Copyright 2013, Pearson Education Inc., Publishing as Prentice-Hall Pricing.

Copyright 2013, Pearson Education Inc., Publishing as Prentice-Hall

Pricing


Price

The amount of money charged for a product or service,

or the sum of the values that consumers exchange for the benefits of having or using the product or service.– Price Floor: minimum

price– Price Ceiling: maximum

price


Global Pricing Objectives and Strategies

• Managers must determine the objectives for the pricing objectives– Unit Sales– Market Share– Return on investment

• Product Life Cycle• They must then develop strategies to

achieve those objectives – Penetration Pricing– Market Skimming


Market Skimming and Financial Objectives

• Market Skimming– Charging a premium

price– Conditions to be met

Quality of the product?Number of buyers?Cost of producing in smaller

volume?Market entrance/competitors?

– Luxury goods marketers use price to differentiate products

• Mercedes-Benz, Toyota-Lexus


Penetration Pricing and Non-Financial Objectives

• Penetration Pricing– Charging a low price

in order to penetrate market quickly

– Conditions to be metPrice sensitivity?Production and distribution

cost?Competition?

• First-time exporter is unlikely to use this strategy.

1979 Sony Walkman

240-170-165 (35)


Target-Costing • Determine the segment(s) to be targeted, as well as the

prices that customers in the segment will be willing to pay.

• Compute overall target costs with the aim of ensuring the company’s future profitability.

• Allocate the target costs to the product’s various functions. Calculate the gap between the target cost and the estimated actual production cost.

• Obey the cardinal rule: If the design team can’t meet the targets, the product should not be launched.

• Renault’s Logan


Cost-Plus Pricing

• Cost-based pricing is based on an analysis of internal and external cost

• Firms using western cost accounting principles use the Full absorption cost method– Per-unit product costs are the sum of all

past or current direct and indirect manufacturing and overhead costs


Factors for Pricing on Goods that Cross Borders

1. Does the price reflect the product’s quality?2. Is the price competitive given local market

conditions?3. Should the firm pursue market penetration, market

skimming, or some other pricing objective?4. What type of discount (trade, cash, quantity) and

allowance (advertising, trade-off) should the firm offer its international customers?

5. Should prices differ with market segment?6. What pricing options are available if the firm’s

costs increase or decrease? Is demand in the international market elastic or inelastic?

7. Are the firm’s prices likely to be viewed by the host-country government as reasonable or exploitative?

8. Do the foreign country’s dumping laws pose a problem?


Cost-Plus Pricing

• Flexible cost-plus pricing ensures that prices are competitive in the context of the particular market environment.

• Rigid cost-plus pricing means that companies set prices without regard to the eight pricing considerations. This can result in price escalations.


Export Price Escalation

• Export price escalation is the increase in the final selling price of goods traded across borders.


Export Price Escalation


Currency Fluctuations

January 2000 January 2002 January 2007 January 2010

$1=¥101 $1=¥130 $1=¥113 $1=¥91

According to Teruhisa Tokunaka, chief financial officer of Sony, a 1-yen shift in the yen–dollar exchange rate can raise or lower the company’s annual operating profit by 8 billion yen.


Inflationary Environment

• Defined as a persistent upward change in price levels– Can be caused by an

increase in the money supply

– Can be caused by currency devaluation

• Essential requirement for pricing is the maintenance of operating margins: rising costs-increased selling prices.


Government Controls and Regulations

• The types of policies and regulations that affect pricing decisions are:– Dumping legislation– Resale price

maintenance legislation

– Price ceilings– General reviews of

price levels

Procter&Gamble-Venezuela

• Foreign governments may:– require funds to be

noninterest-bearing accounts for a long time

– profit transfer rules: restrict profits taken out of the country and limit funds paid for imported material

– Restrict price competition


Competitive Behavior

• If competitors do not adjust their prices in response to rising costs it is difficult to adjust your pricing to maintain operating margins

• If competitors are manufacturing or sourcing in a lower-cost country, it may be necessary to cut prices to stay competitive


Global Pricing: Three Policy Alternatives

• Extension or Ethnocentric• Adaptation or Polycentric• Geocentric

Mercedes moved beyond ethnocentric pricing when

Toyota began offering Lexus—Mercedes value at $20k less. In 1993, Mercedes boosted

employee productivity, increased low-cost suppliers and invested in production

facilities in the U.S. to move to better pricing.

Kate Stephenson

The shaded box below seems incorrect. Was Mercedes valued at $20k less? Please review.


Extension Pricing• Ethnocentric

• Per-unit price of an item is the same no matter where in the world the buyer is located

• Importer must absorb freight and import duties

• Fails to respond to each national market

• When toymaker Mattel adapted U.S. products for overseas markets, U.S. prices were converted to local currency prices. As a result, Holiday Barbie and some other toys were overpriced in global markets.


