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Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Beni AsllaniBeni Asllani
University of Tennessee at ChattanoogaUniversity of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Processes, Technology, and CapacityProcesses, Technology, and Capacity
Operations Management - 5th EditionOperations Management - 5th Edition
Chapter 6Chapter 6
Roberta Russell & Bernard W. Taylor, IIIRoberta Russell & Bernard W. Taylor, III
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-22
Lecture OutlineLecture Outline
Process Planning Process Analysis Process Innovation Technology Decisions Capacity Decisions
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-33
Process PlanningProcess Planning
Process a group of related tasks with specific inputs and
outputs Process design
tasks need to be done and coordinated among functions, people, and organizations
Process planning converts designs into workable instructions for
manufacture or delivery Process strategy
an organization’s overall approach for physically producing goods and services
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-44
Process StrategyProcess Strategy
Capital intensity mix of capital (i.e., equipment, automation) and labor
resources used in production process Process flexibility
ease with which resources can be adjusted in response to changes in demand, technology, products or services, and resource availability
Vertical integration extent to which firm will produce inputs and control outputs
of each stage of production process Customer involvement
role of customer in production process
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-55
Make or Buy Decisions
CostCost CapacityCapacity Quality Quality
SpeedSpeed ReliabilityReliability ExpertiseExpertise
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-66
Sourcing Continuum
Source: Adapted from Robert Hayes, Gary Pisano, David Upton, and Steven Wheelwright, Operations Strategy and Technology: Pursuing
the Competitive Edge (Hoboken, NJ: 2005), p. 120
Arms-Length Relationship
(short-term contract or
single purchasingdecision)
Vertical Integration
(100% ownership)
Joint Venture(equity partner)
Strategic Alliance
(long-term supplier contract;
collaborative relationship)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-77
Process Selection
Projects one-of-a-kind production of a product to customer order
Batch production systems process many different jobs through the system in
groups or batches Mass production
produces large volumes of a standard product for a mass market
Continuous production used for very-high volume commodity products
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-88
PROJECTPROJECT BATCHBATCH
Types of Processes
Type of product
UniqueMade-to-
order(customized)
Source: Adapted from R. Chase, N. Aquilano, and R. Jacobs, Operations Management for Competitive Advantage (New York:McGraw-Hill, 2001), p. 210
Type of customer
One-at-a-time
Few individual
customers
MASSMASS
Made-to- stock
(standardized )
Mass
market
CONTCONT..
Commodity
Mass
market
Product demand Infrequent Fluctuates Stable Very stable
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-99
PROJECTPROJECT BATCHBATCH
Types of Processes (cont.)
Demand volume
Very low Low to medium
Source: Adapted from R. Chase, N. Aquilano, and R. Jacobs, Operations Management for Competitive Advantage (New York:McGraw-Hill, 2001), p. 210
No. of different products
Infinite variety
Many, varied
MASSMASS
High
Few
CONTCONT..
Very high
Very few
Production system
Long-term project
Discrete, job shops
Repetitive, assembly
lines
Continuous, process
industries
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1010
PROJECTPROJECT BATCHBATCH
Types of Processes (cont.)
Equipment Varied General-purpose
Source: Adapted from R. Chase, N. Aquilano, and R. Jacobs, Operations Management for Competitive Advantage (New York:McGraw-Hill, 2001), p. 210
Primary type of work
Specialized contracts
Fabrication
MASSMASS
Special-purpose
Assembly
CONTCONT..
Highly automated
Mixing, treating, refining
Worker skills
Experts, crafts-
persons
Wide range of skills
Limited range of
skills
Equipment monitors
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1111
PROJECTPROJECT BATCHBATCH
Types of Processes (cont.)
Advantages Custom work, latest technology
Flexibility, quality
Source: Adapted from R. Chase, N. Aquilano, and R. Jacobs, Operations Management for Competitive Advantage (New York:McGraw-Hill, 2001), p. 210
Dis-advantages
Non-repetitive, small customer base, expensive
Costly, slow,
difficult to
manage
MASSMASS
Efficiency,
speed,
low cost
Capital
investment;
lack of
responsiveness
CONTCONT..
Highly efficient,
large capacity,
ease of control
Difficult to change,
far-reaching errors,
limited variety
ExamplesConstruction, shipbuilding, spacecraft
Machine shops,
print shops,
bakeries,
education
Automobiles,
televisions,
computers,
fast food
Paint, chemicals, foodstuffs
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1212
Cost Fixed costs
constant regardless of the number of units produced Variable costs
vary with the volume of units produced Revenue
price at which an item is sold Total revenue
is price times volume sold Profit
difference between total revenue and total cost
Process Selection with Process Selection with Break-Even AnalysisBreak-Even Analysis
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1313
Process Selection with Process Selection with Break-Even Analysis (cont.)Break-Even Analysis (cont.)
