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Running Head: CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT

EXPLORING CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT THE

DERAILMENT OF WOMEN LEADERS

by

Michelle Nobre

Submitted in fulfilment of the degree

PhD

in

HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

in the

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND PEOPLE MANAGEMENT

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Prof. J. Coetzee

Co-Supervisor: Dr. M. van der Walt

October 2013

CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT

i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The successful completion of this study depended greatly on the coordinated

efforts of many individuals whose diverse interests, expertise and assistance I wish

to acknowledge with gratitude:

Prof. Jos Coetzee, my supervisor, who guided me patiently and competently

through the phases of the study, and whose gentle guidance and unwavering

belief, I will always remember.

Dr. Marietjie van der Walt, my co-supervisor, through whom I acquired a great

deal of professional knowledge, as well as the opportunity to work with a

woman leader whom I admire.

My parents, whose love and support not only made this study possible, but

who created the opportunities for me to become all I am.

Peter, for his support, faith, encouragement and patience, and for always

being an example of the kind of person I aspire to be.


ii

Abstract

This study explores the characteristics that prevent the derailment of women

leaders. It further provides insight into leadership derailment as it is experienced and

interpreted by women leaders. The study was done in the context of the scarcity of

women in senior and executive leadership positions within organisations, whilst

equality and transformation remain on the global leadership agenda, as well as the

context of South African Transformation and Employment Equity Legislation.

A qualitative study was undertaken based on the grounded theory research

methodology. The purposeful and snowball sampling technique yielded five research

participants. Through in-depth interviewing eleven themes emerged from the data.

These were the personal and core constructs held by participants in relation to their

conceptualisation of the leadership landscape, derailment, and of themselves as

leaders.

While each participant‘s experience of derailment and the leadership

landscape was unique, the findings of the study indicated that specific personal

characteristics prevented their derailment or enabled them to overcome derailment.

These were: pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to compromise,

insight into behaviour, positive outlook/optimism, building relationships and networks

self-confidence and self-efficacy, resilience and coping, emotional maturity and

managing emotions, recognition of significant others, achievement drive and

perseverance, risk taking and openness to change, and balancing multiple roles.

Whilst an exploration of the external factors leading to characteristics that

prevent derailment as well as opting out and voluntary separation, was not the

purpose of this study, emerging themes in respect to these were discussed.

Finally, an integrated framework was formulated presenting the characteristics

that prevent the derailment of women leaders.


iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................... i

Abstract ....................................................................................................................... ii

List of tables .............................................................................................................. vii

List of figures ............................................................................................................ viii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction and background ......................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Background ................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Defining key concepts ................................................................................... 6

1.4 Definition of the research problem ................................................................ 7

1.5 Objective of the study .................................................................................... 8

1.6 Motivation for the study ................................................................................. 8

1.7 Contribution to the body of knowledge .......................................................... 9

1.8 Research design and methodology ............................................................. 10

1.8.1 Research approach and key scientific beliefs. ...................................... 10

1.8.2 Research strategy ................................................................................ 11

1.9 Ethical considerations ................................................................................. 13

1.10 Chapter outline ............................................................................................ 14

1.11 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 15

CHAPTER 2 Leadership derailment .................................................................... 16

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 16

2.2 Defining key concepts ................................................................................. 16

2.2.1 Women executives ............................................................................... 16

2.2.2 Leadership derailment .......................................................................... 17

2.3 Leadership derailment in context ................................................................ 19

2.4 Historic overview of leadership derailment .................................................. 20

2.4.1 Personality traits leading to derailment ................................................. 21

2.4.2 Behaviours leading to derailment ......................................................... 24

2.5 Derailment of women executive leaders ..................................................... 33

2.5.1 Factors leading to the derailment of women executives ....................... 34

2.5.1.1 External factors leading to the derailment of women executives ...... 34

2.5.1.2 Internal factors leading to derailment of women executives ............. 45


iv

2.6 Opting out in derailment of women executives ............................................ 51

2.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 58

CHAPTER 3 Research methodology .................................................................. 59

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 59

3.2 Research design ......................................................................................... 59

3.2.1 Research approach .............................................................................. 59

3.2.1.1 Qualitative research and its key features .......................................... 59

3.2.1.2 Key scientific beliefs ......................................................................... 62

3.2.1.3 Why the particular qualitative research choice ................................. 65

3.2.2 Research strategy ................................................................................ 66

3.3 Grounded theory ......................................................................................... 68

3.3.1 The history of grounded theory ............................................................. 68

3.3.2 Key principles of grounded theory ........................................................ 69

3.3.3 Literature review in grounded theory research ..................................... 72

3.4 Grounded theory applied in context ............................................................ 75

3.4.1 Understanding personal construct theory ............................................. 75

3.4.2 The operationalization of personal construct theory ............................. 76

3.5. Research methodology ............................................................................... 78

3.5.1 Research setting ................................................................................... 78

3.5.2 Entrée and establishing researcher roles ............................................. 79

3.5.3 Pilot study ............................................................................................. 80

3.5.4 Sampling ............................................................................................... 82

3.5.5 Data collection methods ....................................................................... 84

3.5.6 Recording of data ................................................................................. 89

3.5.6.1 Audio-tape recording ........................................................................ 89

3.5.6.2 Personal diary and project journal .................................................... 90

3.5.6.3 Memos and field notes ..................................................................... 90

3.5.6.4 Data storage and safekeeping .......................................................... 91

3.5.6.5 Data analysis .................................................................................... 91

3.5.7 Ethical considerations and ensuring quality research ........................... 95

3.5.7.1 Ethical considerations ....................................................................... 95

3.5.7.2 Ensuring quality research ................................................................. 97

3.6. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 99


v

CHAPTER 4 Research results ........................................................................... 100

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 100

4.2 Research results ....................................................................................... 102

4.2.1 External factors which support the development of characteristics that

prevent derailment .............................................................................. 144

4.2.2 Derailment experiences ...................................................................... 148

4.2.3 Participants definitions of derailment .................................................. 151

4.2.4 ―Opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ as they relate to derailment .. 153

4.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 155

CHAPTER 5 Interpretation and synthesis of results ....................................... 156

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 156

5.2 Interpretation of themes ............................................................................ 157

5.2.1 Contextualizing personal construct theory .......................................... 157

5.2.2 Themes related to constructs ............................................................. 161

5.2.3 Themes related to personal constructs ............................................... 164

5.2.4 Themes related to core constructs ..................................................... 171

5.3 External factors preventing derailment ..................................................... 181

5.4 ―Opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ in derailment ............................... 183

5.5 Leadership derailment ............................................................................... 184

5.6 Towards an integrated framework ............................................................. 186

5.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 189

CHAPTER 6 Summary and recommendations ................................................ 190

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 190

6.2 Approach to the research .......................................................................... 191

6.3 Summary of the major results ................................................................... 194

6.3.1 Core constructs .................................................................................. 194

6.3.2 Personal constructs ............................................................................ 197

6.3.3 External factors preventing derailment ............................................... 200

6.3.4 Opting out and voluntary separation in derailment ............................. 201

6.3.5 Leadership derailment ........................................................................ 202

6.4 Contribution to the body of knowledge ...................................................... 203

6.5 Limitations of the study ............................................................................. 206

6.6 Recommendations .................................................................................... 208

6.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 209


vi

List of references .................................................................................................... 210

List of annexures

Annexure 1: Request for participation ................................................................. 241

Annexure 2: Participant details ........................................................................... 243

Annexure 3: Informed consent ............................................................................ 244

Annexure 4: Interview guide................................................................................ 247


vii

List of tables

Table 2.1 Characteristics leading to derailment 21

Table 2.2 Personality characteristics leading to derailment 22

Table 2.3 Reasons for management failure 23

Table 2.4 Behaviours of derailed leaders 24

Table 2.5 Characteristics contributing to derailment 26

Table 2.6 Survey scales focusing on derailment behaviours 26

Table 2.7 Flawed behaviours, by leaders whose careers derailed 28

Table 2.8 Habits of unsuccessful people 28

Table 2.9 Factors which lead to career derailment 29

Table 2.10 Characteristics associated with leadership derailment 30

Table 2.11 Career derailment themes 45

Table 2.12 Factors associated with leadership derailment 50

Table 2.13 Summary of literature on opting out 54

Table 3.1 Research perspectives outlined 64

Table 3.2 Data analysis 93

Table 3.3 Data analysis process followed in current study 94

Table 4.1 Constructs: Participant 1 103





Table 4.6 External factors supporting the development of

characteristics preventing derailment 145

Table 4.7 Derailment experiences 149

Table 4.8 Definitions of derailment 152

Table 4.9 ―Opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ relating to

derailment 154

Table 5.1 Categorisation of constructs into themes 162


viii

List of figures

Figure 2.1 Model of career derailment for female executives 49

Figure 5.1 Characteristics preventing derailment 189


1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction

The research takes place within the context of the globally recognised scarcity

of women in senior and executive leadership positions within organisations, whilst

parity and transformation remain on the global leadership agenda. In addition, the

South African context of Transformation and Employment Equity Legislation, which

has been specifically designed to support the representation of, amongst others,

women at senior levels within organisations, is of relevance.

In South Africa, results of the most recent Businesswomen‘s Association of

South Africa Leadership Census (2011) reflect that women constitute less than 10

percent of CEO and chair positions of listed and State Owned Enterprises (SOEs)

with the figures at chairperson and directorship level having dropped since 2010.

―There are 15 women CEOs and 18 women chairpersons in this year‘s census,

excluding subsidiaries, as recorded on September 30, 2010. From a total of 339

companies, these numbers are alarmingly low‖ (BWA Census, 10; 2011). Results

further show that only 15.8 percent of all South African directorship positions are

held by women, with very slow improvement being shown in comparison to previous

years.

In addition to the above, statistics from the 2011-2012 annual Commission for

Employment Equity (CEE) report (2012); published by the Department of Labour in

South Africa, reveal that 80.9 percent of top management positions are held by men,

whilst only 19.1 percent are held by women. 71.8 percent of senior management

positions are held by men whilst 28.2 percent of such positions are held by women.


2

1.2 Background

With regards to the representation of women executives in the private sector,

a recent study by the International American Society for Training and Development,

(Stroope & Hagemann, 2011) reported that women account for only 3 percent of

Fortune 500 CEOs, with only an estimated 10 percent of executive positions and

board seats being held by women. According to the International Entrepreneurship

and Management Journal (2011), the last ―Women FTSE 2009‖ report sponsored by

Pricewaterhouse-Coopers, Sainsbury, Enlivens, HSBC and Pearson, found that the

number of European companies with women in executive positions had reduced

from 16 to 15 and the number of women at board level fell from 39 to 37. Moreover,

there was a decrease in the number of total of businesses with women in their

counsels, since 1 of each 4 businesses has an exclusively male counsel.

McKinsey (2010), in a study of 441 companies in 6 European (Norway,

Sweden, US, France, Germany, UK and Spain) and the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India

and China) countries found that women are still underrepresented on the boards of

these companies, with Norway having 32 percent women on their boards, Sweden

27 percent, the US and France 15 percent, the UK 12 percent, Spain 10 percent,

Russia 8 percent, Brazil 7 percent, China 6 percent and India 5 percent. As can be

seen, even in ―top performing‖ counties, women are far from representative. The

performance at executive level appears to be even worse, with the ―Top Performing‖

countries Sweden, Norway, the US and the UK having 17 percent, 12 percent, and

14 percent and 14 percent women on executive level, respectively.

More recently, The Lord Davies, Women on Boards Report shows that

women account for 17.3%

of UK FTSE 100 and 13.2% of FTSE 250 board directors

(as at 1 March 2013), a number which has increased from 12.5% and 7.8%

respectively in February 2011. It does however appear that this number has

stabilised over the last several months and that growth has stagnated somewhat. In

addition, the report reflects that women have secured 34% of all FTSE 100, and 36%

of FTSE 250 board appointments since 1 March 2012 (Lord Davies, Women on

Boards Report, April 2013).


3

With regards to representation in Europe, the Lord Davies report shows that

women constitute just 15.8% of female directors on the boards of companies across

the European Union with little progress being made to improve these statistics. As a

result of this poor progress, the European Commission recently published a draft

directive which places an ―obligation of means‖ on companies to put in place fair and

transparent recruitment policies with the objective of ensuring that 40%

of the non-

executive directors of individual listed companies are female by 2020 (Lord Davies,

Women on Boards Report, April 2013).

Recent research in 2013 shows that some progress has however taken place

in other countries, with 4.2% of Fortune 500 CEOs in the U.S. being women. In

addition 20% of senior executives in U.S. companies are women, compared with

26% in France, 31% in Germany and a startling 51% in China (Bray, Insead, 2013).

However, research also shows that 3% percent of Fortune 1000 companies in the

U.S. have no women on their board of directors whatsoever, whilst at the next tier of

1,000 midsize companies, 30% of U. S. Fortune 1000 companies have no women on

their board of directors whatsoever (Roth, B, 2013).

Whilst some progress may have been made in certain quarters, from the

above, it can clearly be seen that the representation of women executives within the

private sector continues to be poor in general. With regards to the representation of

women executives in the public sector, The Economist (2011) reported that in

parliaments across the world, women on average hold 20 percent of the seats. The

study by the International American Society for Training and Development, (Stroope

& Hagemann, 2011) reported that in government positions, 4.7 percent women were

present in head of state positions across the globe, whilst a Deloitte and Forbes

(2010) survey reflects that whilst women comprise 20 percent of parliamentary seats

worldwide, this compares favourably to the 13.5 percent of women executive officers

represented within the top 500 U.S. companies. In South Africa, The

Businesswomen‘s Association of South Africa Leadership census (2011) also

reveals that progress towards transformation and employment equity goals within the

public sector is outperforming that of the private sector. It can thus be seen that,

whilst representation of women appears to be better than that of the private sector, it

remains inequitable.


4

Based on the above, it would appear a better understanding of what makes

women in executive positions succeed in these positions, could facilitate necessary

policy and organisational interventions to increase the equitable distribution of

executive Leadership positions between genders.

An increased representation of women in executive leadership positions

between genders appears to be imperative to the success of business. Research by

Catalyst (2007) documents that Fortune 500 companies with women on their board

of directors achieve superior business results including:

higher return on equity: On average, companies with the highest percentages

of women board directors outperformed those with the least, by 53 %;

superior sales: On average, companies with the highest percentages

of women board directors outperformed those with the least, by 42 %;

higher return on investment: On average, companies with the highest

percentages of women board directors outperformed those with the least, by

66 %.

In addition to the above, Catalyst (2007) research found that the companies

with the best financial results were achieved by companies with more than three

women board of directors.

McElhaney (in Roth, 2013), investigated the corporate performance of more

than 1,500 organisations across three main categories of environmental, social and

governance. Research findings showed that organisations with more women on their

board of directors are more likely to:

invest in renewable power generation and take proactive steps to improve

operational energy efficiency;

integrate climate change into their actuarial models and develop products that

help customers manage climate change risk;

measure and reduce carbon emissions of their products;

have supplier programs to reduce their supply chain carbon footprint;

reduce the environmental impacts of their packaging;

address environmental risks in their financial decisions;


5

not disturb large and/or fragile areas of biodiversity.

In the context of the underrepresentation of women executive leaders as well

as the benefits of women executives in organisations, the on-going challenges faced

by women leaders in the workplace, remain topical. (Schein, 2007, Morrison et al.,

1992; Morrison, Schreiber, & Price, 1995; Morrison, 1996, Valian, 2000). In a

longitudinal study by Gayle, Golan and Miller (2009) of 2 500 publically listed

American companies, 30 000 executives and 10 job descriptions over a 14 year

period, it was found that the attrition rate of women executives is much higher than

that of their male counterparts. Clark and Kleyn (2011) found that in 2004, the

turnover rate of South African women executives was 17.15 percent, three times that

of their male counterparts.

A McKinsey study (2010) identified the two main barriers for the success of

women leaders as being:

the ―double-burden‖ syndrome, where women have to balance domestic and

work responsibilities; and

the ―anytime, anywhere‖ performance model, with the demand for total

availability and greater geographical mobility.

Lips (2009) reported the barriers to the success of women leaders to include

the following:

the different responses that women in leadership roles elicit;

the expectation that women combine compassion with leadership;

the fact that people do not easily take direction from or listen to women;

women who promote themselves and their abilities reap disapproval; and the

fact that

women tend to require more external validation than their male counterparts.

Deloitte and Forbes (2010) found:

lingering prejudice toward women;

cultural perceptions of gender roles in society;

lack of education and support networks;


6

a dearth of female role models already in office; and

a lack of time and financial resources; as being the greatest barriers to the

success of women leaders.

Extensive research has been conducted on leadership derailment (Bentz,

1967, 1985 a, 1985 b, 1990; McCall & Lombardo, 1983; Morrison, White & Van

Velsor, 1987; Lombardo, Ruderman & McCauley, 1988; McCauley & Lombardo,

1990; Van Velsor & Leslie, 1995; Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Eichinger & Lombardo,

2003; Dotlich & Cairo, 2003; Finkelstein, 2003; Rasch, Shen, Davies & Bono, 2008).

Although to a lesser degree, there also seems to exist a relatively large body

of knowledge about the barriers to the success, as well as the ultimate derailment, of

women leaders (Schein, 2007, Morrison et al., 1992; Morrison, Schreiber, & Price,

1995; Morrison, 1996, Valian, 2000).

Of interest to me, is that some women executive leaders, despite the barriers

and potential derailers they face, appear to succeed, whilst others fail.

A better understanding of the intrinsic characteristics of women executives

who have not fallen prey to, or who have overcome derailment, has practical

benefits. Policy makers and drivers of organisational change will be in a position to

select women executives who will be less likely to derail, as well as put in place

support mechanisms and developmental initiatives to increase the number of

successful executive women leaders in organisations into the future.

1.3 Defining key concepts

The current study undertakes an exploration of leadership derailment

amongst women executives and the characteristics that prevent the derailment of

women executives. A clearer understanding of leadership derailment as well as of

women executives is thus required.


7

The various definitions of leadership derailment are discussed in more detail

in Chapter 2 and the definitions of derailment as experienced and interpreted by the

research participants are further explored during the study. However, a preliminary

definition of leadership derailment for the purposes of this study is as follows: when

an individual, placed in an executive position is fired, asked to resign, forced out of

the organization, is demoted, or has their career plateau unexpectedly.

The various definitions of women executives are discussed in more detail in

Chapter 2. However, a preliminary definition of a woman executive for the purposes

of this study is as follows: a woman who is a Top or Senior Manager, who is

responsible for the day to day operations of a business in its entirety or for a

functional division of a business and who is among the most senior decision-makers

within a business. Such a woman executive reports to a CEO or top executive, or is

a CEO or top executive who reports to a Board. She may also be, but is not

necessarily, an Executive Board Member.

Both key concepts above will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

1.4 Definition of the research problem

Leadership derailment is a reality, as is more specifically, the derailment of

women executives. Whilst several factors appear to contribute towards the potential

derailment of women executives, it appears that some women are able to overcome

these and remain successful, influential and inspirational business leaders.

In addition, general derailment literature tends to focus on internal personality

traits and behaviours of leaders as being causative of their derailment, rather than

focusing on the characteristics which prevent derailment from taking place. Whilst

research which has been conducted on the derailment of women leaders tends to

focus on the external derailers which women face, again there appears to be a

significant paucity in the research on the intrinsic characteristics of women leaders

who succeed despite the internal and external barriers and derailers which they face.


8

The paucity in research in this regard is thus the issue which the current study

wishes to address through an in-depth exploration of the intrinsic characteristics

which prevent, or assist women executives in overcoming, career derailment.

1.5 Objective of the study

It is my belief that women who do not fall prey to derailment or who overcome

it, do so due to the mental representations they hold as well as the way they

construct meaning in a continually changing world.

It is thus the primary objective of the current study to explore the intrinsic

characteristics possessed by women executives, who have not fallen prey to

derailment, or who have overcome it, which act as preventative measures against

derailment. Based on this exploration, an integrated framework of characteristics

which prevent career derailment of women executives is developed.

A secondary aim of the study is to reach a more integrated and holistic

understanding of the phenomenon of leadership derailment as it is experienced and

interpreted by women executive leaders, themselves.

1.6 Motivation for the study

A review of the historical development of research on the behaviours and

personality characteristics associated with leadership derailment reveals that little

has been exclusively conducted on women. In the research that does include

women, few gender differences in derailment traits and behaviours have been found.

There thus appears to be a need for further research on the potential differences in

derailment traits and behaviours of women and men.

Another interesting aspect to note in reviewing the general derailment

literature is that very little research has focused on the experiences of leaders who

are confronted with derailment. Instead, the focus has been how others‘ experience

these leaders, or on characteristics and behaviours which others believe these

leaders possess or fail to possess. In the current study, the experience of


9

participants who have been confronted by, and overcome factors which lead to

derailment as well as their personal characteristics and behaviours, as identified and

experienced by them, rather than others, will be explored.

1.7 Contribution to the body of knowledge

By gaining a better understanding of the mental representations and

constructions of meaning held by the participants, it is my belief that a significant

contribution can be made to the body of academic literature on women leadership.

In addition to the above, it is my belief that a contribution can be made to the

success of women leaders in the organisations within which they function. CEOs and

human resources practitioners will be in a better position to recruit, select and place

women executives who will be less likely to derail. In addition, policy makers and

drivers of organisational change will be empowered to put in place support

mechanisms, training and developmental initiatives as well as coaching and

mentoring practices that reliably increase the number of successful executive women

leaders in their businesses.

From a policy perspective, the study, through practical, implementable

initiatives associated with the findings, could lead to an increased number of

successful women leaders in various sectors of the economy, thus supporting

transformation and employment equity policy and legislation.

