Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 1 Chapter 2 The Person and the Situation This multimedia product...

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 20051

Chapter 2Chapter 2

The Person and the Situation

The Person and the Situation

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Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

The Person

The Situation

The Person and The Situation Interact

The Person

The Situation

The Person and The Situation Interact


The PersonThe Person

Motivation: What Drives Us

Knowledge: Our View of the World

Feelings: Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods

Focus on Method: Assessing Feelings

Introducing the Self

Motivation: What Drives Us

Knowledge: Our View of the World

Feelings: Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods

Focus on Method: Assessing Feelings

Introducing the Self


Motivation: What Drives UsMotivation: What Drives Us

Motivation – the force that moves people toward their desired outcomes

Goal – a desired outcome; something one wishes to achieve or accomplish

Motive – a goal fundamental to social survival

Motivation – the force that moves people toward their desired outcomes

Goal – a desired outcome; something one wishes to achieve or accomplish

Motive – a goal fundamental to social survival


MotivationMotivation

What are your goals?

What goals do you have for today?

What goals do you have for this semester?

What goals do you have for your career?

What goals do you have for your life?

What are your goals?

What goals do you have for today?

What goals do you have for this semester?

What goals do you have for your career?

What goals do you have for your life?



Gain StatusGain Status

Get Well-Paying, Highly Respected Job

Get Well-Paying, Highly Respected Job

Earn High GradesEarn High Grades

Attend Class

Attend Class

Take NotesTake Notes

Study for Exams

Study for Exams



Attention – the process of consciously focusing on aspects of our environment or ourselves; selecting from the infinite-indefinite.

Attention – the process of consciously focusing on aspects of our environment or ourselves; selecting from the infinite-indefinite.



Automaticity – the ability of a behavior or cognitive process to operate without conscious guidance once it’s put into motion

Automaticity – the ability of a behavior or cognitive process to operate without conscious guidance once it’s put into motion


Willpower:Use it and lose it.

Willpower:Use it and lose it.

Participants in one experiment were asked to eat radishes rather than nearby cookies.

Others were asked to eat cookies and ignore the radishes.

The students were then asked to solve puzzles (which, unbeknownst to them, were actually impossible).

Participants in one experiment were asked to eat radishes rather than nearby cookies.

Others were asked to eat cookies and ignore the radishes.

The students were then asked to solve puzzles (which, unbeknownst to them, were actually impossible).


25:00 25:00

20:0020:00

15:0015:00

10:0010:00

5:005:00

Radish-eaters(No Cookies Allowed)


Control(Puzzle Task Only)


Cookie-eaters (No Radishes Allowed)


Persistence on puzzles (minutes)

Persistence on puzzles (minutes) 8:218:21

25:5225:5218:5418:54

Participants who had to exercise will-power to resist the cookies had less will-power left over for the difficult puzzles

Participants who had to exercise will-power to resist the cookies had less will-power left over for the difficult puzzles


25:00 25:00

20:0020:00

15:0015:00

10:0010:00

5:005:00







Persistence on puzzles (minutes)

Persistence on puzzles (minutes) 8:218:21

25:5225:5218:5418:54

These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that:

Using willpower for one task reduces its availability for later tasks.

These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that:

Using willpower for one task reduces its availability for later tasks.



Willpower – the self-control strength used to overcome counterproductive impulses to achieve difficult goals

Willpower – the self-control strength used to overcome counterproductive impulses to achieve difficult goals


Self-Control and mental effortSelf-Control and mental effort

California Lt. Gov. Cruz Bustamante is in the midst of one of the worst scandals of his career. No, the state's second-highest-ranking elected official was not accused of child molestation, adultery, or influence peddling; he was accused of using the dreaded "N-word."

On February 13, 2001, in a speech to a group of black trade unionists, Bustamante was reciting a list of African-American labor organizations established in the early 1900s, many of which included the word "Negro" in their titles. While uttering one of those names, Bustamante let slip the word "nigger" instead of 'negro.' A handful of blacks in the audience stormed out in protest, and Bustamante has been apologizing up and down the state ever since

California Lt. Gov. Cruz Bustamante is in the midst of one of the worst scandals of his career. No, the state's second-highest-ranking elected official was not accused of child molestation, adultery, or influence peddling; he was accused of using the dreaded "N-word."