Adaptation or Polycentric Pricing

• Permits affiliate managers or independent distributors to establish price as they feel is most desirable in their circumstances

AIDS drugs meant for Africa are smuggled into

Europe• IKEA: the lowest price on comparable products in every market, managers in each country set their own prices (competition, wages, taxes, and advertising rates). Overall, IKEA’s prices are lowest in the US and highest in Italy

• Arbitrage is also a potential problem


Gray Market Goods

• Trademarked products are exported from one country to another where they are sold by unauthorized persons or organizations

• Occurs when product is in short supply, when producers use skimming strategies in some markets, and when goods are subject to substantial mark-ups


Geocentric Pricing• Intermediate course of

action: neither fix a single price worldwide nor allow local distributors to make independent price decisions.

• Recognizes that several factors are relevant to pricing decision– Local costs– Income levels– Competition– Local marketing strategy


Price Fixing• Representatives of two or more companies

secretly set similar prices for their products– Illegal act because it is anticompetitive

• Horizontal price fixing occurs when competitors within an industry that make and market the same product conspire to keep prices highIn 2011 the European Commission determined that Procter & Gamble,

Unilever, and Henkel had conspired to set prices for laundry detergent

• Vertical price fixing occurs when a manufacturer conspires with wholesalers/retailers to ensure certain retail prices are maintained

The European Commission recently fined Nintendo nearly $150 million after it was determined that the video game company had colluded with European distributors to fix prices.


Countertrade

• Countertrade occurs when payment is made in some form other than money

• Options

– Barter– Compensation

trading or buyback– Switch trading


Barter

• The least complex and oldest form of bilateral, non-monetary countertrade

• A direct exchange of goods or services between two parties

• During the Soviet era, PepsiCo bartered soft drink syrup concentrate for Stolichnaya vodka, which was, in turn, exported to the US by the PepsiCo Wines subsidiary and marketed by M. Henri Wines. Today, Stolichnaya is imported into US and marketed by Carillon Importers.


Compensation trading

• Involves two separate and parallel contracts.

• In one contract, the supplier agrees to build a plant or provide plant equipment, patents or licenses, or technical, managerial, or distribution expertise for a hard currency down payment at the time of delivery.

• In the other contract, the supplier company agrees to take payment in the form of the plant’s output equal to its investment (minus interest) for a period of as many as 20 years.

• Used heavily in China.


Switch trading

• In this arrangement, a third party steps into a simple barter or other countertrade arrangement when one of the parties is not willing to accept all the goods received in a transaction.

• Secondary market for countertraded or bartered goods.

• Fees charged by switch trades range from 5% to 30% of market value.


Which pricing strategy has the advantage of being simple to calculate but has the disadvantage of ignoring demand and competitive conditions?

A) gray marketingB) skimmingC) penetrationD) market holdingE) cost-based

Answer: E


A market ________ pricing strategy calls for setting price levels that are low enough to quickly build market share.

A) gray marketingB) skimmingC) penetrationD) market holdingE) cost-based

Answer: C


A firm without much export experience uses the rigid cost-based pricing method. Which of the following considerations is the exporter ignoring?

A) Is the price competitive in view of local market conditions?B) Does the price reflect the product's quality?C) Will authorities in export markets view the price as reasonable

or exploitative?D) Does the price take antidumping laws into consideration?E) all of the above

Answer: E


All of the listed advantages are for "Extension or Ethnocentric" pricing strategy except:

A) it does not respond to the competitive and market conditions of each national market.

B) it calls for the per-unit price of an item to be same all over the world.

C) it is extremely simple since it does not require information on market condition.

D) it does not require competitive conditions for implementation.

E) the importer must absorb freight and import duties.

Answer: A


According to a recent study of European industrial exporters, companies that utilized independent distributors would be most likely to utilize:

A) ethnocentric pricing.B) polycentric pricing.C) regiocentric pricing.D) geocentric pricing.E) extension pricing.

Answer: B


The unauthorized distribution of trademarked goods to exploit price differentials in world markets is known as:

A) market skimming.B) black marketing.C) gray marketing.D) dumping.E) licensing.

Answer: C


If a company sells products in export markets at prices that are below fair market value and that can harm producers in the export market, that company may be accused of:

A) market skimming.B) using offsets.C) pursuing artificially high margins.D) dumping.E) gray marketing.

Answer: D


Germany's Bayer Group was fined millions of dollars to settle a lawsuit alleging it had conspired with ArcherDanielsMidland and other global companies to set prices for an enzyme used in animal feeds. What was the issue in this lawsuit?

A) price skimmingB) market penetrationC) price bundlingD) price fixingE) dumping

Answer: D


The most general term for the global phenomenon involving reciprocal business interactions between parties in various countries is known as:

A) switch trading.B) barter.C) offset.D) compensation trading.E) countertrade.

Answer: E


Suppose that World Corp. signs a contract to build a lumber processing plant in Siberia. If World Corp. signs a second contract agreeing to take partial payment for the plant in the form of lumber products produced at the plant, it is engaging in:

A) barter.B) switch trading.C) offset.D) compensation trading.E) a hybrid countertrade arrangement

Answer: D

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