Total cost Total cost = fixed cost + total variable cost= fixed cost + total variable costTC = TC = ccff + + vcvcvv
Total revenue =Total revenue = volume x price volume x priceTR = TR = vpvp
Profit Profit = total revenue - total cost= total revenue - total costZ = TR – TC = Z = TR – TC = vpvp - ( - (ccff + + vcvcvv))
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1414
Process Selection with Process Selection with Break-Even Analysis (cont.)Break-Even Analysis (cont.)
Solving for Break-Even Volume
TRTR = TC= TCvpvp = = ccff + + vcvcvv
vpvp - - vcvcvv = = ccff
vv((p - cp - cvv)) = = ccff
vv ==
ccff
p p -- c cvv
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1515
Break-Even Analysis: ExampleBreak-Even Analysis: Example
Fixed costFixed cost = = ccff = $2,000 = $2,000
Variable costVariable cost = = ccvv = $5 per raft = $5 per raft
PricePrice = = pp = $10 per raft = $10 per raft
Break-even point isBreak-even point is
v v = = = 400 rafts= = = 400 raftsccff
p p - - ccvv
20002000
10 - 510 - 5
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1616
Break-Even Analysis: GraphBreak-Even Analysis: Graph
Total cost line
Total revenue
line
Break-even point400 Units
$3,000 —
$2,000 —
$1,000 —
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1717
Process SelectionProcess Selection
Below 2,667, choose ABelow 2,667, choose AAbove 2,667, choose BAbove 2,667, choose B
$2,000 + $5$2,000 + $5vv = $10,000 + $2= $10,000 + $2vv$3$3vv = $8,000= $8,000
vv = 2,667 rafts= 2,667 rafts
Process AProcess A Process BProcess B
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1818
Process Process Selection: Selection: GraphGraph
Example 4.2Example 4.2
| | | |1000 2000 3000 4000 Units
$20,000 —
$15,000 —
$10,000 —
$5,000 —
Total cost of process A
Total cost of process B
Choose process A
Choose process B
Point of indifference = 2,667 Units
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-1919
Process Plans
Set of documents that detail manufacturing and service delivery specifications assembly charts operations sheets quality-control check-sheets
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2020
Sesame seed top bunSesame seed top bun
Beef pattyBeef pattySaltSaltCheeseCheese
LettuceLettuceSauceSauceOnionsOnions
Middle bunMiddle bun
Beef pattyBeef pattySaltSaltCheeseCheese
LettuceLettuceSauceSauceOnionsOnionsPicklesPickles
Bottom bunBottom bun
WrapperWrapper
SASA
SASA
First-layer assemblyFirst-layer assembly
Second-layer assemblySecond-layer assembly
Completed Big MacCompleted Big Mac
Assembly Chartfor a Big Mac
Assembly Chartfor a Big Mac
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2121
Part name Crevice Tool
Part No. 52074
Usage Hand-Vac
Assembly No. 520
Oper. No. Description Dept. Machine/Tools Time
10 Pour in plastic bits 041 Injection molding 2 min
20 Insert mold 041 #076 2 min
30 Check settings 041 113, 67, 650 20 min& start machine
40 Collect parts & lay flat 051 Plastics finishing 10 min
50 Remove & clean mold 042 Parts washer 15 min
60 Break off rough edges 051 Plastics finishing 10 min
An Operations Sheet for a Plastic Part
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2222
Process Analysis
Process flowcharts Symbolic representation of processes Incorporate
nonproductive activities (inspection, transportation, delay, storage)
productive activities (operations)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2323
Process Flowchart Process Flowchart SymbolsSymbols
OperationsOperations
InspectionInspection
TransportationTransportation
DelayDelay
StorageStorage
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2424
Ste
p
Ope
ratio
nT
rans
port
Insp
ect
Del
ayS
tora
ge
Dis
tanc
e(f
eet)
Tim
e(m
in)Description
ofprocess
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Unload apples from truck
Move to inspection station
Weigh, inspect, sort
Move to storage
Wait until needed
Move to peeler
Apples peeled and cored
Soak in water until needed
Place in conveyor
Move to mixing area
Weigh, inspect, sort
TotalPage 1 0f 3 480
30
5
20
15
360
30
20
190 ft
20 ft
20 ft
50 ft
100 ft
Date: 9-30-02Analyst: TLR
Location: Graves MountainProcess: Apple Sauce
Process Flowchartof Apple Processing
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2525
Place order
Drink
Eat salad or soup
Eat dinner
Receives check
Gives payment to waiter
Collect change, leave tip
Fill in tip amount
Give order to waiter
Prepare dinner order
Prepare soup or salad order
Give order to waiter
Is order complete?