On February 13, 2001, in a speech to a group of black trade unionists, Bustamante was reciting a list of African-American labor organizations established in the early 1900s, many of which included the word "Negro" in their titles. While uttering one of those names, Bustamante let slip the word "nigger" instead of 'negro.' A handful of blacks in the audience stormed out in protest, and Bustamante has been apologizing up and down the state ever since

http://www.latimes.com/news/state/20010214/t000013420.html

http://www.latimes.com/news/state/20010214/t000013420.html


BeliefsBeliefs

ExplanationsExplanations

Sensory MemoriesSensory

Memories

Knowledge: Our View of Ourselves and the WorldKnowledge: Our View of Ourselves and the World

Mental RepresentationMental Representation


MartinLutherKing

MartinLutherKing

King pursued hisgoal because he was religious.

King pursued hisgoal because he was religious.

He was spiritual, wanted to eliminate discrimination.

He was spiritual, wanted to eliminate discrimination.

“I have a dream…” “I have a dream…”

BeliefsBeliefs

ExplanationsExplanations

Sensory MemoriesSensory

Memories




Exemplar –mental representation of a specific episode, event, or individual

Exemplar –mental representation of a specific episode, event, or individual



Schema – a mental representation capturing the general characteristics of a particular class of episodes, events, or individuals

Schema – a mental representation capturing the general characteristics of a particular class of episodes, events, or individuals



Priming – The process of activating knowledge or goals, making them ready for use:

Examples:

Person

situation

Priming – The process of activating knowledge or goals, making them ready for use:

Examples:

Person

situation



Chronic Accessibility– the state of being easily activated or primed for use.

The role of automaticity

Bias and prejudice affecting attention

Chronic Accessibility– the state of being easily activated or primed for use.

The role of automaticity

Bias and prejudice affecting attention


Feelings:Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods


Attitudes – favorable or unfavorable feelings towards particular people, objects, events or ideas

Attitudes – favorable or unfavorable feelings towards particular people, objects, events or ideas




Emotions – relatively intense feelings characterized by physiological arousal and complex cognitions (e.g., fear, anger, joy)Emotions are more intense than

attitudes.

Emotions – relatively intense feelings characterized by physiological arousal and complex cognitions (e.g., fear, anger, joy)Emotions are more intense than

attitudes.




Moods – relatively long-lasting feelings that are less focused than emotions, and not directed toward a particular target

Moods – relatively long-lasting feelings that are less focused than emotions, and not directed toward a particular target


Genetic and CulturalFoundations of Feelings


Evidence for genetic influences:

People from different societies express and experience emotions in surprisingly similar ways:

People in remote regions of the world agree on facial expressions for happiness, fear, anger, and disgust.


People from different societies express and experience emotions in surprisingly similar ways:

People in remote regions of the world agree on facial expressions for happiness, fear, anger, and disgust.





Children born deaf, blind, and brain damaged are unable to learn emotional responses from their social world.

Nevertheless, they show many normal emotional reactions like smiling, laughter, anger, and surprise.


Children born deaf, blind, and brain damaged are unable to learn emotional responses from their social world.

Nevertheless, they show many normal emotional reactions like smiling, laughter, anger, and surprise.





Behavior genetic studies indicate a heritable component to emotions and moods expressed by related individuals. (page 45)


Behavior genetic studies indicate a heritable component to emotions and moods expressed by related individuals. (page 45)




Evidence for cultural influences:

People in different cultures learn different rules about expressing emotions.

Example: Utku Eskimos rarely express anger; Awlad’Ali Bedouins quickly express their anger.

Evidence for cultural influences:

People in different cultures learn different rules about expressing emotions.

Example: Utku Eskimos rarely express anger; Awlad’Ali Bedouins quickly express their anger.


Proximate Contributors to Feelings


Gently hold a pen between your teeth, making sure it doesn’t touch your lips.