Finally, the study takes place within the theoretical framework of grounded

theory, where techniques of personal construct theory are applied with the objective

of eliciting the mental representations and constructions of meaning held by women

who have not fallen prey to derailment, or have overcome it. It is believed that this

will yield valuable insights into the intrinsic factors at play in women leadership

derailment. In addition, the application of a methodological framework which

explores human experiences in terms of the mental representations and

constructions of meaning they hold, will make a contribution to how we study and

understand the rich complexity inherent in human experiences.


10

1.8 Research design and methodology

1.8.1 Research approach and key scientific beliefs.

The research takes place within the qualitative research paradigm. Arguments

for the use of qualitative methods are based on the view that quantitative methods

are inadequate in terms of accounting for context and meaning, and that qualitative

methods offer richer understandings of phenomena (Murray & Chamberlain, 1998).

Whilst definitions of qualitative research and data may vary, the definitions of well-

respected qualitative researchers such as Lofland and Lofland (1984), Gilmore and

Carson (1996); Bogdan, and Biklen (1998), Creswell (1998), Mason (1996), Strauss

and Corbin (1990), and more recently, Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarshar and Newton

(2001), Schwandt (2007) and Denzin and Lincoln (2008), share the following key

features.

It focuses on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, and

creates a view of what real life is like.

It has richness and is conducted within a framework of holism, with strong

potential for revealing complexities. According to Amaratunga et al. (2001)

such data provide rich, vivid descriptions, nested in a real life context.

The fact that qualitative data are typically collected over a sustained period

makes it powerful for studying any process.

The inherent flexibility of qualitative studies gives further confidence that what

has been going on is really understood.

It is the best strategy for discovery, exploring a new area and developing

hypotheses.

It allows the researcher to become familiar with the area(s) of interest, to

explore the field and consider the dimensions involved.

The adaptability of qualitative methods allows for a reasonably flexible plan of

action that may evolve with the researcher‘s experiential learning and

development.


11

Based on the above characteristics of qualitative research, I believe that a

qualitative approach is best suited to the study of the characteristics preventing the

derailment of women executive leaders.

According to Babbie (2007, p. 33), ―all qualitative researchers approach their

studies with a certain paradigm or worldview, a basic set of beliefs or assumptions

that guides their enquiries. Each of the paradigms offers a different way of looking at

human social life, makes its own assumptions about the nature of social reality, and

can open up new understandings‖.

It is my view that reality, to a large extent, is objective and external to people‘s

awareness. Kvale (1996, p. 41) likens this conception of knowledge to a ‗mirror of

reality‘. In the current study, I thus ―hold a mirror‖ to the reality of the research

participants by means of a systematic, interactive methodological approach, through

which reality is discovered so that insight is gained into the meanings and

interpretations which they hold and how these interact with leadership derailment

factors.

Behind ones‘ ontological beliefs, lie different theories of knowledge and

perception, or epistemologies. Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Lowe (2002, p. 31)

define epistemology as a ―general set of assumptions about the best ways of

enquiring into the nature of the world‖

In the current study, I follow an interpretivistic approach, as it is my belief that

reality should be interpreted through the meaning that research participants give to

their world. I will thus interpret the reality of a sample of women executive leaders, as

well as the mental representations and constructions of meaning they hold, which act

as preventative measures against them falling prey to career derailment, or assist

them in overcoming potential derailment.

1.8.2 Research strategy

I employ a multiple case study/collective case study strategy in the study of

the research participants. By understanding similarities and differences between


12

them, it is hoped that themes/trends of characteristics will be established, which will

in turn lead to the development of an integrated framework of characteristics which

prevent career derailment amongst women executives.

I further conducted the research within the methodological framework of

grounded theory. As per Schram (2006), the objective of grounded theory is to

develop theory that is grounded in data. It focuses on generating theory based on

the study of social situations. Grounded theory is a ―specific, highly developed,

rigorous set of procedures for producing formal substantive theory of social

phenomenon‖ (Schwandt, p. 2007; p. 131).

Within the methodological framework of grounded theory, techniques of

personal construct theory are applied in order to reach a deeper understanding of

the mental representations and constructions of meaning held by women executives

which prevent their career derailment.

The method of grounded theory and the application personal construct theory

within this framework, appears to be well suited to achieving the purpose of this

study, namely to explore and understand the characteristics, mental representations

held and constructions of meaning preventing, or supporting recovery from

leadership derailment, and developing a theoretical framework of guards against

career derailment amongst women executives. This will be further discussed in

Chapter 3 and Chapter 5.

Research participants represent a cross section of South African

organisations of varying sizes functioning in various sectors. Participants have been

selected based on adherence to the following criteria:

women across racial groups, who;

currently occupy executive level positions, and have;

experienced factors which typically lead to derailment, and;

whose careers have not derailed; or

who have successfully overcome potential derailment.


13

Interviewing is one of the most widely used qualitative methods (Greeff, as

cited in de Vos et al; 2011). DePoy and Gilson (2008, p. 108) describe interviewing

as a method of data collection whereby researchers obtain information through direct

interchange with an individual or group that is known or expected to possess the

knowledge they seek. Kvale (Sewell, 2011, p. 1) defines qualitative interviews as

―attempts to understand the world from the participant‘s point of view, to unfold the

meaning of people‘s experiences to uncover their lived world prior to scientific

explanations.‖ In the current study, data are gathered by means of a combination of

unstructured and structured interviewing, used interchangeably.

In terms of data recording, the interviews are recorded via audio-tape with the

permission of each participant, to enable me to devote my full attention to the

participant. Interviews are recorded and transcribed with extensive field notes being

made after each interview. Care is taken to ensure the safety and confidentiality of

all data.

1.9 Ethical considerations

It is imperative to ensure that each step of the research process be dealt with

professionally to ensure the overall quality of the final research product. It is my view

that in addition to ―rigorous, disciplined, systematic and methodically documented‖

research, the best way to ensure quality research is through following a transparent,

well documented and auditable research process within a recognised theoretical

framework.

Strydom (de Vos et al, 2011), remarks that the fact that human beings are the

objects of study brings unique ethical problems to the fore, which can be pervasive

and complex. According to Gravetter and Forzano (2003, p. 60) two basic categories

of ethical responsibility exist.


14

Responsibility to those, both human and non-human, who participate in a

project; and

Responsibility to the discipline of science to be accurate and honest in the

reporting of their research.

Ethical considerations with relevance to the current study are avoidance of

harm, informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity, debriefing of participants and

publication of the findings. Each of these will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

1.10 Chapter outline

The thesis consists of six chapters. Chapter 2 gives a detailed literature

overview of leadership derailment, and more specifically, leadership derailment

amongst women. Key concepts are described and discussed with a summary of the

main conclusions of the existing literature, being provided.

Chapter 3 discusses the research design and methodology of the study. As

this study is conducted utilising the qualitative method, focus is placed on

explanation of this qualitative approach. Chapter 3 further provides an overview of

grounded theory as well as the application of techniques associated with personal

construct theory. Personal construct theory techniques such as interviewing and

laddering are utilised within the framework of grounded theory in order to construct a

framework of the intrinsic characteristics possessed by women executives who have

either not fallen prey to derailment, or who have been able to overcome it.

The sampling design, the sampling techniques employed and the criteria used

in the choice of the sample size are discussed in detail. The process, procedures,

techniques of data collection and the settings of the data gathering are provided.

Finally, the rationale for the data analysis procedures is clearly depicted.

Chapter 4 provides the key findings, themes and categories that emerge from

the data obtained during the study.


15

Chapter 5 focuses on interpreting and discussing the findings and integrating

the findings to build a practical understanding and a theoretical framework of the

characteristics, mental representations and constructions of meaning which

executive women leaders possess, which prevent or assist in recovery from

derailment.

Finally, the thesis is concluded in Chapter 6 where the relevance and

limitations of the study are presented, and themes for further research, suggested.

1.11 Conclusion

In this introduction, the scarcity of women in senior and executive leadership

positions within organisations has been outlined, as well as some of the on-going

challenges faced by women leaders in the workplace. It has further been discussed

that several barriers to the success, as well as the ultimate derailment, of women

leaders, exist. This study undertakes an exploration of the intrinsic characteristics

which women executives, who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who have

overcome it, possess, which act as preventative measures to possible derailment. It

is my belief that women who do not fall prey to derailment or those who overcome it,

do so due to the mental representations they hold, as well as the way they construct

meaning. By fully exploring this, it is envisaged that an integrated framework or

model of characteristics which prevent career derailment amongst women

executives, be developed. In Chapter 2 to follow, the existing literature on the

derailment of women leaders and the barriers which they face are explored, and

personal construct theory, which acts as the framework within which the current

study is conducted, is outlined.


16

CHAPTER 2

LEADERSHIP DERAILMENT

2.1 Introduction

The current chapter explores the key concepts of leadership derailment, as

well as women executives. In addition, the importance of studying leadership

derailment amongst executives will be discussed. Leadership theory has evolved

over time and therefore an overview of the historical development of leadership

derailment literature is provided. The primary factors typically associated with the

derailment of women executives, as well as an overview of the main conclusions of

the literature in this regard, are presented.

2.2 Defining key concepts

2.2.1 Women executives

The Businesswomen‘s Association of South Africa (2011) defines executives

as those who control company operations on a day-to-day basis, are responsible for

the success or failure of a business and are the most senior decision-makers within

any business, after board members.

Oxford University Press (2012), defines an executive as an individual with

senior managerial responsibility in a business, whilst Business Dictionary.com (2012)

defines an executive manager as an individual or group appointed and given the

responsibility to manage the affairs of an organization, and the authority to make

decisions within specified boundaries. Business Dictionary.com (2012) further

defines top management as ―the highest ranking executives (with titles such as

chairman/chairwoman, chief executive officer, managing director, president,

executive directors, executive vice-presidents, etc.) responsible for the entire

enterprise.‖ (Business Dictionary.com, 2012; http://www.businessdictionary.com).

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/person.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/group.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/responsibility.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/manage.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organization.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/authority.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/decision.html

http://www.investorguide.com/definition/ranking.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/executive.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/title.html

http://www.investorguide.com/definition/chief-executive-officer-ceo.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/managing-director.html

http://www.investorguide.com/definition/president.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/executive-director.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Vice-President.html

http://www.investorguide.com/definition/enterprise.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com)/


17

The South African Employment Equity Report (2011) further classifies top and senior

management as the most senior positions within an organisation.

For the purposes of this study a woman executive will be defined as a woman

who:

is regarded as a top or senior manager in terms of South African Employment

Equity Legislation;

is responsible for the day to day operations of a business in its entirety or for a

functional division of a business in its entirety;

is among the most senior decision-makers within a business;

reports to a CEO or top executive, or is a CEO or top executive who reports to

a board;

may be, but is not necessarily, an executive board member.

2.2.2 Leadership derailment

Various definitions of leadership derailment exist. Kellerman (2004) describes

seven types of poor leadership which include rigid, incompetent, callous,

intemperate, insular, corrupt, and evil. These are further categorised in two different

forms of poor leadership, being ineffective and unethical. Furnham (2010) listed the

following types of poor leaders: Aberrant leaders; anti-social leaders; dark-side

(triad) leaders; derailed leaders; despotic leaders, destructive leaders, incompetent

leaders, malignant leaders, toxic leaders and tyrannical leaders.

According to Furnham (2010, p. 6), the definition of a derailed leader:

…emphasises the idea of being thrown off course. Trains on tracks derail.

Leaders set fair in a particular direction deviate from the path, unable to

move forward. It is sometimes hyphenated with the next word in the

dictionary, namely deranged, which implies not only a breakdown in

performance, but also insanity.


18

The above definition includes concepts such as insanity and Hogan and

Hogan (2001) postulate that derailment is due to ―dark side‖ personality traits, which

are linked to personality disorders described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual

of Mental Disorders – Four (DSM IV). Other authors, as will be discussed in the next

section, also link derailment to personality flaws.

Schmidt (2009, p. 4), defines derailment as occurring:

…when an individual, who was placed in an executive role in an

organization and was judged to have the ability to be successful in this

executive role, is fired, asked to resign, or forced out of the organization.

Derailment is involuntary, often punitive, and may be an unexpected

circumstance for the executive.

According to Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley (1988), derailment occurs

when a manager who was expected to go higher in the organization and who was

judged to have the ability to do so is fired, demoted, or plateaued below expected

levels of achievement.

An important distinction between the definition of Schmidt (2009) and that of

Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley (1988) is the exclusion of career plateau in

Schmidt‘s definition, and the exclusion of punitive factors in Lombardo, Ruderman &

McCauley‘s definition. For the purposes of this study, an executive will be

considered to have derailed when:

being fired;

being asked to resign;

being forced out of the organization;

being demoted;

having their career plateau unexpectedly.

In this study, the definitions of derailment as experienced or interpreted by the

research participants will be further explored. In addition, I explore, with the research

participants, the incorporation of the construct of ―opting out‖ in the traditional


19

definition of derailment. So called ―voluntary separation‖ resulting from

incompatibility, restructuring for various reasons leading to displacement, will also be

explored with research participants, as ―voluntary resignations‖ are also not typically

incorporated in the traditional definition of derailment, and could potentially be

considered to be a form of derailment.

Further exploration of the definition of leadership derailment with the research

participants will be undertaken with the aim of reaching an integrated, holistic

understanding of the phenomenon as it is experienced and interpreted by women

executive leaders, themselves.

2.3 Leadership derailment in context

The study of leadership derailment is an important one due to its prevalence

as well as the high costs it incurs, both from an organisational as well as an

individual perspective.

Negative leader behaviour has been shown to result in a wide range of

negative outcomes for employees, such as followers modelling the negative

behaviours displayed by leaders (Ambrose, Seabright, & Schminke, 2002; Mitchell &

Ambrose, 2007). Poor leaders cause substantial negative outcomes (Hogan and

Kaiser, 2005) and have a negative impact at multiple levels, including employee and

organizational levels, by increasing the likelihood of employee turnover, withdrawal,

sabotage, and retaliation (Hogan, 2007).

Derailed leaders often need to be replaced at great cost by organisations, with

replacement costs varying from 150 percent of the leader‘s monthly salary to 24

times the leader‘s annual salary (Watkins, 2003).

It has been estimated that between 50 and 75 percent of leaders are not

performing well (Hogan & Hogan, 2001), with the number of leaders that get fired for

failing to perform increasing over the past decade, and the tenure of organisational

leaders has steadily dropping (Hogan, 1999). Leadership derailment can cost

organisations up to twenty times an executive‘s salary in direct and indirect costs,


20

including time and resources to recruit, select and train new executives. Hidden

costs associated with ―golden parachutes‖, lost intellectual and social capital, missed

business objectives and damaged employee morale, as well as the impact that

derailed or derailing leaders have on the mental health of their subordinates, further

add to the cost. (Finkelstein, 2003; Smart, 1999; Wells; 2005; Hogan & Kaiser, 2005;

Hogan, Hogan & Kaiser, in press).

The reverse of this is also true, with Zenger and Folkman (2012) reporting that

their research has shown that leadership skills are strongly correlated to

organizational success factors such as retaining talent, customer satisfaction,

employee engagement, and profitability.

2.4 Historic overview of leadership derailment

There have been several thought leaders in the study of leadership derailment

over time, amongst them, the most prominent being Bentz, 1967, 1985 a, 1985 b,

1990; McCall and Lombardo, 1983; Morrison, White and Van Velsor, 1987;

Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley, 1988; McCauley and Lombardo, 1990; Van

Velsor and Leslie, 1995; Hogan and Hogan, 2001; Eichinger and Lombardo, 2003;

Dotlich and Cairo, 2003; Finkelstein, 2003; and Rasch, Shen, Davies and Bono,

2008.

What can be seen from the existing derailment literature in general over time,

is a distinction between personality traits/characteristics and behaviours/behavioural

traits, both of which can be regarded as internal barriers to success or causes of

derailment. Whilst one would expect research to have been conducted on the

external circumstances or barriers which lead to career derailment, this appears to

be absent in the general derailment literature. This however does not appear to be

the case with the existing literature on the derailment of women, which appears to

focus more evenly on internal barriers (personality traits/characteristics and

behaviours/behavioural traits) and external circumstances, and barriers leading to

derailment. This will be further explored in section 2.5 to follow.


21

2.4.1 Personality traits leading to derailment

It appears that Bentz (1967, 1985 a, 1985 b, 1990) pioneered the research on

career derailment, as well as linking the existence of particular personality traits or

characteristics leading to derailment. In 1985, Bentz (1985 a) in a study of failed

leaders in the retail industry (at Sears), found nine personality flaws which derailed

leaders had in common. These are as follows:

Table 2.1: Characteristics leading to derailment

Characteristics

Seen to have an overriding personality

defect

Unable to build relationships with a

network of contacts

Unable to deal with complexity Emotions cloud their judgment

Reactive and operational Slow to learn

Unable to delegate Lacked business skills

Unable to build a team

Source: Bentz (1985 a)

Personality flaws, as first identified by Bentz, appear to characterise people

when they are stressed or careless; and were later referred to researchers such as

Hogan and Hogan (2001), as the ―dark side‖ of personality.

Hogan and Hogan (2001) support that derailment may be due to the presence

of undesirable personality characteristics or flaws, and list eleven personality

characteristics which may lead to derailment. These are as follows:


22

Table 2.2: Personality characteristics leading to derailment

Personality Characteristics

Skeptical Colourful

Cautious Imaginative

Reserved Diligent

Leisurely Dutiful

Arrogant Mischievous

Excitable

Source: Hogan and Hogan (2001)

According to them, the ―dark side‖ of personality erodes the effectiveness of

managers and executives over time (Hogan, 2007; Hogan and Hogan, 2001). Using

a combination of the existing derailment literature in conjunction with personality

disorders described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders –

Four (DSM IV), the Hogan Development Survey (HDS) was developed based on

DSM Axis II personality disorder descriptions and describe eleven personality

characteristics which relate to derailment. Hogan and Hogan‘s (2001) postulate that

derailment is caused by a ―pathological‖ personality, supports Furnham‘s (2010)

definition of a derailed leader as including ―insanity‖. According to Furnham, Crump

and Chamorro-Premuzic (2007, p. 808):

The test (Hogan Development Survey) essentially measures the dark-

side of human behaviour and explores the dimensions of personality

that are likely to derail senior managers. The idea is that when under

stress, those with high scores on these negative traits are prone to act

in dysfunctional ways. The authors call these risk factors for counter-

productive behaviour under stress.

Goldman (2006) supported these findings, when he researched a case of an

executive suffering from Borderline Personality Disorder as defined by the DSM IV.

In his study, he describes the extent to which this particular personality disorder has


23

a detrimental effect on the functioning of an organisation. He describes a leader in

his case study as follows:

As a leader, Favio was obviously flamboyant, dramatic, deeply troubled

and enigmatic. He engulfed, lifted and confused his workforce. In the

final analysis, Favio took his employees on a wild, steeplechase ride,

through praise, hyper compassion and wild success, to depression,

anger and despair. The workplace seemed to take on characteristics of

Favio‘s personality.

(Goldman; 2006, p. 740)

Subsequent to Hogan‘s research on eleven personality characteristics which

relate to derailment, Eichinger and Lombardo (2003) conducted a study of the

ratings of over 1000 managers over a two year period. Whilst the study was focused

on managers and not exclusively on executives or leaders, the results are

nonetheless noteworthy. Eichinger and Lombardo (2003) reported nine reasons for

management failure.

Table 2.3: Reasons for management failure

Reasons

Poor administrative skills Poor political skills

Difficulty making tough choices Inability to deal with conflict

Lack of strategic thinking Questionable integrity

Failure to build a team Low self-awareness

Lack of interpersonal savvy

Source: Eichinger and Lombardo (2003)


24

2.4.2 Behaviours leading to derailment

In their initial work on leadership derailment, McCall and Lombardo (1983)

focused on specific behaviours of derailed leaders. According to them, leader

behaviours leading to derailment include anti-subordinate behaviours, such as

intimidating and bullying subordinates, as well as anti-organisational behaviours

including laziness, lack of managerial skills, and the inability to build teams and to

think strategically. More specifically they found that leaders derailed for ten reasons.

These reasons are as follows:

Table 2.4: Behaviours of derailed leaders

Behaviours

Experienced specific business problems Overly ambitious

Insensitive Failed to staff effectively

Cold, arrogant and aloof Unable to think strategically

Betrayed trust Unable to adapt to a boss with a different

style

Over managed and did not delegate

enough

Overly dependent on advocate or mentor

Source: McCall and Lombardo (1983)

McCall and Lombardo (1983) highlight that the most frequent cause for

derailment is insensitivity to others. Under stress, the derailed managers in their

study became abrasive and intimidating.

In addition, McCall and Lombardo (1983) further noted that approximately

twenty five percent of employees who are identified as having high potential, derailed

because they became plateaued at lower levels in the organisation. It would thus

appear that it may be important for researchers to identify and manage ―derailers‖

amongst individuals lower in the organisational hierarchy at an early stage of their

careers, in order to prevent this early plateau. In terms of the current study, obtaining


25

data on characteristics which prevent derailment, can further serve to minimise the

risk of future derailment amongst junior women managers not only once they reach

executive level, but whilst they are climbing the career ladder.

Subsequent to McCall and Lombardo‘s 1983 study, Morrison, White and Van

Velsor (1987), using the same methodology, compared successful and derailed

women executives. Their results corresponded with those of the McCall and

Lombardo study, showing the existence of specific traits or behaviours in derailed

leaders.

Interestingly, an additional theme which was unique to women was identified,

being ―having a poor image‖. This finding is of particular interest as it related to the

current study, and is thus further explored with the research participants of the study.