Give soup or salad order to chef
Give dinner order to chef
Get drinks for customer
Deliver salad or soup order to customer
Deliver dinner to customer
Deliver check to customer
Receive payment for meal
Cash or Credit?
Bring change to customer
Run credit card through
Return credit slip to customer
Collect tip
YY
NN
CreditCredit
CashCash
CustomerCustomer WaiterWaiter Salad Chef Salad Chef Dinner Chef Dinner Chef
A Process Map of
Restaurant Service
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2626
Service Blueprintfor an InstallmentLending Operation
Source: Lynn Shostack, “Service Positioning through Structural Change,” Journal of Marketing 51 (January 1987), p. 36. Reprinted with permission by the American Marketing Association
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2727
Process Innovation
Breakthrough Breakthrough ImprovementImprovement
Continuous improvement Continuous improvement refines the breakthroughrefines the breakthrough
Continuous improvement activities Continuous improvement activities peak; time to reengineer processpeak; time to reengineer process
Total redesign of a process for breakthrough
improvements
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2828
From Function to Process
Ma
nu
fact
uri
ng
Acc
ou
ntin
g
Sa
les
Pu
rch
asi
ng
Product Development
Order Fulfillment
Supply Chain Management
Customer Service
FunctionFunction ProcessProcess
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-2929
StrategicDirectives
Goals for Process Performance
Pilot Studyof New Design
DetailedProcess Map
High - levelProcess map
GoalsMet?GoalsMet?
InnovativeIdeas
InnovativeIdeas Design
PrinciplesDesign
Principles
ModelValidation
ModelValidation
CustomerRequirements
CustomerRequirements
KeyPerformance
Measures
KeyPerformance
Measures
Full Scale Implementation
Baseline DataBaseline Data
BenchmarkData
BenchmarkData
No Yes
Process Innovation
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3030
Principles for Redesigning Processes
Remove waste, simplify, and consolidate similar activities
Link processes to create value Let the swiftest and most capable enterprise
execute the process Flex process for any time, any place, any way Capture information digitally at the source and
propagate it through process
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3131
Principles for Redesigning Processes (cont.)
Provide visibility through fresher and richer information about process status
Fit process with sensors and feedback loops that can prompt action
Add analytic capabilities to process Connect, collect, and create knowledge around
process through all who touch it Personalize process with preferences and
habits of participants
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3232
Techniques for Generating Innovative Ideas
Vary the entry point to a problem in trying to untangle fishing lines, it’s best to start
from the fish, not the poles Draw analogies
a previous solution to an old problem might work Change your perspective
think like a customer bring in persons who have no knowledge of
process
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3333
Techniques for Generating Innovative Ideas (cont.)
Try inverse brainstorming what would increase cost what would displease the customer
Chain forward as far as possible if I solve this problem, what is the next problem
Use attribute brainstorming how would this process operate if. . .
our workers were mobile and flexible there were no monetary constraints we had perfect knowledge
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3434
Technology Decisions
Financial justification of technology Purchase cost Operating Costs Annual Savings Revenue Enhancement Replacement Analysis Risk and Uncertainty Piecemeal Analysis
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3535
Components of e-Manufacturing
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3636
A Technology Primer
Computer-aided design (CAD)
Group technology (GT)
Computer-aided engineering (CAE)
Collaborative product commerce (CPC)
Computer-aided design (CAD)
Group technology (GT)
Computer-aided engineering (CAE)
Collaborative product commerce (CPC)
Creates and communicates designs electronically
Classifies designs into families for easy retrieval and modification
Tests functionality of CAD designs electronically
Facilitates electronic communication and exchange of information among designers and suppliers
Product Technology
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3737
Product data management (PDM)
Product life cycle management (PLC)
Product definition
Product data management (PDM)
Product life cycle management (PLC)
Product definition
Keeps track of design specs and revisions for the life of the product
Integrates decisions of those involved in product development, manufacturing, sales, customer service, recycling, and disposal
Confines products “built” by customers who have selected among various options, usually from a Web site
Product Technology
A Technology Primer (cont.)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3838
Standard for exchange of product model data (STEP)
Computer-aided design and manufacture (CAD/CAM)
Computer aided process (CAPP)
E-procurement
Standard for exchange of product model data (STEP)
Computer-aided design and manufacture (CAD/CAM)
Computer aided process (CAPP)
E-procurement
Set standards for communication among different CAD vendors; translates CAD data into requirements for automated inspection and manufacture
Electronic link between automated design (CAD) and automated manufacture (CAM)
Generates process plans based on database of similar requirements
Electronic procurement of items from e-marketplaces, auctions, or company websites
Process Technology
A Technology Primer (cont.)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-3939
Computer numerically control (CNC)
Flexible manufacturing system (FMS)
Robots
Conveyors
Computer numerically control (CNC)
Flexible manufacturing system (FMS)
Robots
Conveyors
Machines controlled by software code to perform a variety of operations with the help of automated tool changers; also collects processing information and quality data
A collection of CNC machines connected by an automated material handling system to produce a wide variety of parts
Manipulators that can be programmed to perform repetitive tasks; more consistent than workers but less flexible