Gently hold a pen between your teeth, making sure it doesn’t touch your lips.




Now grip the end of the pen firmly with your lips, making sure it doesn’t dip downward.

Now grip the end of the pen firmly with your lips, making sure it doesn’t dip downward.




In an experiment by researchers Fritz Strack, Leonard Martin and Sabine Stepper, students read cartoons while holding the pen with either their teeth or their lips.

In an experiment by researchers Fritz Strack, Leonard Martin and Sabine Stepper, students read cartoons while holding the pen with either their teeth or their lips.




Compared to control participants who held the pen in their hands, those who held the pen in their teeth rated cartoons as funnier.

Those who held the pen in their lips rated the cartoons as less funny.

Why?

Compared to control participants who held the pen in their hands, those who held the pen in their teeth rated cartoons as funnier.

Those who held the pen in their lips rated the cartoons as less funny.

Why?




Holding the pen between your teeth contracts the facial muscles into something like a smile.

Holding the pen between your teeth contracts the facial muscles into something like a smile.




Holding the pen firmly between the lips creates an expression similar to an angry grimace.

Holding the pen firmly between the lips creates an expression similar to an angry grimace.




Our feelings are influenced strongly by how we appraise our situations.

Our feelings are influenced strongly by how we appraise our situations.




Who is happier following Olympic performances – Silver medalists or bronze medalists?

Who is happier following Olympic performances – Silver medalists or bronze medalists?




Researchers analyzed films from 1992 Olympics, and found that athletes who won Bronze medals were happier than those who won Silver.

Why?

Researchers analyzed films from 1992 Olympics, and found that athletes who won Bronze medals were happier than those who won Silver.

Why?




Silver medalists talked about how close they had come to a Gold.

Bronze medalists imagined winning no medal at all.

Counterfactual thinking – process of imagining alternative versions of actual events

Silver medalists talked about how close they had come to a Gold.

Bronze medalists imagined winning no medal at all.

Counterfactual thinking – process of imagining alternative versions of actual events


When Doing Better Means Feeling Worse


After receiving their grade in Introductory Psychology, Cornell students were asked to report:

Their final numerical grade

The grade they had expected to receive

How satisfied they were with their course grade.

After receiving their grade in Introductory Psychology, Cornell students were asked to report:

Their final numerical grade

The grade they had expected to receive

How satisfied they were with their course grade.


55

44

33

22

11

Just missed getting lower

grade

Just missed getting lower

grade

Just missed getting

higher grade

Just missed getting

higher grade

Missed higher grade by a

good amount

Missed higher grade by a

good amount

Satisfaction with grade Satisfaction with grade

Students who had just missed the cut-off for the higher grade were less satisfied than students who had missed the cut-off for a lower grade.

Students who had just missed the cut-off for the higher grade were less satisfied than students who had missed the cut-off for a lower grade.

00

More satisfiedMore satisfied

Less satisfiedLess satisfied

Medvec, V. H., & Savitsky, K. (1997) Medvec, V. H., & Savitsky, K. (1997)




In other words, a student who received an 81 (receiving a B, but just missing a C) would likely be happier than a student who received an 89 (receiving a B, but just missing an A).

In other words, a student who received an 81 (receiving a B, but just missing a C) would likely be happier than a student who received an 89 (receiving a B, but just missing an A).


Focus on Method:Assessing FeelingsFocus on Method:Assessing Feelings

Feelings can be inferred from the following:behavior (e.g. clenched fists or frowns)

physiological measures (e.g. heart rate, blood pressure)

Researchers search for convergence between self-reports, behaviors, and physiological measures.

Feelings can be inferred from the following:behavior (e.g. clenched fists or frowns)

physiological measures (e.g. heart rate, blood pressure)

Researchers search for convergence between self-reports, behaviors, and physiological measures.


Introducing the SelfIntroducing the Self

Take a minute to write about yourself.

What did you list?

Examples of past behavior?

General characteristics?

Take a minute to write about yourself.

What did you list?

Examples of past behavior?

General characteristics?