Contrary to ―having a poor image‖, it appears that self-efficacy is linked to success.

Self-efficacy refers to an individual‘s convictions (or confidence) about his or her

abilities to mobilise the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action

needed to successfully execute a specific task within a given context (Stajkovic &

Luthans, 1998). Self-efficacy is also a key concept in Bandura‘s social cognitive

theory (Stajkovic & Sommer, 2000). Bandura (1982, p. 122) defines it as a personal

belief as to ―how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with

prospective situations‖. It appears that individuals with a poor image or low levels of

self-efficacy are likely to cease their efforts prematurely and fail at the task (Stajkovic

& Luthans, 1998).

In addition to the above, whilst it appears that a ―poor image‖ is a unique

derailer for women, Morrison, White and Van Velsor (1987) also found that women

tended to have fewer relationship problems than men, which tended to guard against

their derailment.

In their later research, Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley (1988) attempted

to provide quantitative support for some of the earlier, more qualitative work on the

detailed explanations of executive derailment. According to Lombardo, Ruderman

and McCauley (1988), previous studies regarded derailment as being due to an

individual lacking in certain characteristics. According to them however, whilst


26

focusing on what derailed leaders lack, provided helpful information, it didn‘t provide

a thorough enough explanation of the type of behaviours and skills which derailed

leaders possess, which differentiate them from their more successful counterparts.

Thus began the era of a shift from what derailed leaders lack to a true focus

on ―derailment behaviours and characteristics‖. In their study, Lombardo et al (1988)

subsequently identified eight characteristics which contributed to the derailment of

leaders.

Table 2.5: Characteristics contributing to derailment

Characteristics

Inability to build a cohesive team Overtly emotional

Over and under managing Insensitive, cold and arrogant

Overly ambitious Maintaining poor relations with staff

Not supportive and demanding of

subordinates

Overriding personality defects

Source: Lombardo et al (1988)

A short time later McCauley and Lombardo (1990), in an extension on their

1988 study, developed a survey with six scales focused on derailment behaviours.

These derailment behaviours are as follows:

Table 2.6: Survey scales focusing on derailment behaviours

Survey Scales

Problems with interpersonal relationships Lack of follow through

Difficulty moulding staff Over-dependence

Difficulty in making strategic transitions Strategic differences with management

Source: McCauley and Lombardo (1990)


27

In addition to the above behaviours, McCauley and Lombardo (1990), found

that ―difficulty in making a transition‖ was the strongest predictor of leadership

derailment. Van Velsor and Leslie (1995) subsequently replicated the 1998

Lombardo et al. study across organisations in several different countries in order to

determine generalizability. Their results echoed those of the previous studies and

further found that problems with interpersonal relationship appeared to be the most

common derailment factor across time, organisations and cultures.

Dotlich and Cairo (2003) show that even great leaders can derail their careers

by exhibiting one or more of eleven flawed behaviours which are often closely

related to factors that made them successful thus far (Burke, 2006). According to

Dotlich and Cairo, all leaders are vulnerable to these factors, which are deeply

engrained personality traits which affect leadership behaviours.

Based on the above, it would appear that an individual with a specific

personality trait, or set of personality traits, is likely to exhibit particular behaviour, or

respond, to a specific external situation or triggers in a specific manner, which may

lead to their derailment. It is my belief that the opposite is also true. Within the

framework of personal construct theory, the current study aims to show how

particular behaviours which lead to particular responses to various situations, are

driven by ―constructions of reality‖, which leaders‘ hold, which some researchers, as

will be discussed later, define as personality.

According to Dotlich and Cairo (2003), the eleven flawed behaviours, shown

by leaders which derail their careers are as follows:


28

Table 2.7: Flawed behaviours by leaders whose careers derailed

Flawed Behaviours

Arrogance Mischievousness

Melodrama Eccentricity

Volatility Passive resistance

Excessive caution Perfectionism

Habitual distrust Eagerness to please

Aloofness

Source: Dotlich and Cairo (2003)

Finkelstein (2003, p. 238) summarised his research findings on leadership

derailment in terms of ―… the seven habits of spectacularly unsuccessful people‖.

The seven habits or behaviours of these unsuccessful people are as follows:

Table 2.8: Habits of unsuccessful people

Habits

Overestimate their strength and underestimate the strength of their competition

Put personal interests ahead of company interests

Arrogant and make reckless decisions

Eliminate anyone who might challenge their decisions

Ignore operations while trying to manage their company‘s image

Minimise difficult obstacles and don‘t plan accordingly

Rely on outdated strategies and tactics

Source: Finkelstein (2003)

In a study of subordinate descriptions of ineffective leaders, Rasch, Shen,

Davies and Bono (2008), found nine empirically derived behavioural factors, which

they believe, lead to career derailment. These factors which are seen as strictly

being behaviourally or personality based, are as follows:


29

Table 2.9: Factors which lead to career derailment

Factors

Avoiding conflict and people problems Rumour mongering and inappropriate

use of information

Poor emotional control Procrastination

Over controlling Failure to consider human needs

Poor task performance Failure to manage and nurture talent

Poor planning, organisation and/or

communication

Source: Davies and Bono (2008)

Two of their empirical findings warrant special attention. Firstly, they found no

sex differences in the frequency of these behaviours. Secondly, the category of poor

behaviour that had the most toxic impact on staff morale was the failure to consider

human needs (Hogan & Hogan, 2001).

Whilst it appears that research over time appears to distinguish between

personality traits or characteristics and behaviours which lead to career derailment,

both which can be considered to be internal barriers to success, there does however

appear to be some overlap between what researchers define as being a personality

trait or characteristic, and being a behaviour or a behavioural trait. It can thus be

argued that a lack of clarity exists amongst leadership derailment researchers on the

differences between derailment personality traits and derailment behaviours.

An integrated summary and comparison of the factors, personality

characteristics and behaviours, which thought leaders over time have determined

contribute to derailment, are outlined in Table 2.10.


30

Table 2.10: Characteristics associated with leadership derailment

Bentz (1985 a)

Hogan and Hogan (2001)

Eichinger & Lombardo (2003)

McCall and Lombardo (1983)

Lombardo et al (1988)

McCauley & Lombardo (1990)

Dotlich & Cairo (2003)

Finkelstein (2003)

Rasch, Shen, Davies & Bono

(2008)

Personality traits leading to derailment

Behaviours leading to derailment

1 Lacked

business

skills

Excitable Poor

administrative

skills

Experienced

specific

business

problems

Inability to

build a

cohesive

team

Problems with

interpersonal

relationships

Arrogance Overestimate

their strength

and

underestimate

the strength of

their

competition

Avoiding conflict

and people

problems

2 Unable to

deal with

complexity

Skeptical Difficulty

making tough

choices

Insensitive Over and

under

managing

Difficulty

moulding

staff

Melodrama Put personal

interests ahead

of company

interests

Poor emotional

control

3 Reactive

and

operational

Cautious Lack of

strategic

thinking

Cold,

arrogant and

aloof

Overly

ambitious

Difficulty in

making

strategic

transitions

Volatility Arrogant and

make reckless

decisions

Over controlling

4 Unable to

delegate

Reserved Failure to

build a team

Betrayed

trust

Not

supportive

and

demanding

Lack of follow

through

Excessive

caution

Eliminate

anyone who

might challenge

their decisions

Poor task

performance


31

of

subordinates

5 Unable to

build a team

Leisurely Lack of

interpersonal

savvy

Over

managed

and did not

delegate

enough

Overtly

emotional

Over-

dependence

Habitual distrust Ignore

operations

while trying to

manage their

company‘s

image

Poor planning,

organisation

and/or

communication

6 Unable to

build

relationship

s with a

network of

contacts

Arrogant Poor political

skills

Overly

ambitious

Insensitive,

cold and

arrogant

Strategic

differences

with

management

Aloofness Minimise

difficult

obstacles and

don‘t plan

accordingly

Rumour

mongering and

inappropriate

use of

information

7 Emotions

cloud their

judgment

Mischievous Inability to

deal with

conflict

Failed to

staff

effectively

Maintaining

poor

relations with

staff

Mischievousness Rely on

outdated

strategies and

tactics

Procrastination

8 Slow to

learn

Colourful Questionable

integrity

Unable to

think

strategically

Overriding

personality

defects

Eccentricity, Failure to

consider human

needs

9 Seen to

have an

overriding

personality

Imaginative Low self-

awareness

Unable to

adapt to a

boss with a

different

Passive

resistance

Failure to

manage and

nurture talent


32

defect style

10 Diligent Overly

dependent

on advocate

or mentor.

perfectionism

11 Dutiful Eagerness to

please


33

When considering the personality characteristics and behaviours identified by

researchers over time as being associated with leadership derailment, it is

interesting to note that although much research has been done over an extended

period, the findings are very similar and tend to converge. Whilst different

methodologies across different settings were utilised, the data appear to show that

derailed leaders tend to have a number of characteristics in common, including

having difficulty with relationships, struggling to build teams, and difficulty managing

themselves.

Also interesting to note, is that none of the research was exclusively

conducted on women and that few gender differences in derailment traits and

behaviours were found in the research that did include women. This is with the

exception of the research by Morrison, White and Van Velsor, (1987) who compared

successful and derailed women executives and found a theme unique to women -

―having a poor image‖. Morrison, White and Van Velsor (1987) also found that

women tended to have fewer relationship problems than men.

2.5 Derailment of women executive leaders

Whilst the section above has dealt with Leadership Derailment research in

general, the following section focuses on research conducted on Leadership

Derailment as it relates to women specifically.

There appears to be much less research available on factors derailing female

executives once they reach an executive leadership position than there is on the

barriers which prevent women reaching executive positions in the first place.

However, it stands to reason that barriers to advancement are important to

understand in the context of women executive derailment, as the barriers which exist

to advancement may be the same as those which ultimately lead to derailment once

on executive level. This is confirmed by Schmidt (2009), and is an aspect that is

further explored with participants in the current study.

Researchers (Schein, 1973; Schein, 1975; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Fiske,

Bersoff, Borgida, Deaux & Heilman, 1991; Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky, 1992;


34

Morrison, 1992; Schein & Mueller, 1992; Valian, 2000; Meyerson & Fletcher, 2000;

Powell, Butterfield, & Parent, 2002; Powell & Graves, 2003; Yancey Martin, 2003;

Schneider, 2004; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs & Tamkins, 2004; Catalyst, 2005;

Eisenhart, 2006; Schein, 2007; Schmidt, 2009) have found that there are specific

derailment factors which are considered to be unique to women, and which act as

barriers to women‘s success, as well as potential derailers for women executives.

2.5.1 Factors leading to the derailment of women executives

Whilst it appears to be the case with general derailment literature over time

that there is a lack of research conducted on the external circumstances or factors

which lead to career derailment, a more balanced approach appears to exist in the

literature on the derailment of women, which tends to more equally focused on

internal (personality traits/characteristics and behaviours/behavioural traits) and

external factors and barriers leading to their derailment.

Despite the more balanced approach above, there appears to be paucity in

the research on how women are able to overcome the barriers they face as well as

derailment, and why some are more able to do so than others. It is thus the primary

objective of the current study to explore the intrinsic characteristics possessed by

women executives, who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who have overcome it.

In the section to follow, the external factors and barriers, as well as the

internal factors and barriers (personality and behaviour), which lead to the derailment

of women executives, are discussed.

2.5.1.1 External factors leading to the derailment of women executives

There appear to be a number of external factors identified by the literature,

which act as barriers to the success of women executives and which lead to their

derailment. These include:


35

Gender Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination

According to Schneider (2004, p. 24) ―stereotypes are qualities perceived to

be associated with particular groups or categories of people.‖ According to Valian

(2000), gender schemas are intuitive theories that people have about men and

women, which help people to process information, structure prior knowledge, and

create a framework for understanding the world. Valian (2000) describes a schema

as a broader, more inclusive term than a stereotype, whilst Schneider (2004)

describes schemas as a kind of theoretical reasoning that often accompanies

stereotypes.

Researchers such as Eagly and Johnson (1990) and Powell, Butterfield, and

Parent (2002), have found that the masculine and feminine stereotypes that exist

about men and women affect how people perceive gender roles and consequently,

their expectations of how men and women should behave in the workplace.

In a Harvard Business Review (2013) interview, Chief Executive Officer of

Facebook Sheryl Sandberg reports that:

The data show that success and likability are positively correlated for men

and negatively correlated for women, which means that as women get

more successful, they are liked less—both by men and by other women.

That‘s because we want people to conform to our stereotypes. And when

they don‘t, we don‘t like them as much. We expect men to have leadership

qualities, to be assertive and competent, to speak out. We expect women

to have communal qualities, to be givers and sharers, to pursue the

common good. The problem is, we want to promote and hire people who

are both competent and liked. And that‘s just much easier for men.

Many researchers have explored gender-based stereotypes, prejudice, and

discrimination in the workplace (Catalyst, 2005; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Fiske,

Bersoff, Borgida, Deaux & Heilman, 1991; Morrison, 1992; Powell, Butterfield &

Parent, 2002; Schein & Mueller, 1992; Valian, 2000). According to Schein (2007),

although not all of these studies exclusively studied executive derailment, they are


36

nevertheless important because gender-based stereotypes, prejudice, and

discrimination in the workplace, all contribute to the derailment of female executives.

Berthoin and Izraeli (1993, p. 63) state that ―probably the single most

important hurdle for women in management in all industrialised countries is the

persistent stereotype that associates management with being male.‖ A more recent

study by Catalyst (2003) found that stereotyping was the number three barrier to

women‘s overall advancement. Exclusion from informal networks was rated as the

number two barrier to advancement, whilst lack of significant line experience was

rated as number one.

Whilst it can be seen from the above, that stereotyping is no longer the

number one barrier, which indicates that some strides have been made in this

regard, it nevertheless still appears to be an extremely significant barrier to success.

Schein (1973; 1975) conducted a study across 13 insurance companies in the

USA, wherein 300 male middle managers and 167 female middle managers were

asked to determine whether 92 descriptive management terms were characteristic of

males. Results found that males were strongly characterised as managers, whilst the

ratings for women possessing managerial characteristics was almost zero. Schein

(2007) concluded that gender stereotyping was a major barrier to women‘s entry into

management. ―Characteristics such a leadership ability, desires responsibility, and

objectivity were seen as requisite management characteristics and more likely to be

held by men than women. To ―think manager‖ was to ―think male‖, and this view

worked against women seeking to enter and advance into management positions‖

(Shein, 2007, p. 8)

Similar studies were conducted to examine whether these stereotypes had

changed over time. In separate studies, Brenner et al (1989), Heilman et al (1989,

Schein et al (1989), Dodge et al (1995) and Martell (1998), found that whilst the

stereotypes that women held of other women appeared to have decreased over the

course of almost three decades, males continue to perceive men as more likely than

women to possess managerial characteristics.


37

In order to examine the phenomenon of ―think manager, think male‖

internationally and across different cultures, Schein conducted a series of

international studies. Schein and Mueller (1992) selected Germany and the United

Kingdom, Schein and Davidson, (1993) studied the United Kingdom and Schein et al

(1996) studied the People‘s Republic of China and Japan. As per Shein (2007, p. 8),

the results showed that ―managers are seen as possessing characteristics more

commonly ascribed to men than women in Germany, the United Kingdom, China and

Japan… ,the Chinese sample exhibited the highest degree of male –manager

similarity.‖

Schein (2007) thus concludes that the psychological barriers to women

success are still very much in place and occur across cultures and countries.

More recent research by Zenger and Folkman (2012), in a survey conducted

of 7,280 leaders, however showed that at top management, executive and senior

level, women‘s overall leadership competencies were rated by their peers,

colleagues, superiors and employees, as being at 67.7 percent, versus 57.7 percent

for their male counterparts, with two particular leadership traits where women

participants outscored men to the highest degree being taking initiative and driving

for results, which Zenger and Folkman (2012) report have traditionally been thought

of as particularly male strengths. This suggests that there may be a shift from the

―think manager, think male‖ phenomenon.

Despite the above results however, Zenger and Folkman (2012) also found

that women remain underrepresented and scored higher on taking initiative and

driving for results because they felt that they had to work harder than men to prove

themselves and felt under constant pressure to never make a mistake, and to

continually prove their value to the organization. Whilst the behaviours of initiative

and driving for results obviously benefit the organisations in which women work, they

also point to the fact that women still believe themselves to be in a precarious

position and that psychological barriers to the success of women are still very much

in place.


38

Schein (2007) points out that various surveys show that women see the

negative impact of gender stereotyping on their careers, whilst men do not:

Women senior executives in the USA (Catalyst, 1996, 2004), Canada

(Catalyst, 1997), the UK (Catalyst/Opportunity Now, 2000) and in major

corporations in 20 European countries (Catalyst, 2002a, b) all agree that

gender stereotyping is a major barrier to women‘s progress in

management. On the other hand CEO‘s in the USA (Catalyst, 2004) and

in major corporations in 20 European countries (Catalyst, 2002a, b) do not

see stereotyping as a significant barrier to women‘s advancement. They

tend to see lack of line experience as a major barrier to women‘s

progress. Overall, women recognise the insidious effects of stereotyping

on their careers, but men continue to operate with blinders on when it

comes to the influence of gender stereotyping on decision-making.

(Schein, 2007, p. 10)

Schein (2007) emphasises the importance of keeping legal pressure on, and

challenging the assumptions about work requirements and way work is structured, if

progress is to be made in the advancement and the success of women.

Research by Schmidt (2009), Catalyst (2005), Erkut (2001), Heilman, Block,

Simon and Martel (1989), Powell, Butterfield, and Parent (2002), as well as Schein

and Muller (1992) has found that gender based stereotypes have the potential to

derail female executives once they make it to senior level positions. If a female

executive is placed in a senior leadership role, but is either unconsciously or

consciously perceived not to have the ability to be successful in that role due to

gender-based stereotypes, she could be set up for failure before even assuming her

position. As noted by Schmidt (2009, p. 21), this can be especially problematic when

stereotypes evolve into prejudice and discrimination.


39

Gendered organisations, occupations, sex segregation and tokenism

According to Schmidt, (2009, p. 24) ―organisations and occupations are

‗gendered‘ to the degree that they are male of female dominated‖. According to

Acker (1990, p. 146) gendered organisations mean that ―advantage and

disadvantage, exploitation and control, action and emotion, meaning and identity, are

patterned through and in terms of a distinction between male and female, masculine

and feminine.‖ Acker further states that gendered segregation of work as well as the

income and status equality between men and women are created though

organisational practices and processes such as hiring, assignment, and promotion

practices.

Research by Acker (1990), Britton (2000), Catalyst (2005), Heilman (1997),

Kanter (1993), Lipman-Blumen, Freyling, Henderson, Moore, and Vecchiotti (1996),

Meyerson and Fletcher (2000), Powell and Graves (2003), and Yancey Martin

(2003), has shown that traditional organisations are gendered masculine as are the

executive roles within them. Female executives thus often experience pressures

which could potentially lead to their derailment, which their male counterparts do not.

Research by Catalyst (2005) found that regardless of a woman‘s competence,

if she works in a stereotypically masculine occupation, she will be found to be less

competent than if she works in a feminine occupation. Powell and Graves (2003)

found that sex segregation of occupations exists when males and females are not

evenly distributed across occupations. According to them, although sex segregation

has decreased over the years, it still remains high. They state that in the United

States only 8.8 percent of women work in traditionally male occupations.

It further appears that tokenism may contribute to women leadership

derailment. According to Schmidt (2009), when a few women move into senior

organisational roles, typically defined as masculine, they become tokens, which

means that they become ―representatives of their category rather than independent

individuals‖ (Kanter, 1993, p. 6). Kanter (1993) also found that tokens need to deal

with high visibility, unwarranted attention and an amplification of differences and

stereotyping, which are challenges that lead to higher turnover rates amongst


40

tokens. In Kanter‘s research it was found that tokenism occurs when a particular

group comprises 15 percent or less in an organisation.

More recent research by Thomson et al (2008) reveals that corporate and

political groups tend to become more supportive of senior women leaders when

there are at least three women in a particular leadership group. Torchia et al., (2011)

in a study of 317 Norwegian firms, further found that having at least three women on

a corporate board showed a significant correlation with higher levels of

organisational innovation. According to Eagly and Carli (2007), the concept of ―built-

in legitimacy‖ is also associated with tokenism, in that women leaders are often seen

to lack the legitimacy that is given to men. According to them, this is typically rectified

when it is recognised that a woman chosen for a leadership position is indeed the

best candidate.

The “glass ceiling” phenomenon

The glass ceiling phenomenon was popularised in 1986 after being used in a

Wall Street Journal Article (Smith et al, 2012). Powell (2012) describes the ―glass

ceiling‖ as an everyday metaphor used to describe the invisible barrier in front of

women attempting to move up organisational hierarchies. According to Catalyst

(2011) and Okimoto and Brescoll (2012), the glass ceiling phenomenon is

responsible for the lack of women in senior and leadership positions, particularly in

the area of business and politics, and is the most powerful and memorable image of

the barriers preventing women from achieving promotions (Barreto et al., 2009;

Burke & Vinnicombe, 2005).

Much research has been conducted on the ―glass ceiling‖ phenomenon.

Catalyst (1998), Catalyst (2000), Erkut, (2001), Morison et al. (1992), Morrison,

Schreiber, and Price (1995), Morrison(1996), The U.S Glass Ceiling Commission

(1995a, 1995b) and Valian (2000). According to Schmidt (2009, p. 8), this research

includes ―theories and recommendations about organisational practices and

programmes that assist female executives, in being more successful in the

organisation.‖ She further states that this research provides insight into support

strategies aimed at enhancing the success of female executives. She further states


41

that support strategies also have the potential to contribute to career derailment if

such support strategies are absent in the workplace.