Fixed-path material handling; moves items along a belt or overhead chain; “reads” packages and diverts them to different directions; can be very fast
Manufacturing Technology
A Technology Primer (cont.)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4040
Automatic guided vehicle (AGV)
Automated storage and retrieval system (ASRS)
Process Control
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)
Automatic guided vehicle (AGV)
Automated storage and retrieval system (ASRS)
Process Control
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)
A driverless truck that moves material along a specified path; directed by wire or tape embedded in floor or by radio frequencies; very flexible
An automated warehouse—some 26 stores high—in which items are placed in a carousel-type storage system and retrieved by fast-moving stacker cranes; controlled by computer
Continuous monitoring of automated equipment; makes real-time decisions on ongoing operation, maintenance, and quality
Automated manufacturing systems integrated through computer technology; also called e-manufacturing
Manufacturing Technology
A Technology Primer (cont.)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4141
Business – to –Business (B2B)
Business – to –Customer (B2C)
Internet
Intranet
Extranet
Business – to –Business (B2B)
Business – to –Customer (B2C)
Internet
Intranet
Extranet
Electronic transactions between businesses usually over the Internet
Electronic transactions between businesses and their customers usually over the Internet
A global information system of computer networks that facilitates communication and data transfer
Communication networks internal to an organization; can be password (i.e., firewall) protected sites on the Internet
Intranets connected to the Internet for shared access with select suppliers, customers, and trading partners
Information Technology
A Technology Primer (cont.)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4242
Bar Codes
Radio Frequency Identification tags (RFID)
Electronic data interchange (EDI)
Extensive markup language (XML)
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
Bar Codes
Radio Frequency Identification tags (RFID)
Electronic data interchange (EDI)
Extensive markup language (XML)
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
A series of vertical lines printed on most packages that identifies item and other information when read by a scanner
An integrated circuit embedded in a tag that can send and receive information; a twenty-first century bar code with read/write capabilities
A computer-to-computer exchange of business documents over a proprietary network; very expensive and inflexible
A programming language that enables computer – to - computer communication over the Internet by tagging data before its is sent
Software for managing basic requirements of an enterprise, including sales & marketing, finance and accounting, production & materials management, and human resources
Information Technology
A Technology Primer (cont.)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4343
Supply chain management (SCM)
Customer relationship management (CRM)
Decision support systems (DSS)
Expert systems (ES)
Artificial intelligence (AI)
Supply chain management (SCM)
Customer relationship management (CRM)
Decision support systems (DSS)
Expert systems (ES)
Artificial intelligence (AI)
Software for managing flow of goods and information among a network of suppliers, manufacturers and distributors
Software for managing interactions with customers and compiling and analyzing customer data
An information system that helps managers make decisions includes a quantitative modeling component and an interactive component for what-if analysis
A computer system that uses an expert knowledge base to diagnose or solve a problem
A field of study that attempts to replicate elements of human thought in computer processes; includes expert systems, genetic algorithms, neural networks, and fuzzy logic
Information Technology
A Technology Primer (cont.)
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4444
Capacity Decisions
Capacity maximum
capability to produce rated
capacity is theoretical
effective capacity includes efficiency and utilization
Capacity utilization percent of available time spend
working Capacity efficiency
how well a machine or worker performs compared to a standard output level
Capacity load standard hours of work assigned
to a facility Capacity load percent
ratio of load to capacity
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4545
Capacity Expansion Strategies
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4646
Capacity Decisions (cont.)
Capacity increase depends on volume and certainty of anticipated demand strategic objectives costs of expansion and operation
Best operating level % of capacity utilization that minimizes unit costs
Capacity cushion % of capacity held in reserve for unexpected
occurrences
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4747
Economies of ScaleEconomies of Scale
it costs less per unit to produce high levels of output fixed costs can be spread over a larger number of
units production or operating costs do not increase
linearly with output levels quantity discounts are available for material
purchases operating efficiency increases as workers gain
experience
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4848
Diseconomies of Scale
Occur above a certain level of output Diseconomies of Distribution Diseconomies of Bureaucracy Diseconomies of Confusion Diseconomies of Vulnerability
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-4949
Best Operating Level for a Hotel
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-5050
Diseconomies of Confusion
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6-6-5151
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in section 117 of this work beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without express permission of the copyright owner is express permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the Permission Department, be addressed to the Permission Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his/her own use only make back-up copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publisher and not for distribution or resale. The Publisher assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information programs or from the use of the information herein. herein.