Self concept –a mental representation capturing our views and beliefs about ourselves

Self concept –a mental representation capturing our views and beliefs about ourselves



Self-esteem – the specific attitude we have toward ourselves

Self-esteem – the specific attitude we have toward ourselves



Reflected appraisal process – the process through which people come to know themselves by observing or imagining how others view them

Reflected appraisal process – the process through which people come to know themselves by observing or imagining how others view them



Social comparison – the process through which people come to know themselves by comparing their abilities, attitudes and beliefs with those of others

Social comparison – the process through which people come to know themselves by comparing their abilities, attitudes and beliefs with those of others



Self perception process – the process through which people observe their own behavior to infer their own internal characteristics;

“looking-glass self”

Self perception process – the process through which people observe their own behavior to infer their own internal characteristics;

“looking-glass self”



Self presentation – the process through which we try to control the impressions people form of us in order to achieve goals; self-regulation is included in the process of presentation. Why?

Self presentation – the process through which we try to control the impressions people form of us in order to achieve goals; self-regulation is included in the process of presentation. Why?


The SituationThe Situation


The SituationThe Situation

Persons as Situations: Mere Presence, Affordances, and Descriptive Norms

Focus on Social Dysfunction: Descriptive Norms, Pluralistic Ignorance, and Binge Drinking on Campus

Rules: Injunctive Norms and Scripted Situations

Strong Versus Weak Situations

Culture

Persons as Situations: Mere Presence, Affordances, and Descriptive Norms

Focus on Social Dysfunction: Descriptive Norms, Pluralistic Ignorance, and Binge Drinking on Campus


Strong Versus Weak Situations

Culture


Persons as Situations:Mere Presence

Persons as Situations:Mere Presence

Small schools are “undermanned” – they need all their students. Because of this, students participate in more activities and feel more challenged.

Large schools are “overmanned” – they don’t need all their students. Thus, students are less needed and more likely to be socially isolated (Barker & Gump, 1964).

Small schools are “undermanned” – they need all their students. Because of this, students participate in more activities and feel more challenged.

Large schools are “overmanned” – they don’t need all their students. Thus, students are less needed and more likely to be socially isolated (Barker & Gump, 1964).


Persons as Situations:Affordance


Imagine you are at the company picnic and you spot your new boss sitting by himself.

This could be a good chance to advance your career.

Imagine you are at the company picnic and you spot your new boss sitting by himself.

This could be a good chance to advance your career.




Affordance – opportunity or threat provided by a situation

Affordance – opportunity or threat provided by a situation


Persons as Situations:Descriptive Norms

Persons as Situations:Descriptive Norms

Descriptive norm – information about what people commonly do in a situation

Example: Many students wear jeans to classes.

Descriptive norm – information about what people commonly do in a situation

Example: Many students wear jeans to classes.




Injunctive norm – vs. Descriptive

rules that define what is typically approved and disapproved of in a situation

Injunctive norm – vs. Descriptive

rules that define what is typically approved and disapproved of in a situation


Persons as Situations:Pluralistic IgnorancePersons as Situations:Pluralistic Ignorance

Imagine you are in your social psychology class, and don’t understand a concept the professor just explained.

You look around and no one else seems confused.

Not wanting to look like the only one who doesn’t understand, you don’t raise your hand.

What if everyone else is doing the same?

Imagine you are in your social psychology class, and don’t understand a concept the professor just explained.

You look around and no one else seems confused.

Not wanting to look like the only one who doesn’t understand, you don’t raise your hand.

What if everyone else is doing the same?


Persons as Situations:Pluralistic IgnorancePersons as Situations:Pluralistic Ignorance

Pluralistic ignorance – the phenomenon in which people in a group misperceive the beliefs of others because everyone in the group is acting inconsistently with their beliefs

Pluralistic ignorance – the phenomenon in which people in a group misperceive the beliefs of others because everyone in the group is acting inconsistently with their beliefs


Descriptive Norms, Pluralistic Ignorance, and Binge Drinking on

Campus


Campus

Over 40 percent of students binge drink at least twice a month.

Males are more likely to drink than females (51% vs. 40%).