From the above, it appears that it is assumed that once a woman executive

has broken the glass ceiling, this particular barrier is no longer of relevance.

However, Morrison et al (1992, p. 142) point out that:

After breaking the glass ceiling, many women realise that they are still not

on the road to the top, that they are hemmed in even more than they were,

and that the support that was so helpful in the past all of a sudden

becomes scarce.

According to Schmidt, (2009) the lack of support, including the absence of

women‘s initiatives for women executives who have broken through the glass ceiling,

may be a contributory factor to the derailment of women executives. She thus

proposes five categories of organisational support strategies for women executives,

which include the following.

Top management support - if having women in senior level positions is not

supported, lack of support structures, exclusion from internal networks and

sabotage, may lead to failure.

Accountability – This is defined as creating a clear business strategy for the

advancement of women that is linked to business goals and objectives

(Schmidt, 2009, p. 39).

Selection processes – Expanding the pool of qualified candidates through

recruitment practices and processes that have diversity considerations

embedded within them, will further support the success of women.

Development programs – This develops linking career development

programmes for women directly to succession management processes.

Work/life policies – This includes flexible work arrangements, child and elder

care, family leave benefits, and relocation assistance (Schmidt, 2009, p. 42).


42

Research has shown that even after breaking through the glass ceiling, the

lack of these five support strategies for women executives may lead to their ultimate

derailment. (Catalyst, 1998; Morrison, 1996; U.S. Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995

b).

The “glass cliff” phenomenon

Ryan and Haslam (2005a, b) and Haslam and Ryan (2006) conducted

archival and experimental research in which they found that as compared to men,

women are more likely to find themselves on a glass cliff, which they define as

being places in positions of leadership that are associated with greater risk and an

increased possibility of failure. In an analysis of the performance of FTSE 100

companies, before and after the appointment of male and female board members,

Ryan and Haslam (2005a, b) found that, specifically in times of a general downturn

in the stock market, companies that had appointed female board members, had

experienced consistently poor business performance in the months preceding the

appointment. This thus exposed them to a greater risk of unfair criticism and blame

for negative outcomes and often resulted in the dismissal or resignation of the

women involved. In a series of experimental studies to establish the authenticity of

the glass cliff phenomenon, Ryan and Haslam (2005a, b) and Haslam and Ryan

(2006) found that participants consistently judged women job candidates to be more

appointable when organisational performance was declining.

According to Ryan, Haslam and Postmes (2007) the underlying psychological

processes underlying the glass cliff phenomenon are likely to include:

sexism in the workplace;

lack of women‘s support networks;

the perceived mismatch between stereotypes associated with women leaders;

the match between stereotypes associated with crisis management and

women.

Ryan et al (2005a) also identified the existence of glass cliff positions in UK

general elections between 1966 and 2005.


43

In a study exploring the explanations that 164 individuals provided for the

glass cliff phenomenon, Ryan, Haslam and Postmes (2007) found that whilst various

explanations were provided, over 50 percent of male participants did not

acknowledge the very existence of the glass cliff phenomenon. In addition, whilst

women were more likely to recognise the unfairness, prevalence and danger of the

glass cliff for women, men tended to downplay the dangers associated with glass

cliffs for women. Such findings emphasise:

The subtle nature of the glass cliff as a barrier for women, and again

suggest that managing the change associated with women‘s increasing

representation in the workplace will not be a straightforward process.

(Ryan, Haslam & Postmes, 2007, p. 197)

It thus appears that as women break through the glass ceiling, they may be

faced with a new challenge and a more subtle barrier to their success.

Organisational culture

According to Fassinger (2008), women can face a ―chilly work climate‖, which

is an unwelcoming environment which is reinforced by double-standards and unfair

evaluation practices. Research by Cormier (2007) of successful women in

organisational positions such as chief operating officer, vice president, director, and

senior manager, found that they experienced a sense of isolation and lack of

integration into the culture of the organisation. These women felt like outsiders and

… ―expressed an acute sense of isolation and a longing to be fully integrated‖

(Cormier, 2007, p. 265). Cormier (2007) found that when these leaders spent time

and energy trying to fit into the organisational culture, their ability to engage fully was

hampered.

Cormier (2007) cited the steps to building a culture of integration as:

customizing leadership profiles;

developing women leaders;


44

creating a culture of integration; and

establishing women‘s networks within organisations.

Crucial to the success of changing an organisational culture is the role of the

executive and leadership team who have the most impact on successful culture

change Cormier (2007). ―The executive team holds the potential for the organisation

and it is the place where the new culture must be developed and modelled‖

(Cormier, 2007, p. 267). She further goes on to state that:

What happens at the executive table… is critical for creating an

environment where women leaders, along with their male counterparts,

can thrive. The leadership team is the organisation‘s culture in microcosm.

The shift to a culture of integration begins here.

(Cormier, 2007, p. 267)

Career derailment themes

Schmidt (2009) conducted a qualitative study of 20 women executives who had

been derailed, in order to explore the factors which they felt contributed to their

derailment. Based on the results of her research, Schmidt (2009) developed eleven

career derailment themes. These are reflected in Table 2.11 to follow:


45

Table 2.11: Career derailment themes

Themes

Relationship with the boss Inability to achieve business objectives

Business operations resulted in company

eliminating jobs

Organisational practices

Discrimination Education and development

Sabotage Other people‘s reactions to a competent

women

Leadership style New senior leadership (not the boss)

Lack of relationship building and

networking

Source: Schmidt (2009)

Schmidt (2009) further found that each participant experienced an average of

4 themes leading to derailment and that any one factor or theme was not responsible

for derailment, but that at least two or more themes played a role in the women‘s

career derailment.

Of the eleven career derailment themes found by Schmidt (2009), the

following six can be regarded as being external:

business operations resulted in company eliminating jobs;

discrimination;

sabotage;

organisational practices;

other people‘s reactions to a competent women;

new senior leadership (not the boss).

2.5.1.2 Internal factors leading to derailment of women executives

As is the case with the literature on derailment in general, the literature on the

internal barriers leading to the derailment of women executives can be broadly


46

categorised as being based on personality traits as well as on behaviours exhibited

by women executives who derail.

Leadership styles and behaviour

According to Jonsen, Maznevski and Schneider (2010) the debate amongst

management scholars whether the difference in leadership styles of men and women

are ―real‖ and objective and based in empirical findings, or socially construed,

persists. In addition, differences or perceptions of differences between the leadership

styles of men and women paly a powerful role in maintaining the glass ceiling.

It has been found that a strong bias exists towards stereotypical masculine

leadership behaviours, as well as the lack of acceptance of female leaders by male

executives (Eagly, Johannesen- Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003; Eagly & Johnson,

1990; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, & Tamkins, 2004; Powell et al.,

2002; Schein & Meuller, 1992). According to Schmidt (2009), biases towards

masculine leadership behaviours are relevant to the career derailment of female

executives.

A recent study found that female leaders outperformed their male colleagues

on leadership traits like empathy, influence, and conflict management. They further

appear to display slightly higher levels of self-awareness. However, the study found

that female leaders are less likely to be seen as demonstrating strategic vision and

being comfortable with risk-taking (Gavett, 2013).

Empirical studies reveal only slight differences between the leadership styles

of men and women and conclude that knowledge of a leader‘s gender will not help to

predict what his or her leadership behaviour will be (Eagly et al., 2003; Eagly &

Johnson, 1990; Mandell & Pherwani, 2003; Robinson & Lipman-Blumen, 2003).

Research on organisational structures suggested that female executives may be

placed in positions with diminished opportunity and power, leading to less access to

the organisational resources needed to get the job done (Kanter, 1993; Ragins &

Sundstrom, 1989).

http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2013/05/few_executives_are_self-aware.html


47

In addition to the above, research on gender norms indicate that gender

polarization may lead to the devaluation of women in masculine occupations, such

as executive roles, and result in detrimental consequences such as rejection, poor

performance evaluations and limited rewards (Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky, 1992;

Heilman et al., 2004). Some women find that when working in masculine occupations

it is not acceptable for them to demonstrate either stereotypical feminine or

masculine qualities (Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky, 1992; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs &

Tamkins, 2004; Eisenhart, 2006).

The data of a study of 22 executives conducted by Morrison et al (1992)

revealed that three serious flaws were perceived to be causes of female derailment.

The inability to adapt.

Wanting too much for oneself or other women.

Not meeting performance expectations.

Women who appeared to be assertive and request raises or promotions were

regarded as inappropriate. Wanting too much for oneself or other women and not

meeting performance expectations, were themes that were unique to women

executives sampled. It should however be noted that the study comprised of 16 men

and only 6 women. In addition, as later research on gender stereotyping shows

however, women who display stereotypically masculine traits such as assertiveness

and directness are often socially rejected (Eagly & Makhijani, 1992; Heilman et al.,

2004; Ruderman & Ohlott, 2002, Valian, 2000).

Morrison (1992) found that a number of female executives who had derailed

were promoted to senior-level positions and could not handle the complexity required

of these positions. Participants in the study reported that the experience level of

many of these derailed women executives was too narrow to have allowed them to

be successful in senior-level positions.


48

A meta-analysis conducted by Leslie and Van Velsor (1996) which cut across

five studies and were common to both men and women, revealed four derailment

themes, namely:

problems with interpersonal relationships;

failure to meet business objectives;

inability to build and lead a team; and

inability to change or adapt during a transition.

It should however be noted that approximately 95 percent of derailment cases

in this meta-analysis were male, highlighting once again the lack of focused research

on the internal factors leading to the derailment of women executives.

Zenger and Folkman (2002), rated approximately 25 000 leaders, both men

and women, and found five patterns of behaviour which contributed to derailment.

These include:

inability to learn from mistakes;

lack of core interpersonal skills and competencies;

lack of initiative;

lack of accountability; and

lack of openness to new or different ideas.

Lombardo and Eichinger (2002) reviewed the termination data of over 1000

men and women executives over a two year period and found that the following

three themes lead to executives being fired:

having weak relationships and networks;

not getting work out;

not managing strategy.

In Schmidt‘s (2009) study of 20 women executives who had been derailed, of

the eleven themes found, the following five Career Derailment Themes can be

regarded as being internal to the women themselves, and based either on their

personality or behaviour. These are:

relationship with the boss;


49

leadership style;

lack of relationship building and networking;

inability to achieve business objectives;

education and development.

Schmidt (2009) found four broad elements contributing to the career

derailment of women executives, being societal, organisational, other individuals and

self. She subsequently provides a graphic illustration of career derailment,

incorporating these elements and their associated themes. This graphic illustration

is provided in Figure 2.1 below:

Figure 2.1: Model of career derailment for female executives

Source: Schmidt (2009)

In conclusion then, the available literature on the internal as well as external

factors leading to the derailment of women executives can be summarised as per

Table 2.12 below:


50

Table 2.12: Factors associated with leadership derailment

EXTERNAL FACTORS – Factors outside

of women leading to derailment

INTERNAL FACTORS - Personality traits and behaviours leading to derailment

Gender Stereotyping Leadership styles and behaviour

Gendered organisations The inability to adapt

Gendered occupations Wanting too much for oneself or other

women

Sex segregation Not meeting performance expectations

Tokenism Problems with interpersonal relationships

and networks

Prejudice Failure to meet business objectives

The ―glass ceiling‖ phenomenon Inability to build and lead a team

The ―glass cliff‖ phenomenon Inability to learn from mistakes

Organisational culture Not managing strategy

Business operations resulted in company

eliminating jobs

Relationship with the boss

Discrimination Education and development

Sabotage Lack of initiative

Organisational practices Lack of accountability

Other people‘s reactions to a competent

women

New senior leadership (not the boss)


51

When considering the factors leading to career derailment amongst women

executives discussed above, it can be seen that a more balanced approach exits

with regards to internal and external barriers leading to career derailment. However,

it should be noted that in several of the studies focusing on personality traits/

characteristics and behaviours, women were the minority of subjects sampled. In

addition, only one study (Morrison et al., 1992), which was included in Leslie and

Van Velsor‘s (1996) meta-analysis, addressed derailment factors specific for women.

The purpose of this study aims to explore the intrinsic characteristics

possessed by women executives, who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who

have overcome it. It is envisaged that a better understanding can thus be reached

about how women are able to overcome the external derailers they face.

I further envisaged that the current study will lead to a better understanding of

the intrinsic characteristics of women who are able to overcome their own internal

(personality traits/ characteristics and behaviours) barriers to success.

It is thus envisaged that the current study will lead to the empowerment of

women executives and an increased sense of agency, when it comes to their ability

to overcome both internal and external barriers and derailers to their success as

leaders.

2.6 Opting out in derailment of women executives

The section above has focused on the factors traditionally explored by the

literature as acting as barriers and potential derailers to success of women

executives. It is however my belief that the phenomenon of opting out merits further

exploration and consideration as being a potential barrier and derailer to the success

of women executives.

Whitmarsh, Brown, Cooper, Hawkins-Rodgers and Wentworth (2007) found

that 26 percent of women on the brink of being promoted to the highest levels in their

profession reported that they did not want the promotion. Mero and Sellers (2003)


52

further found that it is not always a case of women not being able obtain to executive

positions, but rather a case of them not wanting these positions.

Cannon (2009) defines opting out as the phenomenon of the conscious

decision to leave a position as a senior leader. According to Hemmasi and Jawahar

(2006) the ―opting out revolution‖ is characterised by well-educated professional

women leaving the workforce altogether.

Studies over time on the ―opting out revolution‖ reveal that there may be

varying reasons for the existence of this phenomenon. Organisation‘s lack of support

of women‘s advancement leads to turnover of well qualified and experienced women

(Goodman et al, 2003; Indvik, 2001; Morrison & Von Glinow, 1990), and is cited as

one of the primary reasons for women executives opting out. Schmidt (2009)

reported that in a catalyst study (1998) of professional women who left jobs in the

private sector, over half of them stated that they had left due to negative

circumstances, which included perceptions of exclusion and lack of opportunity.

Hewlett and Luce (2005) found that whilst it was traditionally assumed that the pull of

family was the primary cause for women opting out, women are currently leaving

organisations due to high levels of dissatisfaction.

Hewlett and Luce (2005) found that reasons for opting out were as follows:

44 percent of women opting out did so in order to increase time spent with

family;

23 percent opted out due to unsatisfying work;

7 percent chose to opt out due to the fact that they were relocating; and

16 percent due to a decision to make a change in career.

Deutch‘s (2005) findings were similar to those of Hewlett and Luce (2005) in

so far as:

38 percent of women opted out in order to resume their studies;

31 percent decided to stop work altogether;

45 percent of women decided to start their own business;

33 percent made a change in their personal lives; and


53

35 percent changed their careers.

According to Puffer (2004) women opted out due to a need for flexibility, whilst

Morris, Bonamici, Kaufman, and Neering (2005) found that the primary reason for

opting out was due to discrimination in the workplace. Maneiro and Sullivan (2005),

Sull and Holder (2005), as well as Wallis et al (2004) found that the glass ceiling,

discrimination and lack of developmental opportunities primarily caused women to

opt out, whilst Gersick and Kram (2002) found the primary reason for opting out, was

for executive women to ―re-evaluate life‖.

Research of a group of 54 high-potential women by Stone (2013) shows that

they pursued their careers for an average of 11 years and that 60% of them worked

well past the birth of their second child. Ninety percent of these women who have

children and ultimately left their careers, left not to care for their families, but

because of workplace problems. These workplace problems were primarily identified

as frustration and long hours. Two-thirds of those who left attempted part-time work

but found it problematic as they‘d been putting in long weeks with part-time

remuneration tending to mean 40 hours of work for 20 hours‘ worth of remuneration.

Factoring even more into decisions to opt out entirely, however, was the inability to

work part-time without being marginalised.

Cannon (2009) in her comprehensive study on the factors leading to women

leaders‘ decision to opt out of their senior leadership positions, discussed in detail

the existing literature on opting out. This can be summarised as follows:


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Table 2.13: Summary of literature on opting out

Reasons for Opting

Out

Research Focus/Findings- Researcher/Author

General Opting Out Phenomenon Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner,

2000; Hewlett & Luce, 2005;

Lyness & Thompson, 2000;

Maniero & Sullivan, 2005;

Taylor et. al., 2000

Multiple reasons -

organization, career,

family, personal

Survey of 2,443 women – family (44

%), earn degree (23 %); work not

satisfying (17 %); moved away (17

%); change career (16 %)

Lyness & Thompson, 2000

Multiple reasons –

education, career,

personal

Going back to school (38 %);

quitting work (31 %); starting

business (45 %); personal life (33

%); changing careers (35 %)

Deutsch, 2005

Multiple reasons –

personal,

organization, career

Multiple reasons – Medial crisis,

downsizing, lack of challenge,

discrimination, more education,

desire to travel

Morris, 1995

Organization reasons

- multiple

Lack of line experience (47 %);

exclusion from informal networks

(41%); stereotyping (33 %); failure

of leadership to be accountable for

women‘s advancement (29 %t)

Wallis et. al., 2004 – specific

findings

Similar findings by:

Ebberwein, et. al., 2004; Liff

& Ward, 2001; Ragins et. al.,

1998; Ryan & Haslam, 2007;

Wellington et. al., 2003

Organization reasons

– Discrimination

Glass ceiling, discrimination, lack of

developmental opportunities

Jones, 2007; Liff & Ward,

2001; Maniero & Sullivan,

2005; Meyerson & Fletcher,

2005; Morris et. al., 2005;

Shambaugh, 2007; Sull &

Holder, 2005; Trumbell,

2007; Wallis et. al., 2004

Organization reasons Policies/lack of organization policies Meyerson & Fletcher, 2000;


55

- Policies – work/life

Cornell Couples and Careers Study

Moen, 1999; Porter, 2004;

Rowe & Kahn, 1998; Winn,

2004

Career reasons –

men and women

(career choices)

Career paths and choices different

from women and men Women more

interested in intrinsic value

Women and men work for same

reason.

O‘Neil & Bilimoria, 2005;

Woodd, 1999; Cron, 2001

Career reasons –

obstacles and lack of

opportunity (men vs.

women)

Women don‘t fit culture, work group

exclusivity, fewer mentoring

opportunities, social isolation,

stereotypical assessment, fewer

developmental assignments, fewer

overseas assignment

General finding related to general

distribution of top spots. Women

face more career obstacles than

men.

Bergman & Hallberg, 2002;

Cappelli & Hamori, 2005;

Fels, 2004; Hastings, 2007;

Hewlett & Luce, 2005;


Morris, 2005; Nash &

Stevenson, 2004; Stroh et.

al., 1996; Terjesen, 2005;

Tischler, 2004; Winn, 2004;

Woodd, 1999

Career reasons –

patterns (general)

Career patterns changing – affected

by technology, competition,

downsizing, new work contracts

(implied and specific).

Hewlett, 2002; Terjesen,

2005; Woodd, 1999

Career reasons –

patterns for women

Adjust to accommodate new roles,

Develops in given field and moves

on in spiral or cycle pattern,

Portable skills,

Scale back lives so can scale back

work,

Women beginning own businesses.

Maniero & Sullivan, 2005;

Woodd, 1999; Hewlett, 2002;

Terjesen, 2005; Dagley &

Salter, 2004; Friedman,

2005; Hall & Mirvis, 1996;

Kossek, et. al., 1998, Laker,

2002; Schor, 1998; Ewers,

2007; Farrell, 2005; Menzies

et. al., 2004; Moore, 2003;

Terjesen, 2006; Winn, 2004

Career reasons –

retention and

development

Women leave jobs because of

workload, control over scheduling,

working standard or consistent

schedule, availability of flexi time.

Moen, 1999; Smart, 1999


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Retention tied to rewards like

special projects, task forces, job

movement, seminars, personal

coaching, status symbols and

recognition.

Family reasons –

career change

Home based businesses

Affecting career change decisions

Farrell, 2005;

Maniero & Sullivan, 2005

Family reasons –

work/life balance

Women want more flexibility;

difficulty achieving balance. 44

percent of women surveyed said

family most important (Lyness &

Thompson)

Amatea et. al., 1986; Bailyn

et. al., 2001; Barnett & Hyde,

2001; Beatty, 1996; Berg et.

al., 2003; Dychtwald, 1999;

Hewlett & Luce, 2005;


Puffer, 2004

Family reasons -

responsibility

Women bear disparate amount of

responsibility for family/home

Bielby & Bielby, 1989; Cron,

2001; Hewlett & Luce, 2005;

Kossek et. al., 1998; Maniero

& Sullivan, 2005; McKenna,

1997; Moen, 1999

Family reasons -

eldercare

Responsibility to care for non-child

family members

Barnett & Hyde, 2001;

Hewlett & Luce, 2005

Personal reasons –

Life stage and self-

awareness

Life stage – re-evaluate life,

expectations of self and others,

wholeness, self-clarity

Bozionelos, 2004; Campbell

et. al., 1996; Drucker, 1999;

Fredrickson, 2001; Friedman

et. al., 2005; Gersick &

Kram, 2002; Goleman et. al.,

2001; Levinson, 1996;

MacArthur Foundation, 1999;

McKenna, 1997; Moen,

1999; Morris, 1995;

Ruderman & Ohlott, 2002;

Sull & Holder, 2005; Winn,

2004


57

Personal reasons –

stress and time

Work-related stress and time

pressures

Barnett & Hyde, 2001;

Beatty, 1996; Gewirtz et. al.,

2003; Hewlett, 2002; Karoly

& Panis, 2004; Morris, 2002;

Rowe & Kahn, 1998; Taylor

et. al., 2000; Wallis et. al.,

2004

From the above it can be seen that four main categories exist for women

executives opting out. These are:

organization reasons;

career reasons;

family reasons and;

personal reasons.

