAdjustment—flexible/rigid—flexible/rigid AgreeablenessAgreeableness—cooperative/uncooperative—cooperative/uncooperative ConscientiousnessConscientiousness—thorough/sloppy—thorough/sloppy InquisitivenessInquisitiveness—curious/disinterested—curious/disinterested
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–2626
Cultural Differences Among Cultural Differences Among Organizational MembersOrganizational Members
•Culture definedCulture defined How a society perceives the world How a society perceives the world
and how it should operate based and how it should operate based on the beliefs, values, attitudes, on the beliefs, values, attitudes, and expectations for behavior that and expectations for behavior that the society believes to be good, the society believes to be good, effective, desirable, and beneficial.effective, desirable, and beneficial.
CultureCultureKnowledgeKnowledge
BeliefsBeliefsLawsLaws
MoralsMoralsArtArt
AssumptionsAssumptionsCustomsCustoms
HabitsHabits
InstitutionsInstitutionsParentingParentingEducationEducation
Religious activitiesReligious activitiesLaw enforcementLaw enforcement
EntertainmentEntertainment
FutureFutureGenerationsGenerations
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Cultural Awareness and ManagersCultural Awareness and Managers
•Culture affects:Culture affects: The success of expatriate employees The success of expatriate employees
in overseas assignments.in overseas assignments.
The effectiveness of management The effectiveness of management practices and leadership stylespractices and leadership styles
in different cultures. in different cultures.
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Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)
• Individualism-collectivismIndividualism-collectivism The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to
act as individuals, as opposed to a group.act as individuals, as opposed to a group.
•Power distancePower distance The acceptance of large differences The acceptance of large differences
in power between the most and least in power between the most and least powerful in society.powerful in society.
•Uncertainty avoidanceUncertainty avoidance The degree to which cultures differ The degree to which cultures differ
in the extent to which they tolerate in the extent to which they tolerate uncertainty.uncertainty.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–2929
Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede) Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede) cont’dcont’d•Masculinity-femininityMasculinity-femininity
The degree to which a society displays mostly The degree to which a society displays mostly traditionally male or traditionally female traits.traditionally male or traditionally female traits.
•Time orientationTime orientation The degree to which cultures The degree to which cultures
possess a short or long possess a short or long perspective on time.perspective on time.
Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–3030
Cultural Differences for Ten CountriesCultural Differences for Ten Countries
Individualism
High Power Distance
High Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity
Long-term Time Orientation
High USA Netherlands Germany France
Russia China France Hong Kong Indonesia West Africa
Japan France Russia
Japan USA Germany Hong Kong
China Japan Hong Kong
Medium Russia Japan
Japan West Africa China Germany Netherlands
China West Africa Indonesia France
Netherlands Germany
Low China West Africa Indonesia Hong Kong
Netherlands Germany USA
Indonesia USA Hong Kong
Russia Netherlands
West Africa Indonesia France USA Russia
Collectivism Low Power Distance
Low Uncertainty Avoidance
Femininity Short-term Time Orientation
Source: G. Hofstede. 1993. Cultural constraints in management theories. Academy of Management Executive 7(1):81–94. TABLE 5TABLE 5–3–3