Pluralistic ignorance plays a role in student drinking.

Over 40 percent of students binge drink at least twice a month.

Males are more likely to drink than females (51% vs. 40%).

Pluralistic ignorance plays a role in student drinking.



Campus


Campus

The typical student erroneously believes that he or she is relatively alone in being uncomfortable with alcohol abuse on campus.

Over time, men shift their opinions to be more consistent with their misperceptions of others.

The typical student erroneously believes that he or she is relatively alone in being uncomfortable with alcohol abuse on campus.

Over time, men shift their opinions to be more consistent with their misperceptions of others.




Scripted situation – a situation in which certain events are expected to occur in a particular order

Scripted situation – a situation in which certain events are expected to occur in a particular order


Strong VersusWeak SituationsStrong Versus

Weak Situations

Strong situations demand people act in particular ways. (injunctive)

Examples: Funeral, job interview

Weak situations allow people to behave in many different ways.

Examples: Nightclub, picnic (descriptive)

Strong situations demand people act in particular ways. (injunctive)

Examples: Funeral, job interview

Weak situations allow people to behave in many different ways.

Examples: Nightclub, picnic (descriptive)


CultureCulture

Culture – the beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared by people living in a particular time and place

Culture – the beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared by people living in a particular time and place


CultureCulture

Cultural Scripts – Culture influences not only the extent to which everyday situations are governed by socially accepted scripts, but also the content of those scripts. (page 61-62)

Cultural Scripts – Culture influences not only the extent to which everyday situations are governed by socially accepted scripts, but also the content of those scripts. (page 61-62)


CultureCulture

Individualist culture – a culture that socializes its members to think of themselves as individuals, and to give priority to their own personal goals

Individualist culture – a culture that socializes its members to think of themselves as individuals, and to give priority to their own personal goals


CultureCulture

Collectivist culture – a culture that socializes its members to think of themselves as members of a larger group, and to place the group’s concerns before their own

Collectivist culture – a culture that socializes its members to think of themselves as members of a larger group, and to place the group’s concerns before their own


(Hofstede, 1983)(Hofstede, 1983)

CultureCulture

Where would you rank the following five countries on individualism?

Where would you rank the following five countries on individualism?Canada

South Korea

United States

Japan

Mexico

Canada

South Korea

United States

Japan

Mexico

#4

#44

#1

#22

#32

#4

#44

#1

#22

#32


The Person and the Situation Interact

The Person and the Situation Interact

Different Persons Respond Differently to the Same Situation

Situations Choose the Person

Persons Choose Their Situations

Different Situations Prime Different Parts of the Person

Persons Change The Situation

Situations Change the Person


Situations Choose the Person

Persons Choose Their Situations

Different Situations Prime Different Parts of the Person

Persons Change The Situation

Situations Change the Person




Different people are attuned to different parts of a situation, and the same situation means different things to different people.

Different people are attuned to different parts of a situation, and the same situation means different things to different people.




Imagine you’ve agreed to participate in an experiment studying the psychology of sports performance.

The study involves a golf-like putting task.

How do you think you’d do?

Imagine you’ve agreed to participate in an experiment studying the psychology of sports performance.

The study involves a golf-like putting task.

How do you think you’d do?




Two groups of students were asked to perform this exact putting task.

The first group was told the task measured “natural athletic ability.”


The first group was told the task measured “natural athletic ability.”





The second group was told the task measured “sports intelligence.”


The second group was told the task measured “sports intelligence.”


30 30

2525

1515

1010

55

Natural AbilityNatural Ability Sports IntelligenceSports Intelligence

Average number of

strokes(higher number indicates worse performance)

Average number of


MotivationMotivation27.827.8

23.123.1

20 20

White participants performed worse than usual when told the test measured “natural ability.”

White participants performed worse than usual when told the test measured “natural ability.”

White participantsWhite participants

Black participantsBlack participants


30 30

2525

1515

1010

55


Average number of


Average number of



23.123.1

20 20

23.323.327.227.2

Black participants performed worse than usual when told the test measured “sports intelligence.”