These reasons can be further classified as ―pull‖ reasons, which are reasons

which are externally drawing women executives to opt out, as well as ―push‖ reasons

within their work environment which are forcing them to opt out. Whilst it appears

that several ―pull‖ factors exist, there can be no doubt that the ―push‘ factors leading

to the decision to opt out are not dissimilar to those associated with derailment. It is

for this reason that I propose that the phenomenon of opting out be further explored

during the current study.

From the literature review on leadership derailment of women executives, it

can be seen that there is a complex, and sometimes intertwined labyrinth of barriers

and derailers faced by women executives. Whilst the literature review above is not

exhaustive, it outlines some of the major barriers and derailers to the success of

women executives. Notable in the derailment literature, is that the literature on

derailment amongst women has a more balanced approach to a focus on internal

and external factors leading to derailment, than has the general derailment literature.

Very little, if any, focus however is given to the internal characteristics of women who

are able to overcome barriers and derailment, and how they can be differentiated

from those who are unable to do so.


58

The current study will thus explore the intrinsic characteristics which women

executives, who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who have overcome it,

possess, regardless of whether the barriers they face are internal or external. It is

proposed that these internal characteristics act as preventative measures against

possible derailment. More specifically, I explore the mental representations and the

constructions of meaning held by executive women which act as preventative

measures against derailment. This exploration takes place within the theoretical

framework of personal construct theory, which is further discussed in Chapter 3.

2.7 Conclusion

Chapter 2 dealt with the key concepts of leadership derailment and women

executives as well as a discussion of the importance of the study of leadership

derailment due to its prevalence and cost to organisations and individuals. A

historical overview with a summary of the thought leaders in the field of leadership

derailment, in general, followed by an outline of the research conducted on

leadership derailment as it relates to women specifically, was provided.

Discourse on specific factors found to be barriers to women‘s success as well

as potential derailers for women executives, including: gender stereotyping,

prejudice and discrimination; gendered organisations, occupations, sex segregation

and tokenism; leadership styles and behaviour; the ―glass ceiling‖ phenomenon;

organisational culture as well as other career derailment themes, was undertaken.

In the following chapter, the research design that served as the approach and

methodology to explore the characteristics that prevent the derailment of women

leaders, are discussed.


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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter qualitative research, the key scientific beliefs held by myself

and the research strategy of the current study, are discussed. This is followed by a

discourse on the history and principles of grounded theory as well as the application

of a literature review during a grounded theory study. My approach in this regard is

delineated and grounded theory as the framework of the current study is discussed

in some detail.

In the current study, a technique typically associated with personal construct

theory, is applied within the grounded theory framework. This technique as well as

the key elements of personal construct theory are discussed briefly in Chapter 3,

whilst the discussion and interpretation of research findings, as they relate to

personal construct theory, are further embroidered upon in Chapter 5.

Chapter 3 is concluded with an outline of the research methodology applied in

the study, with particular focus on the research setting, researcher roles, and the

pilot study conducted. In addition, sampling in the study, data collection, recording

and storage of data, as well as data analysis, are outlined.

3.2 Research Design

3.2.1 Research approach

3.2.1.1 Qualitative research and its key features

The history of qualitative research reveals that disciplines of modern social

science have taken as their mission, the analysis and understanding of the social


60

processes of society. Qualitative research is particularly well suited to this

mission (Vidich & Lyman, 2000, p. 37).

Vidich and Lyman (as cited in Denzin and Lincoln; 2008, p. 19) outline the

stages of qualitative research. These are as follows:

firstly, the early exploration of cultural phenomenon (ethnography), which

occurred to the 17th century;

secondly, colonial ethnography which was conducted by 17th, 18th and 19th

century explorers;

thirdly, the ethnography of the American Indian as ―other‖ which took place

during the late 19th and early 20th century;

fourthly, community studies and ethnographies of American immigrants which

took place from the early 20th centrury though the 1960‘s;

fifthly, studies of ethnicity and assimilation, which occurred midcentury

through the 1980‘s;

finally, the present, which is referred to as the eighth moment of qualitative

research.

In each of these eras, researchers have been influenced by their political

hopes and ideologies, discovering findings in their research that confirmed their prior

theories or beliefs. Arguments for the use of qualitative methods are based on the

view that quantitative methods are inadequate in terms of accounting for context and

meaning, and that qualitative methods offer richer understandings of cultural and

social phenomena (Murray & Chamberlain, 1998).

As described by Denzin and Lincoln (2000, p. 1048), qualitative research is an

interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary field. It

crosscuts the humanities, the social sciences and the physical sciences. Qualitative

research is many things at the same time. It is multiparadigmatic in focus. Its

practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach. They are

committed to the naturalistic perspective and to the interpretative understanding of

human experience. At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped by

multiple ethical and political allegiances.


61

Schurink (2001) states that although qualitative researchers share an anti-

positivistic set of basic beliefs or paradigms, they still may have different

perspectives based on their worldview of scientific truth. Due to the diverse nature of

qualitative research, gaining an understanding of its key features provides more

clarity.

Whilst definitions of qualitative research and data may vary, the definitions of

well-respected qualitative researchers such as Lofland and Lofland (1984), Gilmore

and Carson (1996); Bogdan, and Biklen (1998), Creswell (1998), Mason (1996),

Strauss and Corbin (1990), and more recently, Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarshar and

Newton (2001), Schwandt (2007) and Denzin and Lincoln (2008), share the following

key features.

It focuses on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, and

creates a view of what real life is like.

It has richness and is conducted within a framework of holism, with strong

potential for revealing complexities. According to Amaratunga et al. (2001)

such data provide rich, vivid descriptions, nested in a real life context.

The fact that qualitative data are typically collected over a sustained period

makes it powerful for studying any process.

The inherent flexibility of qualitative studies gives further confidence that what

has been going on is really understood.

It is the best strategy for discovery, exploring a new area and developing

hypotheses.

It allows the researcher to become familiar with the area(s) of interest, to

explore the field and to consider the dimensions involved.

The adaptability of qualitative methods allows for a reasonably flexible plan of


development.


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3.2.1.2 Key scientific beliefs

According to Babbie (2007, p. 33), ―all qualitative researchers approach their

studies with a certain paradigm or worldview, a basic set of beliefs or assumptions

that guides their enquiries. Each of the paradigms offers a different way of looking at

human social life, makes its own assumptions about the nature of social reality, and

can open up new understandings‖.

Bateson (1972, p. 314) states that a researcher is ―bound within a set of

epistemological and ontological premises which – regardless of the ultimate truth or

falsity – become partially self-validating‖. In what is to follow, I outline my ontological

as well as epistemological beliefs.

Ontology

Mason (1996) defines ontology as the researcher‘s view on the essence and

nature of the social world. The key ontological question for social researchers is:

should we see reality as objective, external to people‘s awareness, or should we

view it as social constructions built up from the actions, experiences and perceptions

of people?

It is my view that reality, to a large extent, is objective and external to people‘s

awareness. Kvale (1996, p. 41) likens this conception of knowledge to a ‗mirror of

reality‘. During the current study the I thus ―hold a mirror‖ to the reality of the

participants by means of a systematic, interactive methodological approach, through

which reality can be discovered so that insight can be gained into the characteristics

which they possess which have prevented their derailment as leaders, or have

assisted them to overcome it.

Epistemology

Behind ones‘ ontological beliefs, lie different theories of knowledge and

perception, or epistemologies. Eastrby-Smith, Thorpe and Lowe (2002, p. 31) define


63

epistemology as a ―general set of assumptions about the best ways of enquiring into

the nature of the world‖. Various epistemological approaches exist.

Fouche and Schurink, (cited in de Vos et al; 2011) identify three research

perspectives, namely:

objectivism;

interpretivism;

constructionism.

Each of the above comes with its own ontology, epistemology, methodology,

methods of data collection and analysis, as outlined in table 3.1:


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Table 3.1: Research perspectives

Paradigm Ontology Epistemology Methodology Method of data

collection and

analysis

Report/writing style

Objectivism

Positivism

The life world of

subjects can be

discovered in an

objective manner

Interpretation arises

from observation of

the researcher. With

the right methods

meaning can be

discovered

For example, classic

ethnography and

phenomenology

For example,

participant

observation and

interviewing

Description of day to

day events

experienced in the

field, realist tales in

an authorial, supreme

voice to represent

and interpret other‘s

story

Interpretivism

Modernism

Realism

The real world can be

discovered by means

of a systematic,

interactive

methodological

approach

Knowledge arises

from the

understanding of

symbols and meaning

(Symbolic

interactionism)

Grounded theory

Data are gathered by

means of participant

observation, human

documents and

interviewing, and are

analysed

systematically

The researcher

provides insights into

the behaviour

displayed and the

meanings and

interpretations that

subjects give to their

life worlds

Constructivism

Post-modernism

There is no real world

or truth out there,

Those who are

personally

Newer forms of

ethnography: auto-

Interviewing,

participant

The story must be

lifelike, evocative,


65

Impressionism Only a narrative truth.

Reality can thus only

be known by those

who personally

experience it

experiencing it

construct knowledge

through a process of

self-conscious action

ethnography,

collaborative enquiry

(PAR), appreciative

enquiry, personal-

reflexive

ethnography,

narrative inquiry

observation, human

documents, personal

narratives, poetic

representations and

fictional texts

believable and

possible to enable

readers to put

themselves in the

place of others and

have empathy

Source: de Vos et al (2011, p. 311)

I followed an interpretivistic approach during the current study, as it is my belief that reality should be interpreted through the

meaning that research participants give to their life world. I thus interpret the reality and personal characteristics of a sample of

women executive leaders, as well as the mental representations and constructions of meaning they hold, which prevent them from

being derailed, or assist them in overcoming potential derailment.

3.2.1.3 Reasons for the choice of qualitative research

The decision to apply an interpretivistic approach within the qualitative paradigm in this study is based primarily on the

features of qualitative research and interpertivism as previously discussed as well as the fact that limited research appears to be

available on the intrinsic characteristics and mental representations and constructions of meaning of women executives who have

not fallen prey to career derailment. An interpretivistic qualitative approach enables the researcher to gain a holistic understanding


66

of the lived experiences of these female executives and the rich complexity inherent

in the mental representations and constructions of meaning they hold.

3.2.2 Research strategy

I utilise case studies as the strategy to conduct the current research. Case

studies are a common way to do a qualitative enquiry. As a form of research, case

studies are defined by interest in an individual case, not by the methods of enquiry

used (Stake, as cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). This is echoed by Fouche and

Schurink, (de Vos et al, 2011; p. 320) who state that in contrast to other

methodological frameworks, case study design is more of a choice of what to study

rather than a methodological one. They further state that case study research has

the ability to adapt to a wide range of methodological frameworks.

According to Stake (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008), case studies can broadly be

grouped into three categories, namely the intrinsic case study, the instrumental case

study and the multiple or collective case study. Each of these categories is briefly

described below:

An intrinsic case study is a case study which is undertaken:

… because, first and last, one wants a better understanding of this

particular case. It is not undertaken primarily because the case represents

other cases or because it illustrates a particular trait or problem, but

instead because, in all its particularity and ordinariness, this case is of

itself of interest.

(Stake as cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p. 121 - 122)

Stake further states that the purpose of conducting an intrinsic case study is

not to come to an understanding of some abstract construct or generic problem. He

also states that conducting an intrinsic case study is not an appropriate research

strategy to utilise if one is interested in theory building.


67

An instrumental case study is where ―a particular case is examined mainly to

provide insight into an issue or to redraw a generalization. The case is of

secondary interest, it plays a supportive role, and it facilitates our

understanding of something else‖, Stake (cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p.

123).

When a number of cases are studied jointly to investigate a phenomenon,

population, or general condition, a multiple case study/collective case study is

an appropriate research strategy to employ.

It is an instrumental study extended to several cases. Individual cases in

the selection may or may not be known in advance to manifest some

common characteristic. They may be similar or dissimilar, with redundancy

and variety each important. They are chosen because it is believed that

understanding them will lead to better understanding, and perhaps better

theorising, about a still larger collection of cases.

Stake (cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p. 123)

In this study, I employ a multiple case study/collective case study strategy in

order to explore whether women executives who have not fallen prey to career

derailment, or who have overcome it, share common characteristics and mental

representations and constructions of meaning. By understanding similarities and

differences between them, it is envisaged that themes/trends of mental

representations and constructions of meaning will be established, which will in turn

lead to a better understanding, and the development of an integrated framework or

model of characteristics which prevent career derailment amongst women

executives.

I further employ a multiple case study/collective case study strategy within the

methodological framework of grounded theory, which is thus the subject of the

following discussion.


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3.3 Grounded theory

3.3.1 The history of grounded theory

Grounded Theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) from their

collaboration during their studies of dying in hospitals and is presented in their book,

―The Discovery of Grounded Theory‖. According to its founders, grounded theory

constitutes an innovative methodology facilitating ―the discovery of theory from data‖

(Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 1), thus showing that qualitative empirical data could

reliably lead to generating new theory.

According to Dunne (2011), grounded theory was developed in response two

factors:

Firstly, as a revolt against the dominance of quantitative research during the

1960‘s, when the pervading view was that qualitative research was regarded

as ―impressionistic, anecdotal, unsystematic and biased‖ (Charmaz, 2006, p.

5). Grounded theory was thus an attempt to make qualitative research more

scientific.

Secondly, Glaser and Strauss recognised the lack of systematic guidelines to

improve the quality of qualitative research. By combining ―the depth and

richness inherent in qualitative interpretive traditions with the logic, rigor and

systematic analysis inherent in quantitative survey research‖ (Walker &

Myrick, 2006, P. 548), grounded theory constituted a pioneering research

approach. Glaser and Strauss:

… made a cutting edge statement because it contested notions of

methodological consensus and offered systematic strategies for

qualitative research practice. Essentially Glaser and Strauss joined

epistemological critique with practical guideline for action.

(Charmaz, 2006, p. 5)


69

Since its development in 1967, and especially over the last two decades,

grounded theory has become extremely popular in qualitative research (Payne,

2007).

In the 1990‘s an ideological split took place between Glaser and Strauss,

when after they initially ―invited their readers to use grounded theory strategies

flexibly and in their own way‖. Glaser became uncomfortable with the development of

the many varying interpretations and methodologies of grounded theory.

Glaser and Holton (2004) subsequently outlined the differences between

grounded theory and other qualitative data analysis methods, stating that by not

recognising and applying those differences, grounded theory as it was initially

developed, was compromised. Strauss and Corbin (1994, p. 283), however opposed

this view, stating that ―a child once launched is very much subject to a combination

of its origins and the evolving contingencies of life. Can it be otherwise with a

methodology?‖

3.3.2 Key principles of grounded theory

As per Schram (2006), the objective of grounded theory is the development of

theory that is grounded in data. It focuses on generating theory based on the study

of social situations. Schwandt (2007, p. 131) describes grounded theory is a

―specific, highly developed, rigorous set of procedures for producing formal

substantive theory of social phenomenon‖ whilst Charmaz (2006, p. 2) describes

grounded methods as consisting of ― systematic, yet flexible guidelines for collecting

and analysing qualitative data to construct theories grounded in the data themselves.

The guidelines offer a set of general principles and heuristic devices rather than

formulaic rules.‖

Charmaz (2006, p. 3) further states that:

Grounded theorists start with data. We construct these data through our

observations, interactions, and materials that we gather about the topic or

setting. We study empirical events and experiences and pursue our

hunches and potential analytic ideas about them. Most qualitative


70

methods allow researchers to follow up on interesting data in whatever

way they devise. Grounded theory methods have the additional advantage

of containing explicit guidelines that show us how we may proceed.

Grounded theory is based on two concepts, namely constant comparison and

theoretical sampling (Suddaby, 2006). Thus, a continuous, iterative process occurs

where new data are gathered, actions are observed and perceptions of participants

recorded, and constantly compared with those of new subjects in order to generate

theory.

In addition, Fouche and Schurink, (de Vos et al, 2011, p. 318) claim that ―data

are collected by means of interviews with individuals who have participated in a

process about a central phenomenon in order to ‗saturate‘ categories and detail a

theory‖. Charmaz (2006) explains that testing of the emergent theory is guided by

theoretical sampling, which seeks pertinent data to develop an emerging theory. The

main purpose of theoretical sampling is to elaborate and refine the categories

constituting a theory. According to Dunne (2011, p. 111), ―unlike most strategies of

enquiry, grounded theory demands that data collection and analysis occur

concurrently, rather than in a linear sequence‖, in order to continuously elaborate

and refine the categories constituting a theory.

According to Glaser and Strauss (1967), grounded theory meets the following

criteria:

a close fit with the data;

usefulness;

conceptual density;

durability over time;

modifiability; and

explanatory power.

In summary then, and as eloquently stated by Charmaz (2006), the defining

components of grounded theory practice, originally were:


71

simultaneous involvement in data collection and analysis;

constructing analytic coded and categories from data, not from preconceived

logically deducted hypotheses;

using the constant comparative method, which involves making comparisons

during each stage of the analysis;

advancing theory development during each step of data collection and

analysis;

memo-writing to elaborate categories, specify their properties, define

relationships between categories and identify gaps;

sampling aimed toward theory construction, not for population

representativeness;

conducting the literature review after developing an independent analysis.

Charmaz however contends that basic grounded theory guidelines can be

used in conjunction with twenty-first century methodological assumptions and

approaches. Unlike Glaser and Strauss‘s original position, Charmaz assumes that

data and theories are not discovered, but that researchers are part of the world they

study and the data they collect. Thus researchers construct their grounded theories

through their involvement and interactions with participants in the research process

(Charmaz 2006). According to Charmaz, her approach to grounded theory:

Explicitly assumes that any theoretical rendering offers an interpretive

portrayal of the studied world, not an exact picture of it. Research

participant‘s implicit meanings, experiential views – and researchers‘

finished grounded theories – are constructions of reality.

(Charmaz 2006, p. 10)

As discussed previously, my epistemological view is an interprevist one and

thus well suited to Charmaz‘s approach to grounded theory. It is believed that the

guidelines for grounded theory as advocated by Charmaz, can thus be utilised to

achieve the purpose of this study, namely to explore and understand the intrinsic


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characteristics, mental representations held and constructions of meaning that

prevent leadership derailment of executive women.

3.3.3 Literature review in grounded theory research

As previously mentioned, an ideological split took place between Glaser and

Strauss regarding the application of grounded theory. The same is true for the

thinking on the application of literature in grounded theory research. According to

Bryant and Charmaz (2007, p. 19), ―ever since the publication of The Discovery of

Grounded Theory, concerns have arisen regarding how students and researchers

should apply and use the existing literature relevant to their research topic‖. It

appears that a rigorous debate in this regard has ensued ever since.

Initially Glaser and Strauss (1967) explicitly argued against engaging with

existing literature before collecting primary data. The rationale behind this view

―essentially related to the desire to allow categories to emerge naturally from the

empirical data during analysis, uninhibited by extant theoretical frameworks and

associated hypotheses‖ (Dunne, 2011, p. 114).

It appears that Strauss later altered his view and began to advocate a review

of literature prior to gathering empirical data whilst Glaser maintained his original

view. The arguments for and against the review of literature early in a study are

many and are summarised below, followed by an explanation of the decision taken

by me to follow a more ―Straussian‖ approach in the current study.

Suspending the review of literature until empirical research has been

conducted is argued for the following reasons, according to Glaser (1998), Lock

(2001), McCallin (2003), Nathaniel (2006), Holton (2007), Charmaz (2006), and Dick

(2007).

Literature review may contaminate data collection, analysis and theory

development.

Literature review may lead the researcher to impose existing frameworks,

hypothesis and theoretical ideas on the data.


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Literature review may undermine the authenticity, focus and quality of

grounded research.

Researchers may be side-tracked by literature which supports existing

assumptions and preconceptions which are not relevant to the new study;

External ―rhetorical jargon‖ may impede the research.

Delaying a literature review encourages the researcher to articulate their own

ideas rather than importing and imposing preconceived ideas of others.

Researchers may be intimidated or awed by the existing research of others,

undermining their sense of self-worth and competence with regards to theory

development.

As ground theory research is unpredictable, the researcher may not know

upfront which literature is relevant, and the activity of undertaking the

literature review may be wasteful, inefficient, and irrelevant to the research

being conducted.

In opposition to the above, conducting a review of literature prior to

conducting empirical research is argued for by McGhee et al.,(2007), Nathaniel

(2006), Coyne and Cowley (2006), Chiovitti and Piran (2003), Creswell (1998),

Hutchinson (1993), McCann and Clark (2003), Urquhart (2007), Denzin (2002),

McMenamin (2006), Coffey and Atkinson (1996), Strauss and Corbin (1998), Maijala,

Paavilainen and Astedt-Kurki (2003), and Henwood and Pidgeon (2006), for the

following reasons.

It can provide a persuasive and strong motivation and objective for a specific

research proposal.

It ensures that the intended study has not already been done.

It potentially highlights pertinent gaps in existing knowledge.

It can help contextualise the study, orientate the researcher and reveal how a

social phenomenon has been studied to date.

It can assist the researcher in gaining theoretical sensitivity and avoid

conceptual and methodological pitfalls.

It can assist the researcher to become aware of unhelpful preconceptions.

It can help promote clarity about concepts and theoretical development.


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Postponing literature review until data have been collected may not be

workable, especially for a PhD student whose research funding, approval and

progression through the doctoral process is dependent on producing a

literature review before commencing the study.

A researcher cannot establish paucity of knowledge in an area of study unless

a review of the literature takes place.

Prohibiting a researcher from conducting a literature review at the time of their

choosing, essentially limits the freedom of the researcher, whilst grounded

theory is designed and intended to be empowering and freeing for a

researcher.

In addition to the above, it is my belief that no researcher undertakes a study

without some prior knowledge of an area of study, as how else would their interest

be piqued enough to embark on further exploration? A researcher should further

have the ability as well as duty to remain open minded despite possessing

knowledge in an area. By keeping in mind this existing knowledge, the researcher

has more insight and self –awareness to better identify and allow potentially

contradictory findings to emerge.

Reflexivity and the constant comparative method are inherent to grounded

theory research. Reflexivity, defined by Robson (McGhee et al., 2007, p. 335) is ―an

awareness of the ways in which the researcher as an individual with particular social

identity and background has an impact on the research process.‖ It is my belief that

the duty and ability to remain in keeping with the ethos of grounded theory and

maintaining reflexivity lies with a researcher undertaking such research.

It is further my belief that a review of the existing literature was central to the

formulation and justification of the research question in the current study. In fact, as

a review of the literature progressed, I was forced to subtly modify and clarify the

objective of the current study, to better articulate the paucity in the research and the

contribution to be made. It is felt that I needed to fully appreciate the context within

which the current study takes place. Thus, in the current study, the literature view

has been conducted and presented prior to empirical data being gathered.


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Whilst this has allowed me to gain clarity about existing theoretical concepts

and as well as potential theoretical development, I undertook to remain open to

identifying additional theories, which may initially have seemed unrelated, to help

explain or even contradict the themes and categories emerging from the empirical

data, should it become necessary. Additional relevant theories and literature will thus

be presented in the interpretation and discussion in Chapter 5.

3.4 Grounded theory applied in context

In the current study, personal construct theory is applied within the context of

grounded theory as it is my belief that this may facilitate greater understanding of the

characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders.

3.4.1 Understanding personal construct theory

The fundamental postulate of personal construct theory, in Kelly‘s own words

is as follows: ―A person‘s processes are psychologically channelised by the ways in

which he anticipates events‖ (Kelly, 1955, p. 46).

In unravelling this definition, Kelly (1955) explains that a person‘s mental

energy (processes) is channelled through an ordered network of pathways

(channelised), in a psychological manner (psychologically), to make predictions

about future reality (anticipated events). More simply put, the theory is primarily one

of the examining how humans continually construct meaning in a continually

changing world (Epting & Paris, 2006).

Personal construct theory states that, as individuals, we give meaning to our

world and experiences. We do this by creating an unspoken theoretical framework,

which personal construct theory refers to as our personal construct system. It is thus

within this system that we anticipate the future and engage with our environment.

Understanding the characteristics of executive women who have not fallen

prey to derailment, in the context of the personal constructs and core constructs they


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hold, may make a significant contribution to our understanding of leadership

derailment amongst women leaders. The discussion and interpretation of research

findings, as they relate to personal construct theory, are thus further embroidered

upon in Chapter 5.

3.4.2 The operationalization of personal construct theory

The repertory grid has ―occupied a position of pre-eminence within the

psychology of personal constructs since its introduction by Kelly in 1955‖ (Niemeyer,

2002, p. 89). According to Bannister, ―Kelly seems to have looked to the repertory

grid technique to illustrate, in vivid and practical form, what he saw as the primary

undertaking of psychology: to develop an understanding of the way in which persons

interpret their experiences‖ (Bannister, 1985, p. xi).

Fransella, Bell and Bannister (2004) describe a repertory grid as a type of

formalised structured interview which formalises the process of coming to

understand an individual‘s views of the world through conversation, by assigning

mathematical values to the relationships between the individual‘s constructs.

Repertory grids further aim to illicit constructs defined in an individual‘s own words in

a systematic manner in order to enable comparisons between various personal

construct systems (Klapper, 2008).

In this study, I elicit constructs from the research participants via an in-depth

interview within grounded theory methodology, which will be discussed further later

in Chapter 3.

According to Fransella, Bell and Bannister (2004), once constructs have been

elicited, additional constructs can be elicited from them (Fransella, Bell & Bannister,

2004) in a number of ways including: laddering, constructing pyramids, the ABC

model, and the bow-tie diagram.

In the current study, I elicit additional constructs from the research participants

based on initial constructs elicited during the initial phases of the interview, through

using laddering. In many studies within the framework of personal construct theory,


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once constructs are elicited, they are typically placed within a repertory grid.

Although the repertory grid has held a position of dominance within the psychology

of personal constructs, it would appear that, as per Fransella, Bell and Bannister

(2004 there is no requirement that the resulting constructs should be used in some

form of repertory grid, as the information obtained can be of satisfactory use in itself.

In addition, ―grid method is a Frankenstein‘s monster which has rushed away

on a statistical and experimental rampage of its own, leaving construct theory

neglected, stranded high and dry, far behind‖ (Bannister, 2002, p. 89). In addition,

the technique has undergone creative adaptations over time, prompting Banister

(2002, p. 91) to make note of the fact that ―even a cursory review of the method‘s

development reveals striking proliferation of adaptations over the years, many of

them constituting distinctly different forms of the original methodology‖. It would thus

appear that the results are affected by different nuances in the design and

procedures of a particular grid, which raises questions as to the reliability of results.

Bannister thus advocates a critical reappraisal of the repertory grid technique,

with aspects such as the reliability of constructs, the differences between elicited and

supplied construct dimensions as well as the psychometric properties of repertory

grids, requiring the attention of researchers.

Based on the above, it appears that a researcher undertaking the repertory

grid technique is faced with a particular set of challenges to understand the nature of

the demands that the method imposes. Even subtle or unintentional procedural

variations can register a substantial impact on repertory grid outcomes.

It is for the reasons above that I am not utilising the repertory grid technique

during the current study. As mentioned in Chapter 1, as per Schwandt (2007),

grounded theory is a precise, highly developed, arduous set of procedures for

producing formal substantive theory of social phenomenon. It is felt that applying

these rigorous procedures during the elicitation of constructs through the

interviewing process as well as through laddering, will provide sufficient information

on the constructs of executive women in order to develop an integrated framework of

guards against career derailment amongst women executives.


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The research methodology to be utilised within the grounded theory paradigm

in the current study is further expounded upon below:

3.5. Research methodology

3.5.1 Research setting

I employed a multiple case study/collective case study strategy consisting of

five individual cases. The research setting was thus five different South African

organisations of varying sizes and functioning within different sectors of the

economy. The details of the five research settings in this study are as follows.

A financial services group listed on the JSE stock exchange whose services

include individual, group and short-term insurance, personal financial services

such as estate planning, trusts, home and personal loans, savings and linked

products, investment, asset management, property asset management,

stockbroking, risk management and capital market activities.

An independent financial services company, delivering a broad range of

financial services with a focus on areas of wealth creation and preservation,

asset management and insurance solutions.

A manufacturer of a large range of lighting products including dry cell

batteries, and energy saving light bulbs. The group also includes a renewable

energy brand including micro-wind turbines.

A large timber organisation who grow, harvest and process pine products

from Cape Town to Port Elizabeth for use by the building and furniture

industry across Southern Africa.

A golfing resort, comprising three 18-hole championship golf courses, two

hotels, a spa, casual and classic restaurants, conference and event facilities

as well as an extensive residential property real estate portfolio.

The organisational setting thus differed from participant to participant, with the

varying organisational contexts allowing for a comparison of experiences and


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emerging themes across contexts, which enhance the generalizability and

transferability of data obtained.

3.5.2 Entrée and establishing researcher roles

Entry into the various research settings was gained in a number of ways. In

two instances, a referral from a human resources executive known to me as well as

the participants in two of the organisations was utilised in order to gain access. As

both participants had worked with/were currently working with the human resources

executive in question, had developed a trust relationship with him over time, and

held him in high regard, this greatly facilitated entry.

In two instances entry into the research setting was gained through an

existing professional relationship with the research participants. In one case, I had

been employed by the organisation where the participant was the Chief Executive

Officer, and in the other cases I had a long-standing consultant-client relationship

with the organisation, with the participant having been involved in previous

processes facilitated by myself.

In the final instance, the participant was referred to me by one of the other

participants, which will be discussed further in the section below, which describes the

sampling process in more detail.

In all instances, I was surprised and humbled by the willingness of the

participants to engage in the research process, all of them having expressed

excitement in the research topic and the potential value it could add to the success

of women leaders. Even in the cases where potential participants declined

participation due to varying pressures, enthusiasm was expressed about the

intended research.

In this study, initial contact with each participant was established

telephonically and then via a follow-up e-mail (see Annexure 1). This took place

after an initial telephonic introduction had been made to each of the participant‘s

personal assistants. This was deemed to be an important part of the process as the


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buy-in and cooperation of the personal assistants would become crucial in gaining

access to and scheduling meetings with the participants. The personal assistants to

some extent were regarded as the ―gatekeepers‖ to making the research setting

accessible to me.

During the interviews, rapport was established and the participants put at

ease through explaining the rationale of the study, assuring participants of the

valuable contribution that they would be making to the study of, and thus the

potential impact of derailment on other women.

My role and research paradigm were shared with the participants in order to

create context and manage the expectations of the participants during the data

gathering process. It was described to the participants that my role is to ―hold a

mirror‖ to their reality to gain insight into the meanings and interpretations which they

hold. It was further described that I will interpret this reality (in other words, an

interpretivistic approach will be followed). It was also explained to the participants

that whilst they would be guided through a broad framework of questions, the

structure of the interview would primarily be dictated by them.

As it was initially anticipated that second face-to-face interview or follow-up

telephonic interview would be required with certain participants in order to facilitate

further exploration of certain emerging categories and gaps in data, this was

contracted with the participants during the interview. Subsequent to data collection,

analysis and interpretation a second face-to-face interview was however not found to

be necessary. However in certain instances follow-up telephonic consultations were

held with participants to further explore emerging themes (and coding categories)

after an initial analysis of the data had been conducted.

3.5.3 Pilot study

The purpose of a pilot study is to determine whether relevant data can be

obtained from research participants and allows the researcher to test certain

questions and focus on previously unclear areas. It further allows the researcher to

make necessary modifications, aids in estimating the time and cost involved in the


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data gathering phase of the research and also helps pre-empt problems which may

arise. (Royse, 1995, p. 172; Janesick in Denzin & Lincoln, 1994, p. 213; Monette et

al, 1998, p. 93).

Stydom and Delport (de Vos et al, 2011) refer to four aspects of a pilot study.

Reviewing literature in order to decide on its place and role within the

research.

Discussion with experts to identify further themes or verify literature review

with a view on verifying findings.

Assessing the feasibility of the study in terms of the openness and

cooperativeness of participants as well as number of participant most likely to

be required.

Testing the measurement instrument or interview questionnaire to be utilised

in the study.

During this study, literature was reviewed and decisions made as to where it

was to be placed in the study, as was discussed in some detail in the sections 3.3

above. I also requested the guidance of two research supervisors, one for his

expertise in conducting research, at the other for her expertise as an experienced

woman counselling Psychologist who coaches several woman leaders and who has

a particular interest in the subject of women leadership.

In addition, the interview guide was piloted with two women leaders known to

me. After the pilot interviews took place, a debriefing meeting was held where the

participants‘ experiences of the interview process was discussed.

Based on my experience of the pilot interviews as well as feedback from the

participants the challenges in:

identifying and following-up on emerging themes;

applying the laddering technique;

ensuring that the flow of the interview remained smooth and unstilted;

remaining present with the participant; and


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creating a positive space and relationship, all whilst attempting taking field

notes, were highlighted.

Thus adjustments were made to the interview guide, with the decision to have

fewer interview questions. In addition it was decided to apply the laddering technique

inconsistently, and only when the participant was unable to reach a deeper level of

exploration and analysis on their own. Also it was decided to minimise field notes

during the interview, and focus on post-interview field notes, memos and recorded

transcriptions for data analysis.

3.5.4 Sampling

According to Strydom and Vos (de Vos et al, 2011) non-probability sampling

is the most commonly used sampling method within qualitative research. In non-

probability sampling, the odds of selecting a particular participant are not known

because the researcher does not know the population size or the members of the

population (Gravetter & Foranza, 2003, p. 118; Salkind, 2000, p. 87).

They further state that the overall purpose for the use of an appropriate

sampling technique is to collect the richest data, which they describe as being a wide

and diverse range of information collected over an extended period of time. They go

on to describe seven types of non- probability sampling namely purposive sampling,

theoretical sampling, deviant case sampling, sequential sampling, snowball

sampling, key informant sampling and volunteer sampling.

In this study it was initially anticipated that purposive sampling and extensive

snowball sampling would be made use of. These two sampling techniques are

described as follows.

Purposive sampling: This entails the selection of a particular case due to it

illustrating features or processes of interest for a particular study. It is based

on the judgment of the researcher that the sample is composed of elements

that contain the most representative attributes of the population that best


83

serve the purpose of the study (Rubin & Babbie, 2005; Monette, Sullivan &

DeJong, 2005; Grinnell & Unara, 2008).

Snowball sampling: This is typically used when a researcher has limited

access to appropriate participants, or when participants are hard-to-reach, as

was anticipated would be the case in the current study. Babbie (2007, pp. 184

-185) describes snowball sampling as involving approaching a single case

involved in the phenomenon to be investigated with information being sought

from this participant to locate further members of the same population.

It was initially anticipated that two participants known to me, who met the

sample criteria and were approached and invited to participate in the research,

would be requested to provide me with names of other individuals who also fit the

criteria of the study.

However, snowball sampling was only necessary in one instance as additional

research participants were obtained via purposeful sampling with the help of a

colleague who is a human resources executive in a listed financial services group

and had long standing relationships with two participants who met the research

criteria.

Patton (2002, p. 244) states that there are no rules for sample size in

qualitative research with the sample size depending on what the researcher wants to

know, the purpose of the study, what is useful, what will have credibility and what

can be done with the available time and resources. Sarantakos (2000, p. 156)

describes sampling within qualitative research as being relatively limited and based

on saturation rather than representation, with the size not being statistically

determined.

In this study purposive and snowball sampling yielded a total of 5 research

participants and allowed for data saturation of emerging categories and themes.

The following criteria were utilised as a basis of the selection of research

participants:


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women who currently occupy senior or executive level positions, and have;

experienced factors which typically lead to derailment, (which was probed

during the interview process) and;

whose careers have not derailed, (which was determined based on the fact

that they held senior or executive level positions within an organisation), or

who have successfully overcome potential derailment, (which was determined

through exploration of their derailment experience in the context of derailment

literature, as well as the fact that they subsequent to experiencing derailment,

held senior or executive level positions within an organisation).

Further information of the participants‘ biographical details is provided in Annexure 2.

3.5.5 Data collection methods

A number of data collection methods can be made use of in qualitative

research, amongst them being.

Participant observation: In this procedure, feelings, physical activities,

settings, events and conditions are physically observed and recorded rather

than being asked about (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Walliman 2006, p. 95).

Royse (2004, p. 237) recommends that the researcher literally walk in the

shoes of the participant, whilst Creswell (2003, p. 185 -188) suggests that

field notes should be made and that actions, interactions and events should

be recorded in an unstructured or semi-structured manner.

Document study: Documentary analysis involves the study of existing

documents, either to understand their substantive content or to illuminate

deeper meanings which may be revealed by their style and coverage (Ritchie

& Lewis, 2003, p. 35). Documents may vary from personal documents which

include letters to friends and family, diaries and autobiographies, to non-

personal documents such as minutes of meetings, government documents,

agendas, office memo‘s and archived newsletters, to mass media, including

newspapers and magazines.


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Secondary analysis: This involves the reworking of previously analysed

data over which the researcher had no control or initial involvement. It is thus

an empirical exercise conducted after primary analysis of data have been

conducted. Secondary analysis can be useful by bringing new perspective,

using previously unanalysed elements and comparing data with new data

collected (Babbie, 2007, p. 277; Royse, 2004, p. 211, Walliman, 2006, p. 52;

Gravetter & Foranzo, 3002, p 38; Ritchie and Lewis, 2003, p. 61).

Interviewing: One of the most widely used qualitative methods for collecting

data is the interview (Greeff, as cited in de Vos et al; 2011). DePoy and Gilson

(2008, p. 108) describe interviewing as a method of data collection whereby

researchers obtain information through direct interchange with an individual or

group that is known or expected to possess the knowledge they seek. Kvale

(Sewell, 2011, p. 1) defines qualitative interviews as ―attempts to understand

the world from the participant‘s point of view, to unfold the meaning of

people‘s experiences to uncover their lived world prior to scientific

explanations.‖

Different types of interviews exist in qualitative research, which include: one to

one interviewing, unstructured one-to-one-interview, semi-structured one-to-one

interview, ethnographic interview, e-mail interview, telephone interview, convergent

interviewing, and focus group interviewing.

Charmaz (2006, p. 28) states that in grounded theory research, the

researcher is required to take control of their data collection and analysis, and that

the method of interviewing allows the interviewer to assume more direct control over

the construction of data that other methods (e.g. textual analysis). She suggests that

intensive qualitative interviewing fits grounded theory methods ―particularly well‖ as

they are ―open-ended yet directed, shaped yet emergent, and placed, yet

unrestricted‖.

Greeff (de Vos et al, 2011) opines that semi-structured interviewing allows the

researcher to follow up on particularly interesting avenues that emerge and are


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especially suitable when the researcher is interested in complexity or process or

when an issue is controversial or personal.

In addition:

The combination of flexibility and control inherent in in-depth interviewing

techniques fits grounded theory strategies for increasing the analytic

incisiveness of the resultant analysis. Grounded theory interviewing differs

from much in-depth interviewing, because we narrow the range of

interview topics to gather specific data for developing our theoretical

frameworks as we proceed with conducting the interviews.

(Charmaz, 2006, p. 29)

Based on the above, in-depth semi-structured one to one interviews best

fulfils the objective of the current study as well as the grounded theory research

framework:

Greeff (de Vos et al, 2011) states that with this type of interview, whilst the

researcher has a set of predetermined questions on an interview schedule, this

serves to guide rather than dictate the interview. According to Charmaz (2006), in

grounded theory research, a few broad and open ended questions are devised. This

is then followed by focusing interview questions to invite detailed discussions of the

topic. By creating open-ended, non-judgmental questions, the researcher

encourages unanticipated statements and stories to emerge. The combination of

how the researcher constructs the questions and conducts the interview, shapes

how well he/she achieves a balance between making the interview open-ended and

focusing on significant statements.

In the current study I thus made use of an interview schedule as the basis for

the discussion, but allowed the participants maximum opportunity to tell their stories.

I further adapted the questions and focus of the interview in order to peruse

emerging themes and guide the participants to deeper levels of introspection

regarding emerging themes.


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In order to aid deeper exploration of participants‘ constructions of reality

during the interview, the technique of laddering, as advocated in personal construct

theory, was also applied.

This technique elicits increasingly superordinate constructs – ―that is,

constructs of a higher order of abstraction from those (originally) elicited‖ and

involves a series of ‗why questions‖ in order to tap into ―the hierarchical structure of

self and elicit core constructs‖ (Butler, 2006, p. 28). In addition, as per Butler (2006,

p. 28):

It is in the process of laddering that one gets closest to an experience of

being almost part of the other person. Laddering is seen by many

practitioners as possibly the most powerful procedure for eliciting the

values a person holds and the meanings with which they organise their

world.

Fransella et al (2004) call attention to the fact that the interviewer must be

skilled enough when applying the technique of laddering to ensure that the interview

remains on course, by eliciting superordinate constructs without impeding on the flow

of the interview or interfering with the participant‘s construing process (process of

creating meaning).

The quantity and quality of information exchanged depend on how astute and

creative the interviewer is at understanding and managing the relationship between

himself and the participant (Monette, Sullivan & DeJong: 2005, p. 108). Charmaz

(2006) advocates gathering rich, detailed and full data and then placing them in their

relevant situational and social contexts.

According to Greeff, (de Vos et al, 2011) poor interviewing skills, poor

phrasing of questions, or inadequate knowledge of the participant‘s culture or frame

of reference may result in a collection that obtains few useful data. I thus

endeavoured to ensure that my interviewing skills were well practised by not only

conducting a pilot interview, but conducting a ―dry run‖ with a fellow colleague.


88

The interview setting differed from participant to participant, with the

participants being given a choice of where they felt most comfortable participating in

the interviews. In three cases, the interviews were conducted at the participant‘s

respective offices. The interviews in this setting enhanced by my ability to obtain a

deeper understanding of the physical context within which the participants function,

and also to gain some insights into the organisational climate and culture, albeit

based on limited interaction with receptionists, employees passed in the hallways

and personal assistants, as well as observations of the physical work environment,

the interaction between employees as well as the interaction between the participant

and other employees.

In one instance the interview was conducted at the participant‘s home, which

helped add to the richness of the data obtained, as personal context was provided

and the participant was observed in an environment where she felt comfortable and

in control thus allowing her to reveal more of themselves. The fifth interview was

conducted in a boardroom of one of the participant‘s service providers, due to the

participant having scheduled a previous meeting at the same premises, and it being

convenient for her to see me there.

The interviews were approximately 1 ½ to 2 hours in duration each. I opened

each interview with some small talk to build rapport, outlining my role as well as

reiterating the details of the research. Each participant was requested to complete an

informed consent form (see Annexure 3) which was discussed in some detail. The

final interview guide is annexed hereto (see Annexure 4).

This was followed by structured background questions in order to obtain

information regarding: age, title, structure and reportees, length of time in position,

description of roles and responsibilities of position, and, length of time in company.

From the above, as well as subsequent interview process, an effort was made

to gain insight into the culture, context and frame of reference of each participant.

The interview progressed with questioning around how each participant saw

themselves as leaders and what they believed made them successful. This allowed


89

me insight into how they view themselves (their core constructs), which allowed for

further probing. This also allowed participants the opportunity to relax and to become

comfortable with the tape recorder and the interviewing process.