Black participants performed worse than usual when told the test measured “sports intelligence.”






23.123.1 23.323.327.227.2

Stone et al. (1999)Stone et al. (1999)

Both groups appeared to do worse when they had to worry about re-enforcing pre-existing stereotypes.

Both groups appeared to do worse when they had to worry about re-enforcing pre-existing stereotypes.

30 30

2525

1515

1010

55

Average number of


Average number of


20 20






23.123.1 23.323.327.227.2

These findings illustrate how different people respond differently in the same situations.

These findings illustrate how different people respond differently in the same situations.

30 30

2525

1515

1010

55

Average number of


Average number of


20 20






Person-Situation fit – the extent to which a person and a situation are compatible

Person-Situation fit – the extent to which a person and a situation are compatible


Focus on Application: Person Situation Fit in the WorkplaceFocus on Application: Person Situation Fit in the Workplace

When employees’ personal characteristics – interests, goals, abilities, traits – fit with the demands and opportunities of their occupations, employees are happier and more likely to stay at their jobs.

When employees’ personal characteristics – interests, goals, abilities, traits – fit with the demands and opportunities of their occupations, employees are happier and more likely to stay at their jobs.


Focus on Application: Person Situation Fit in the WorkplaceFocus on Application: Person Situation Fit in the Workplace

Other research illustrates the value of having the person fit not just the job but the organization’s culture.

Other research illustrates the value of having the person fit not just the job but the organization’s culture.


Situations Choose the PersonSituations Choose the Person

Example: Athletic teams have slots for only so many players, so not everyone gets the experience of playing on the team.

Example: Athletic teams have slots for only so many players, so not everyone gets the experience of playing on the team.


Persons Choose Their SituationsPersons Choose Their Situations

We choose situations that provide opportunities that fit with our personal characteristics.

Example: If you are an introvert, a quiet evening at home might be more appealing than a crowded rock concert.

We choose situations that provide opportunities that fit with our personal characteristics.

Example: If you are an introvert, a quiet evening at home might be more appealing than a crowded rock concert.


Different Situations Prime Different Parts of the PersonDifferent Situations Prime

Different Parts of the Person

Inside each one of us there are different motives, memories, and feelings.

Each of these is likely to be triggered by some situations more than others.

Inside each one of us there are different motives, memories, and feelings.

Each of these is likely to be triggered by some situations more than others.


Different Situations Prime Different Parts of the PersonDifferent Situations Prime

Different Parts of the PersonExample: After watching a slapstick

comedy that primes memories of innocent accidents, an ambiguous collision with a stranger may draw one reaction:

(“Oops. How clumsy of me!”)

But a blow-em-up action thriller may trigger your inner Rambo:

(“Hey! How dare you bump into me!”)

Example: After watching a slapstick comedy that primes memories of innocent accidents, an ambiguous collision with a stranger may draw one reaction:

(“Oops. How clumsy of me!”)

But a blow-em-up action thriller may trigger your inner Rambo:

(“Hey! How dare you bump into me!”)


Persons Change The SituationPersons Change The Situation

Sometimes people change situations to better achieve their goals.

(a teacher will set up her class so that her students get along)

Other times people change situations inadvertently.

(depressed college students may depress their roommates)

(Joiner & Metalsky, 1996) (Strack & Coyne, 1983)

Sometimes people change situations to better achieve their goals.

(a teacher will set up her class so that her students get along)

Other times people change situations inadvertently.

(depressed college students may depress their roommates)

(Joiner & Metalsky, 1996) (Strack & Coyne, 1983)


Situations Change the PersonSituations Change the Person

You may be a different person after spending time in a situation.

Example: Two similar high school students may be very different after one spends four years in the military while the other is in a liberal arts college.

You may be a different person after spending time in a situation.

Example: Two similar high school students may be very different after one spends four years in the military while the other is in a liberal arts college.


Situations Change the PersonSituations Change the Person

Socialization – the process through which a culture teaches its members about its beliefs, customs, habits, and language

Socialization – the process through which a culture teaches its members about its beliefs, customs, habits, and language

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