Participants were then questioned around their interpretation, views and

definitions of derailment. This allowed me to gain valuable data regarding the

similarities and differences in the definitions of derailment as provided by women

leaders themselves, as compared to what had been revealed during the literature

review.

Thereafter participants were encouraged to ―tell their stories‖ allowing for the

sharing of personal derailment experiences, experiences of the derailment of other

women colleagues, their beliefs about why they were able to overcome or avoid

derailment. I probed, utilised the laddering technique and guided the interview as

was appropriate in each case in order to fully explore perceptions, beliefs and

experiences as well as the underlying mental representations.

A focus was placed on maintaining rapport and building a relationship with

each participant in order to facilitate the gathering of data. At the same time, during

the interview process, I endeavoured to utilise the developed interview guide to

ensure consistency and comprehensiveness during the interview process.

3.5.6 Recording of data

Prior to commencing data collection, recording of data should be planned for

in a systematic manner that is appropriate to the setting and/or participants,

participants‘ sensitivities and that will facilitate analysis (Schurink, W., Fouché. C. B.,

& De Vos, A. S: 2011, p. 398). In the current study, data were collected in the

following manner:

3.5.6.1 Audio-tape recording


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Interviews were recorded via audio-tape with the permission of each

participant, to enable me to devote my full attention to the participant and to ensure

that data are available for scrutiny and interpretation. With the consent of the

participants, a typist was contracted to transcribe the interviews. The typist was

required to sign a confidentiality agreement and I ensured the correctness of the

transcribed interviews by comparing the typed transcriptions to the original audio-

tape recordings. Participants were also provided the opportunity to review

transcriptions for accuracy.

3.5.6.2 Personal diary and project journal

A personal diary and project journal were made use of during the study to

ensure that the various steps taken during the research process were recorded, as

well as my own feelings and reflections about the interviews and study, as well as

interpretations and important decisions. This assisted me to gather secondary data

for later analysis and coding, and enhanced reflexivity and objectivity throughout the

process.

3.5.6.3 Memos and field notes

Memo-writing after each interview was a further discipline applied throughout

the study. Charmaz (2006) describes memo-writing as an essential intermediate step

between data collection and writing final drafts in grounded theory. Memo-writing

requires the researcher to analyse ideas about codes in any and every way. Memo

writing helps increase the level of abstraction about ideas and should be

spontaneous, informal and ―fosters developing and preserving your natural voice‖

(Charmaz, 2006, p. 84). In addition ―…memos catch your thoughts, capture the

comparisons and connections you make, and crystalise questions and directions for

you to pursue. Through conversing with yourself while memo-writing, new ideas and

insights arise during the act of writing‖ (Charmaz, 2006, p. 72).

Bogdan and Bilken (2007) suggest that reflections on analysis, reflections on

method, reflections on ethical dilemmas and conflicts, as well as reflections on the

researchers frame of mind, should ideally be included in field notes.


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The above was taken cognisance of during the current study with an effort

being made to include the above elements in each set of field notes taken after each

individual interview was conducted.

3.5.6.4 Data storage and safekeeping

Both a soft-copy as well as manual back-up system of all audio-tapes,

transcribed interviews, personal diary and project journal, as well as memo‘s were

maintained in order to minimise the risk of data being lost. In addition, all soft copy

documents were safeguarded by being password protected, and hardcopy

documents locked in a secure office, to ensure safety and confidentiality of all data.

3.5.6.5 Data analysis

Qualitative analysis transforms data into findings. This involves reducing the

volume of raw information, sifting significance from trivia, identifying significant

patterns and constructing a framework for communicating the essence of what the

data revel (Patton, 2002, p. 432). Data analysis is the process of bringing order,

structure and meaning to the mass of collected data. ―Broadly conceived this is the

activity of making sense of, interpreting and theorising data‖ (Schwandt; 2007, p. 6).

As described by Schurink, Fouche and De Vos (as cited in de Vos et al, 2011:

p. 399), in order to ensure quality research during the data analysis phase, analysis

should be ―rigorous, disciplined, systematic and methodically documented‖.

According to Charmaz (2006), coding in grounded theory means attaching

labels to segments of data that depict what each segment is about, Coding, further

distills data, sorts them and provides the researcher with a handle for making

comparisons with other segments of data. Coding is further described as ―the first

step in moving beyond concrete statements in the data to making analytic

interpretations‖ (Charmaz, 2006, p. 43) and ―is the pivotal link between collecting

data and developing emergent theory to explain these data.‖


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Grounded theory coding consists of at least two main phases, (Charmaz, 2006),

namely initial coding and focused coding. Each of these as well as a third type of

coding, and theoretical coding is discussed below:

Initial coding - this encourages the researcher to study the data closely in

order to begin conceptualising ideas.

Focused coding - this allows the researcher to separate, sort, synthesise

and explain large amounts of data and are more directed, selective and

conceptual than initial coding. Focused coding includes:

o Word by word coding – This approach is useful when working with

documents or certain types of transitory written or printed matter;

o Line by line coding – This prompts researchers to stay open to the

data and see nuances in it. It also serves the benefit of refocusing later

interviews;

o Incident by incident coding – here incidents are compared with each

other, and as ideas take hold, new incidents are compared to the

researcher‘s conceptualisation of previously coded incidents. This type

of coding aids the discovery of patterns and contrasts.

Focused coding further means:

Using the most significant and/or frequent earlier codes to shift through

large amounts of data. Focused coding requires decisions about which

initial codes make the most analytic sense to categorise your data

incisively and completely.

(Charmaz, 2006, p. 57).

Theoretical Coding - This is a more sophisticated level of coding proceeding

focused coding and reveals ―how substantive codes may relate to each other


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as hypotheses to be integrated into a theory (Glaser, 1978, p. 72).

Theoretical codes are integrative and lead to coherence.

Charmaz (2006, p. 96) describes theoretical sampling as:

… seeking pertinent data to develop your emerging theory. The main

purpose of theoretical sampling is to elaborate and refine the categories

constituting your theory. You conduct theoretical sampling by sampling to

develop the properties of your category(ies) until no new properties

emerge.

Cresswell (1998) proposes that the analysis of data be facilitated by

adherence to the steps as outlined in table 3.2 below:

Table 3.2: Data analysis

Steps in Data Analysis

1. Get a sense of the whole. Read through all of the transcriptions carefully. Jot

down some ideas as they come to mind.

2. Pick one document (interview). Go through it, asking yourself what is this about?

Do not think about the substance of the information, but rather its underlying

meaning. Write thoughts in the margin.

3. When you have completed this task for several informants, make a list of topics.

Cluster together similar topics. Form these topics into columns that might be

arrayed as major topics, unique topics and leftovers.

4. Now take this list and go back to your data. Abbreviate the topics as codes and

write the codes next to the appropriate segments of the text. Try out this

preliminary organising scheme to see whether new categories and codes emerge.

5. Find the most descriptive wording for your topics and turn them into categories.

Look for reducing your total list of categories by grouping topics that relate to each

other. Perhaps draw lines between your categories to show interrelationships.

6. Make a final decision on the abbreviation for each category and alphabetise these


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codes.

7. Assemble the data material belonging to each category in one place and perform

a preliminary analysis.

8. If necessary, recode your data.

Source: Cresswell, 1998, p. 155

In the current study, initial coding, focused coding and theoretical coding are

utilised in order to thoroughly analyse and integrate the data gathered in order to

develop an integrated framework of guards against the derailment of women

executives. However, I utilised a combination of both Charmaz‘s and Creswell‘s

approaches.

Thus the method of data analysis undertaken by me during the current study

is as outlined in table 3.3 below:

Table 3.3: Data analysis process followed in this study

Data analysis process

1. Firstly getting an idea of the whole by reading all the transcripts and jotting

down ideas

2. Proceeding to each transcription and understanding the broad meaning it

conveys and the main categories and topics which emerge

3. Applying the main categories back to the data to establish whether new

categories and codes emerged

4. Grouping the categories together to provide an alphabetical list of categories

5. Applying line by line analysis to data in each transcription and code the data

line-by-line

6. Comparing and integrating the emerging categories to the categories already

found from the previous analysis

7. Conducting incident coding to compare the incidents with each other, and add

emerging categories to the already established categories

8. Applying theoretical coding to the established categories as a basis for the


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development of a theoretical framework

In addition to the above, data obtained from memo-writing, field notes and a

personal diary are integrated during the establishment of final categories.

During the current study, I gathered more data on specific categories during

follow up/telephonic consultations with the participants after an initial analysis of the

data had been conducted and initial categories emerged, where required.

In the current study, data were gathered until the categories were saturated.

Charmaz (2006, p. 113) defines saturation as occurring ―when gathering fresh data

no longer sparks new theoretical insights, nor reveals new properties of these core

theoretical categories.‖

3.5.7 Ethical considerations and ensuring quality research

3.5.7.1 Ethical considerations

Strydom (de Vos et al, 2011), remarks that ethical guidelines for research

should form the basis of how each researcher benchmarks his or her own conduct.

Ethical principles should thus be internalised by the researcher to such an extent that

ethical decision making and the humane and sensitive treatment of participants

becomes part of the researcher personality (Bless et al 2006, p. 140; Corey &

Callanan, 1993, pp. 3-4). Ethical issues include avoidance of harm, voluntary

participation, informed consent, deception of subjects and respondents, violation of

privacy/anonymity/confidentiality, denial of treatment, compensation, debriefing of

participants, actions and competence of researchers, cooperation with contributors

and sponsors, and publication of findings.

Ethical considerations with particular relevance to this study are briefly

described below.


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Avoidance of harm: Due to the fact that the study focuses on mental

representations and constructions of meaning, which are typically at low

levels of awareness, exploring these could result in insights, emotions and

reactions, not previously encountered or confronted by participants. Exploring

participants derailment experiences can also be potentially stressful and

emotional, possibly bringing back to mind previously unresolved issues.

I will utilise my skills as a Psychologist to deal with this appropriately. In

addition, where necessary, I will refer participants to an Executive Coach, to

assist them in working through new insights and utilising these in improving

their functioning.

According to Strydom (de Vos et al; 2011), the responsibility for

protecting participants against harm reaches further than mere efforts to

repair, or attempt to minimise, such harm afterwards. Participants should be

thoroughly informed beforehand about the potential impact of the

investigation. Such information offers participants the opportunity to withdraw

from the investigation if they so wish. Researchers should also identify

participants who could possibly be vulnerable during the investigation in order

that they may be eliminated from the study beforehand, as per Strydom (as

cited in de Vos et al, 2011; p. 115). This is also borne in mind and applied

during the current study.

Informed Consent: According to Royse (2004, p. 52- 54) as well as Williams,

Tutty and Grinnell (1995, p. 30), obtaining informed consent implies that all

possible or adequate information on the goal of the research; the expected

duration of the participant‘s involvement; the procedures which will be

followed during the research; the possible advantages, disadvantages and

dangers to which the respondents may be exposed; as well as the credibility

of the researcher, be rendered to potential subjects.

I am committed to ensuring that this takes place. Informed consent

forms are discussed with and signed by participants. These are then safely


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stored, to ensure that confidentiality is maintained. Whilst an informed consent

form cannot deal with all eventualities, it is hoped that the nature of the

rapport and trust relationship developed, the adherence to sound

methodology and my professionalism and skill, will be sufficient to deal with

possible unforeseen circumstances, to which the participants may be exposed

during the course of the research.

Confidentiality and anonymity: Whilst complete anonymity of participants in

a study of this nature is unattainable, confidentiality of research participants is

maintained by not referring to them by any recognisable terms in the research

report or in any material that any individual other than myself has access to. In

addition, all material relating to the study is stored in a secure location, to

which only I have access.

Debriefing of participants: ―Being taken through a directive and reflective

process, especially in qualitative research, affects the persons involved and

they discover things about themselves that they did not know before‖ (Patton,

2002, p. 405). Thus, in a study of this nature, debriefing is an essential part of

the research process and takes place upon the finalisation of the study.

Participants are given the opportunity to discuss their feelings about the study

as well as any experiences it elicited. Any questions they may have are

answered and any possible misconceptions dealt with. In addition, all

participants are provided with a summary of the findings of the study.

Publication of the findings: Reporting of the study needs to take place in a

manner that is clear, accurate and objective and avoids any possible

misunderstanding by readers. Care is taken with language usage to ensure

that there is no perceived bias in the study. Inclusion of the contribution by

other researchers takes place with the proper acknowledgments. In addition,

any shortcomings of the study are reported on in order to encourage

utilisation by other researchers or stakeholders.

3.5.7.2 Ensuring quality research


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It is imperative to ensure that each step of the research process, described in

the sections above, be dealt with professionally to ensure the overall quality of the

final research product.

It is my view that in addition to ―rigorous, disciplined, systematic and

methodically documented‖ research as required within the grounded theory

framework, the best way to ensure quality research is though following a transparent,

well documented and auditable research process within a recognised theoretical

framework.

Lincoln and Guba (1999) propose four concepts to be adhered to in order to

ensure quality research in a qualitative study.

Credibility/Authenticity

Transferability

Dependability

Conformability

Each of these, as they apply to the current study, are briefly discussed below:

Credibility/Authenticity: I need to ensure that my reconstruction and

representation of the participant‘s views match that of the participants in order

for the study to have credibility. In addition, I will ensure that the description of

the complexities of variables and interactions are always embedded with data

obtained during the interviewing process. Lincoln and Guba (1999) state that

through prolonged engagement and persistent observation in the field,

triangulation of different methods, peer debriefing, member checks and

formalised qualitative methods (such as grounded theory), the creditability of

research can be increased.

Transferability: I need to ensure that the findings of the research are

transferable from a specific case (or set of cases) to another. To ensure this, I


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will continuously refer to the theoretical framework, in this case grounded

theory, to show how data collection and analysis will be guided by concepts

and models. In addition, triangulating multiple sources of data through the use

of multiple cases, in this case, five participants will further improve

transferability.

Dependability: To ensure dependability, I will ensure that the research

process is logical, well documented and audable, in order to account for any

changing conditions in the phenomenon under study, or any changes in

design, which may occur as refined understanding evolves during the study.

Conformability: To ensure that the research findings of the study can be

confirmed by other researchers, I will ensure objectivity by providing evidence

that corroborates the findings and interpretations.

3.6. Conclusion

The key scientific beliefs and the research strategy of the current study were

outlined in this chapter. Grounded theory was also discussed in some detail whilst

personal construct theory was briefly introduced. The chapter further dealt with the

research setting and entry, researcher roles, and the pilot study conducted.

Sampling, data collection, recording and storage, as well as data analysis, were all

outlined in this chapter.

In Chapter 4 to follow, the key findings of the study are discussed. This is

done by outlining the findings for each of the participants in tabular form. In addition

to the discussion of the primary findings, a discussion of the role of the external

environment in developing characteristics which guard against their derailment, the

participants‘ definition of leadership derailment, as well as the participants‘ views

regarding ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ as they relate to derailment, are

outlined.


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CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the results of the study. The primary aim

of this study is to explore the intrinsic characteristics possessed by women executive

leaders who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who have overcome it. It is my

belief that these characteristics act as preventative measures against derailment.

Based on this exploration, an integrated framework of characteristics which prevent

career derailment of women executives will be developed.

The findings for each of the participants are outlined in the tables to follow

which outline: the constructs of participants which were extracted by holistically

scrutinizing the interview data, the descriptions of the constructs, which were

obtained from my memos, field notes and reflections on the interviews with the

participants, and, the supporting quotes for each construct.

This study explores the internal characteristics preventing derailment,

however, the participants also share their experiences of how the external

environment has supported the development of characteristics that prevent

derailment.

In addition to the primary objective of this study, I further wish to explore the

following two areas:

Participants‘ definition of leadership derailment. As discussed in Chapter 2,

various definitions of leadership derailment exist, including those of Kellerman

(2004), Furnham (2010), Hogan and Hogan (2001), Schmidt (2009) and

Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley (1988). It is a secondary objective of the

study to reach a more integrated and holistic understanding of the


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phenomenon of leadership derailment as it is experienced and interpreted by

women executive leaders, themselves.

Participants‘ views regarding ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ as they

relate to derailment are presented. I hold the belief that the phenomenon of

opting out and voluntary separation, whilst not typically being linked to

derailment, merits further exploration in the context of derailment as it could

potentially be considered to be a form of derailment.

Finally, the chapter will be concluded with a summary of the constructs of the

research participants, which are categorised according to the various themes which

they represent.

It is important to note at this juncture that whilst the findings below reflect the

actual responses of participants and have thus been directly quoted, three of the five

interviews were conducted in Afrikaans, requiring translation. In order to ensure the

accuracy of these translations, I have made use of my understanding of the

Afrikaans language and also consulted with an Afrikaans colleague. In addition,

where necessary, the Afrikaans participants themselves have been consulted to

ensure that they are comfortable that their opinions have been accurately expressed

and reflected.


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4.2 Research results

The Constructs of the participants which have prevented their derailment are outlined in separate tables below:

Table 4.1: Constructs: Participant 1 (P1)

No Construct Description Supporting quotes

1 Self-confidence This participant described an

overarching sense of self confidence

and the self-assurance to assert her

needs.

“I have the confidence in the contribution I am

making, and confidence in the role I am playing. - I

think that a lot of the basics go back to your level of

confidence.”

“… When they arrange a meeting at 6 in the

morning, and you have a husband and children …

it is not bad and it is not wrong or weak to say that

you cannot be there.”

2 Positivity She described her positive outlook on

life.

“I‟m naturally a positive person. I tend to be upbeat

most of the time. There are times when I get a bit

down, but in general I think I am one of the most

positive people I know (laughs somewhat self-

consciously). I believe that negativity is contagious

and infects all areas of one‟s life if you allow it. In


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my position, this is simply not an option.”

3 Emotional awareness P1 discussed elements such as

managing own emotional impulses as

well as the emotions of others,

emotional maturity and discerning

between valid and invalid criticism.

“One needs to get to understand your impulsive or

emotional response to situations. I am good at

dealing with the fallout on an emotional level from

situations that arise, and can facilitate and

negotiate emotionally tough situations.”

“It‟s about emotional maturity…it‟s important to sift

through incoming feedback and deciding what

warrants a deeper look or introspection, I think that

a lot of that comes with maturity…”

“I think those personalities that tend to internalise

struggle in a senior hard driven environment. It is

an incredible risk when you internalize”

4 Team work The participant shared how she goes

about leading her team.

“Its important to be a team player. If people know

that you support their strategy and goals, and have

their interests at heart, they will do the same for

you”

“I‟m a team player and I don‟t let my employees feel

that my word is law and that they have to obey like


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foot soldiers…I discuss things with them and

engage in debate. At the end of the day the

decision is mine, but everyone in the team has had

the opportunity to share their opinions…”

4 Relationship focus P1 shared the benefits to be gained

from supporting colleagues and building

relationships.

“I don‟t believe in management by consensus but

believe that building a good relationship and

respecting those around you is crucial.”

“Building relationships is also about being

competent and delivering on what you promise…”

“… I think I have very strong opinions and I like

people to do what I tell them to but I really try my

best to, and I think women are very good with that,

to get them to think that it was their idea in the first

place.”

5 Resilience and coping

mechanisms

P1 described her ability to cope in a

crises as well as her ability to recover

quickly from setbacks.

“There is an inherent personality that can cope…I

am a very strong coper, so when there is a crisis or

we need something to happen I go into a coping

mode and I am very good at playing that role.”

“I‟ve also been able to deal with the


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disappointments I‟ve had to face. The ability to

bounce back because of all the dynamics that you

have to deal with is crucial. I can‟t lie down and get

depressed if something goes wrong. I have to pick

myself up and keep moving forward.”

6 Work-life balance She described the importance of work-

life balance and also being able to cope

with the conflict that different roles

engender.

“The biggest challenge has been … being able to

… have a kind of balanced life; you cannot be

successful if you do not have some other balance

in your life”

“I had deal a lot with the guilt in trying to fulfill my

role in society, as a woman, as mother, and as a

wife. I often ask myself whether I have

compromised some of my roles to be successful at

work… It‟s a constant challenge…”

“You have got to know in yourself that it is ok to

have and nurture different facets of yourself…”

7 Responsiveness to own

and other‘s behaviours

The participant described the

importance of being alert to the

emotional cues and responses from

others and adjusting her behaviour

“… I am able to very quickly pick up on somebody

else‟s emotional state or temperament.”

“There have been times that I have had to confront


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accordingly, especially in difficult

situations or where tough issues need

to be confronted.

a situation and have not always been successful. I

would maybe feel that (a specific) way, but I

wouldn‟t express it that way… because I need to

come across in the right way or I will not get the

response I am looking for”.

8 Passion and drive Participant 1 saw herself as having a

strong passion, drive and having a

strong desire to grow, learn, achieve,

seek new challenges and self-actualise.

“I‟ve always been hungry to improve and learn

more. Throughout my career, after three years in a

position, I started looking for the next challenge.

Achievement has always been important for me, it‟s

always been important for me to do well.”

9 Recognition for and

Reinforcement from others

for contributions

P1 shared the need to contribute and

be recognised and receive

reinforcement for one‘s contributions.

She shared how she experienced this

as a child and how this has carried

through in her career.

“As a child the recognition of my contribution to the

family was always important to me - I would get

recognised and receive positive reinforcement from

my parents – at work I tend to respond very

positively to the recognition of the deliverables I

have achieved.”

10 Risk taking and following

one‘s instincts

She reported that risk taking behaviour

has been beneficial to her.

“…women are more inclined to overthink things

than follow their gut at times. I try to challenge

myself on this as I know it‟s not my natural style,

and most of the times it has paid off. For me the

longer I have been in my role, the more risks I have


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taken, and the more they have paid off over time.

11 Understanding and

capitalising gendered

behaviour

P1 described how she deals with some

of the gender issues that arise between

her and her male colleagues. She

appears to frame the behaviour of her

male colleagues in a specific manner

and to use it to her advantage.

“If it helps for one of my male colleagues to feel as

though he has protected me or assisted me when

we‟ve gone into a particular environment …I know

why they are doing it, I don‟t view it, … like they are

antagonizing me, I feel that I understand why they

are adopting that behaviour… and I play to that

behaviour and by doing that I get them to feel good

about themselves and we are able to get along”.

“When you walk into the room and a man stands

up to take your briefcase, it‟s not to be offended by

that, it is actually to understand that that is how he

was brought up, he is not trying to insult you or

your gender. Sit down, let it go and move on”.


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1 ―I‘m okay‖ This participant described the

importance of ―being okay‖ with oneself,

which in turn leads to the ability to deal

with criticism and assert oneself. She

described in some detail the importance

of possessing a deeper seated

/ingrained sense of self-belief.

“I think that when you don‟t have a sense of „I‟m

okay‟, you tend to take things up sensitively at

work. One can immediately see when a woman

does not feel okay about herself, because she

cannot deal with criticism. The corporate

environment exposes you to a lot of criticism and if

you cannot deal with it, you will derail.”

“I‟ve often said in a meeting that „I am

uncomfortable with this‟, but I won‟t turn it into a

confrontation. I will also however not let the issue

go, but set up a separate meeting to resolve the

issue.”

“You have to look at a situation and say, it‟s not

about me, it‟s not about you, let‟s get the job done.

If you don‟t think you are okay, it‟s easy to think

„what did you mean with that remark?‟ Then it

becomes about you. We all make mistakes, but

one can‟t live thinking, „What have I done wrong

now again?‟ I think this is something that I have


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developed from very early on.”

2 Positive thinking She shared her tactic of mentally

refocusing from negative thoughts to

positive thoughts, and thinking about

past successes in order to remain

positive.

“Sometimes I tend to obsess about something that

went wrong during the day or that I should have done

better, but I then stop myself and say „hey, rather

think about the 100 things that went well today, and

let the one thing go‟. I try to let things go, and if there

is something I can‟t let go of, I ask myself why and

what can I do to rectify the situation. It is important to

be able to do this. When the going gets difficult, I

think about the past successes and the good times. It

does not help matters to become negative.”

3 Emotional control and

self-awareness

P2 shared the importance of

maintaining emotional composure and

the harm that women do to their

reputations and relationships by

becoming over-emotional, ―making a

scene‖ and coming across as irrational.

“Being passionate and being over-emotional is

often classified by men as the same thing.

Especially because they tend to be less passionate

than women are.”

“I find that if there is a difficult situation, my male

colleagues are more likely to back off and try to

deal with it later, whilst women push and push the

issues, which just makes everybody uncomfortable.

Then when they don‟t get the reaction they were

looking for, they tend to get emotional, which only


110

makes matters worse. It‟s important never to make

a scene in a group and to try and prove your point

at all costs.”

“If something really upsets me, I try to stand back

from the situation before I react. There are times

when I say to myself, this is your issue, not mine. I

think that this comes with maturity. Men often think

that being emotional is the same as being

irrational, and it‟s not. Men are quick to label

women as emotional and irrational, so it‟s really

important to manage and understand your

emotions.”

“Tears in the workplace don‟t work for a woman.

Self-awareness and self-control are crucial.”

4 Nurturing relationships and

the needs of others

The main areas which came through on

this construct were 1) having a support

structure; 2) creating time to build

relationships and socialise with

colleagues; 3) focusing on the needs of

others and helping them achieve their

goals.

“Its always important to remember that “its not

about you”. Whether its your CEO or your

subordinates or your clients, they dont care about

what you want, its about how you can help them

achieve what they want. Woman who always ask

“whats in it for me”, “how will this impact on me?,

will struggle to succeed in the long run. You


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An element of selflessness and putting

others first also came through. In this

interview a strong sense of nurturing of

others came through.

succeed through others...”

“…Because women have to rush home after work

to sort out kids and cook food, and… and… and…,

we don‟t make enough time for socialising at work.

Sometimes the interaction between men is easier

and more relaxed. That‟s why I make it a priority to

make time to build my relationships with my male

and female colleagues at every opportunity.

Because I have such little time to do it, I need to

consciously use the time I have”.

“…I‟ve tried to formalise a social network for

women, but I saw that some of my colleagues were

uncomfortable with this, so now I simply do it

informally. I have a quick coffee with a female

colleague and we chat about dogs, kids and

handbags and then also about the challenges we

face at work. This really makes things easier and

creates an informal support structure, which men

typically seem to be so good at providing each

other, with such ease”.

“People must want to do things for you. You have


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to be likable and you have to give back. I know

that I can ask something out of the ordinary from

others and they will do it. But I dont take advantage

of this.”

5 Stress Management and

dealing with adversity

The participant described being able to

identify women who are perpetually

stressed and not coping with what is

required of them. She went on to

described how these women are

perceived negatively by the

organisation and not entrusted to deal

with gruelling or difficult assignments.

“I cope with stress well. I think women who derail

are always stressed. You can clearly see that they

are not comfortable with what they are doing,

where they are, the time they have to do things,

and the level that is required from them”.

“It is ok to be disappointed and it is ok to not like

being a failure, but some women cannot handle the

disappointment so they either leave or they

become so demoralised that they don‟t do a good

job anymore, or they are actually negative in the

workplace”.

6 Managing demands of

multiple roles

She is a mother of two young children

and described the on-going challenges

that this brings, particularly from a

practical perspective when required to

travel for business which she does quite

extensively.

“Many women derail because they cannot manage

the multiple demands of being a mom, a wife and a

successful exec. I know I almost did. It sometimes

felt completely overwhelming.”


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7 Understanding behaviour

and dealing with conflict

P2 spoke of protecting the self-esteem

of colleagues and being sensitive to the

consequences of injuring the pride of

others.

The participant also described the

importance of having insight into one‘s

own emotional triggers and the

perceptions that one creates through

one‘s behaviour.

“I never use a team environment to confront

someone on his opinions. I explore why his

opinions differ from mine and if I can see that we

are not going to see eye to eye or resolve the

situation, I take it offline, and set up a one-on-one

meeting where we can tackle eachother. Men are

very sensitive about this and protect each other

from what they percieve as being bitchy behaviour.

Your actions within a group setting are extremely

important”.

“It is important to think about how you are being

perceived , to have an awareness of how you are

coming across. People are sensitive and you need

to be aware of this at all times. Men especially talk

amongst each other and if you don‟t conduct

yourself correctly, next time you raise an issue their

backs are already up, and it‟s so much worse. I can

actually see in meetings how when certain women

talk, the men just switch off.”

“Self awareness is crucial. Know what things

trigger you and ensuring that you respond

correctly. One inappropriate response, bursting into


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tears once for whatever reason, has the potential to

do enormous damage.”

“Its important to read a situation and always to

respect someones image. If you embarass him

once amongst his colleagues, he will never forgive

you.”

8 Success driven Participant 2 was unashamed and

transparent in describing her desire for

success and doing what is required to

achieve success. I reflected this back to

P2, who then stated that women feel

that they cannot say out loud that they

wanted to be successful, which impacts

on their ability to be so.

“I like to be successful, bottom line. I will thus make

sacrifices in the team environment and

accommodate others to a point that is reasonable. I

am always willing to be the one who works the

hardest in the team. For me it‟s about continuously

striving for success but also realising that I need to

make concessions for people and situations along

the way.”

9 Accepting and giving

recognition for

achievements

The participant spoke about the positive

impact of the recognition for her

accomplishments which she received

from her parents as a child, had on her,

and how the recognition from significant

others today continues to help her

succeed.

“The recognition of achievement is something

which is often underestimated. People try to have

the aura about them that they do not need

recognition, but everybody does. I think part of

being a successful leader is accepting and giving

recognition, and also being able to give it to those

around you. It‟s a basic human need.”


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10 Confidence to take risks She shared her perception that the

women who derail are those who are

reactive and fear taking risks. She

shared that one has to trust one‘s

judgement when making decisions for

which the outcome is not always clear.

“I have just got a perception that if I don‟t take the

risks, nothing is going to happen. I associate risk

with reward. When I have stumbled in my career, it

is because I have been waiting for permission from

somebody, instead of just doing it. I reached a

point in my career when I realised that nobody was

going to give me the permission I was looking for.

Now if I‟m unsure, I say to myself, “ K, you have my

permission and I trust your judgment”

11 Identity as a women as

part of leadership identity

P2 expressed the view that her role as

a woman is integral to her role as a

leader and, as the only woman on the

executive team, very much forms part of

her identity as a leader.

“What I never do is try to pretend I don‟t play a

woman‟s role, I talk about being a mother, I talk

about being a wife, a good or bad hair day and with

that they don‟t see me as a male colleague, they

do see me as a female colleague, but it is ok, its ok

to be different.”

12 Dealing with gender

inequality

She was quite open about the fact that

sometimes being a woman leader is

difficult. However her approach is not to

dwell on this and take issue with it, but

rather accept the reality, and to do what

is required to succeed in the

“I work in a team that is mostly male. I must mix in

with their world. This is not an issue for me. I dont

try to be like a man, but dont go out of my way to

make gender an issue. I think sometimes its more

of an issue for women than it is for men.”


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environment she finds herself in.

This participant expressed distaste for

women who take unnecessary issue

with gender

“Some women try so hard to achieve, stand out

and be recognised in their own right, that they

forget that they are part of a team. Then they are

suprised when they dont get support.”

“The reality is that as a woman, you sometimes

have to work harder and longer than your male

colleages. That is unfortunately the way it is and if

it becomes an issue for you then you become

emotional. There is really no point.”

“I think you have to understand, first of all that life

isn‟t fair. You probably have to work a little bit

harder than your male colleagues, to get

credibility… so be it.”


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1 Confidence in abilities and

ability to assert self

The participant shared her sense of

confidence in herself and her

consequent confidence in her opinions

and the right to have her needs met.

“I guess I‟m quite confident in my abilities, both

academically and as a professional within the

organisation, so I kind of feel like I can hold my

own.”

“I believe I am as entitled to an opinion as anybody

else is. Too many women don‟t do this. I think that

some women feel like they have to ask for

permission, or behave in a manner until somebody

notices what they want or need. So they don‟t take

stuff, they need permission. I‟m not like that.”

2 Positive and calm

approach

She discussed her ability to have a

positive and calming influence on

others, which she believes differentiates

her from women who have derailed.

“I tend to come across as quite positive and try not

to let people feel like „oh no, here comes trouble‟. I

try to keep people positive and I think that my

positive approach to life spills over. I‟m also

inclined to ensure that people stay calm about

things.”

“My philosophy on life is if you have a pessimistic

view of things, then you feel negative and then


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things start going downhill.”

3 Emotional awareness and

control

Participant 3 described the high

emotionality of derailed women leaders,

but holds the belief that appropriate

emotion in the workplace, especially

when linked to organisational initiatives

which have a potential negative impact

on others, is acceptable.

She further shared that her ability to

emotionally detach, when required.

“My view is that there is place for emotion in the

workplace, because it makes you human. I think

that when you make the tough decisions, it does

affect you and that‟s ok. Sometimes you are

forced to say: „this is going to be tough but we are

going to bite the bullet but we are going to go with

it‟. I think it‟s also the motivation to keep it together

for other people.”

“If a guy is having a bad day or a fight with the

wife, he‟ll take one of the guys out and go and

have a drink and talk about, and it‟ll all be ok.

Women don‟t do that, and as a result they end up

manifesting strange behaviour which nobody

understands, and then having a total blow out.

Women perceive that it is not acceptable to

actually have a life outside of work, and this is not

the case.”

“I think that women who derail, well that I have

seen, definitely tend to display a high level of

emotional behaviour. I don‟t think I have seen


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somebody who is highly emotional, who hasn‟t

derailed at some point.”

“Sometimes as a leader, you have a goal which

you have got to implement at all costs, for

example restructuring the organisation. If there

happen to be casualties or difficult decisions on

the way they have to be made because there is an

end goal in mind and if you don‟t make those calls

you are not going to actually get there. I think that

sometimes women tend to get too emotionally

stuck in tough decisions. I have the ability to

emotionally detach myself when I have to”

4 Cultivating networks This participant shared a number of

examples where her ability to make use

of her networks has helped her meet

difficult organisational challenges.

She also shared that this is something

she has had to teach herself as few

women tend to focus on building their

networks.

“I think that building networks is a big thing. That

doesn‟t exist in unsuccessful women, as they tend

to shy away from it. That is something I have

learnt and taught myself.”

“The realization that cultivating my networks is

invaluable in widening my sphere of influence and

in giving me the ability to call on resources when I

need them, has certainly helped me reach the

organisation‟s goals more effectively.”


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5 Resilience P3 shared her experience of her father

committing suicide when she was 18

years old and how this impacted on her

sense of identity.

Having been very close to her father,

she regards his suicide as being the

single biggest life changing event which

she has faced, forcing her to review her

sense of self and her view of the world.

She shared that her struggle to come to

terms with his death has equipped her

to cope with her challenges as a leader

and has armed her with a sense of

belief in her to cope with any challenge.

“I actually think I have become more resilient since

my father committed suicide. I think that sort of

trauma was the final clicking in of my survival instinct.

I think that prior to his death; I was less resilient and

far more reliant on him and the family…”

6 Self-Discipline to balance

multiple roles and

demands

This participant shared the challenges

she experienced in managing all the

roles which she is required to fulfil. Her

success in doing so was due to having

the self-discipline to use her limited time

constructively, making sacrifice and

managing time (e.g. not going to all

“The only way to get it right is if you can practically

manage things. This takes self-discipline, sacrifice,

time-management and boundaries. Self-discipline

is more difficult for some than for others. One

forgets all the sacrifices one makes along the way,

and how hard it actually is. Especially now that my

children are a bit older.”


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school functions, waking up extremely

early), and boundaries (learning to say

no).

7 Analysing, interpreting and

responding to behaviour of

others

Participant 3 described the importance

of and her ability to garner support

though understanding the behaviour of

others.

“I have the ability to analyse someone‟s behaviour

so I am able to react the right way. - It is almost

intuition and the understanding of the people

around me and why they are reacting in a particular

way. I am then able to respond in a way that helps

me get their support.”

“I think I‟m relatively good at getting my position

across, or getting my point across in a way that

other people feel comfortable with.”

8 Achievement drive and

perseverance

She also described her persistence and

doggedness. She also referred to the

importance of enduring rather than

escaping difficult situations.

“People already know, if I ask them to do

something, it‟s better to say yes upfront, because I

don‟t give up and will keep pestering them until

they say yes (laughs). It‟s important to respect

other people‟s priorities and to pick your battles,

but if I set my mind to something, I don‟t give up

until I succeed.”

“If you experience difficulties, it‟s the wrong thing to

always go to a different company. The right thing is


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actually to say, „well let‟s see what I can do in this

company to make things work‟, because I think

particularly for women, having longer periods of

work at the same company is actually beneficial,

and don‟t be like me and work at the same

company for 27 years, that is really not necessary,

but if you move to a different company every two

years, you find it very difficult to build up enough

credibility.”

9 Recognition from

significant others

The participant described the

importance of recognition from her

family and her lack of expectation from

receiving it in the work environment,

despite its positive impact.

“I think recognition from the significant people in my

life is important to me. I want my husband and my

children to be proud of my accomplishments.”

“Early on in my career, I had a boss who said that

„if you don‟t hear from me, you are doing well‟, so I

guess I‟ve just not expected recognition from

people in the workplace…as a leader though, I

have seen how well others respond when I give

them recognition, in whatever form, and how it

helps to build them.”

10 Confidence to take risks

and be flexible

Participant 3 described that as a senior

leader, she is required to take risks and

“I think that the more confident one is, the easier it

is to take risks and to trust your own judgment. As


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that she consciously practices doing so.

She links this to confidence, good

judgment and flexibility.

a leader in the organisation, that is precisely what I

am paid to do…”

“In my mind, risk taking, self-confidence and

flexibility go hand in hand, and like any muscle in

the body, need to be regularly trained in order to

perform optimally.”

11 Appreciation for gender

differences

She expressed having an appreciation

for the world-view and differing

contributions of different genders. This

has contributed to her success.

“I‟m married to a very manly man, so I‟m aware of

what is going on in that world. I know who won the

Grand Prix and the rugby over the weekend and

so, especially when I‟m in unfamiliar

circumstances, this becomes an easy point of

commonality.”

“I dont try to pretend that I am less of a woman, but

understanding and showing an appreication for

their (a man‟s) world, goes a long way to being

sucessful in it.”

“There are certain aspects that a woman leader

brings to the table which men enjoy. The

relationship is a different one. Whilst you have to

be tough enough to have the diffuclt convertations,


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you can also be soft enough to ask how their sick

child is doing, because their male colleagues won‟t

ask this.”

12 Realistic worldview P3 appears to have a very realistic view

of what she can achieve. In describing

this, she did not appear to experience

any negativity or resignation, but merely

expressed it as a statement of fact. She

believes that acceptance of this reality

has enabled her not to derail.

“I have come to accept that I will never be as good

a housewife as a woman who does not work, I will

never be as good at work as someone who does

not have a family and can dedicate more of her

time to work, I will never be able to be there as

much for my husband as a woman who does not

work.. I accept that.”


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1 Self-belief and -confidence P4 shared her strong belief in herself

and her identity of ―being the best‖. This

also implies the pitfalls of women

believing that they are not as good as

men.

“I mean I work in a very male dominated

environment and for that you need to be strong in

many respects and I mean not physically but

mentally you have to be very strong. You also have

to believe in yourself as a woman and a person.”

“It sounds funny, I went to a tiny school, 300 people

from sub A to Matric, so what helped me a lot

which gave me a lot of confidence and not

everyone can have it but in that school I was

always pretty much the best, It didn‟t matter what I

did and in the big school I may have disappeared! I

never thought of myself as not being the best.

From the day I started there until the day I left I was

one of the best. That confidence I think I took with

me for the rest of my life.”

“I think the biggest shortcoming that women have, I

am generalizing, is that we don‟t believe in

ourselves enough, we still think, I don‟t know if we

are brought up like that, there is a small bit in some


126

of us that we just think that we are not as good as

men, simply that we are not good enough.”

“Believe in yourself, find out what it is that you want

to do then go for it, I mean if you told me 15 years

ago, which is not that long ago, that I would be sitting

here today and I would just have laughed and said

„that is not me‟.”

2 Positive outlook The participant shared her belief that

derailed women have a sense of

unhappiness and dissatisfaction, whilst

she sees herself as being a positive

individual.

“I have found that women whose career derail are

generally unhappy about where they are, what they

are doing, tend to blame other people for all the

bad things or even the good things that are

happening to them, but they don‟t see that they are

good. They are just dissatisfied, is probably a

better word.”

“I regard myself as a very positive person.”

3 Aversion to emotional

displays and use of

emotion as a tool

She expressed dislike for either men or

women who are ―drama queens‖ and for

people who use their emotions for their

own ends. She reports that he

inappropriate use of emotions impacts

“Men don‟t feel comfortable with emotion, I have

found the once or twice I have indulged in a bit of

emotion. It makes them very uncomfortable,

sometimes you do need to make them

uncomfortable, and then it works, but if I am a


127

on one‘s credibility in that people stop

listening.

drama queen here every day, people will just stop

listening to me.”

“Personally I also don‟t like women who act like a

drama queen, just like I don‟t like men who act like

a drama queen…”

“One needs to step away a little bit from your

emotions in the workplace I think. I mean I see

them coming from a mile away, if they are trying to

manipulate me with their emotions. I ignore politics

as well which is the male equivalent of a drama

queen.”

4 Taking cognisance of

others opinions and needs

P4 shared the importance of obtaining

input and caring for others as a tool for

her success.

“I think women listen better, again generalizing, you

find women who can‟t listen at all, but I think we

listen better because we not so convinced that we

are always right. I think we are more able to say,

“Maybe that person has got a point, let me listen to

them and adjust my strategy to reflect that”

“I really like doing things for other people.”

5 Tolerance for stress “I must say that I don‟t stress easily. I worry but I


128

don‟t stress. There is a difference I guess and I

accept that I can‟t fix everything, you also have to

do that, but I also take responsibility for the things I

can. I think and maybe I understand that when I

have done everything I can, I have worked really

hard, then that is ok, but not everyone can do that”.

“I think that I have the ability to cope well when

things go wrong, and relatively quickly too.”

6 Ability to deal with

disappointment/failure and

adversity

She shared some of her

disappointments and how her ability to

deal with them helped prevent her from

derailing. It could be seen in her sharing

of these experiences, specifically with

regards to her studies, that these had

affected her deeply, at the time.

“I recovered quickly enough from the

disappointment of doing poorly in my studies and

about a month or two after hearing that I failed one

of my exams, I forced myself to get back on the

horse. I make it sound easy now, but at the time it

was really difficult to pick myself up. I remember

telling myself: „you are better than this, this does

not define you‟.”

“In my career, there have been times when I

thought I am next in line for a promotion and it

didn‟t happen, sometimes it went to a male and it

should‟ve come to me. If you want to be successful

in the corporate environment you need to take


129

these disappointments. How you handle the

disappointments in your life, is almost more telling

to people who eventually make decisions about

your career than how you handle the good things

that happen in life.”

7 Balancing responsibilities

and roles

Throughout my interaction with P4, I

was overwhelmed by her humility and

almost self-effacing approach, despite

her underlying air of confidence and

success. She attributes this to not

taking herself too seriously and taking

time to step away from her role of CEO

at times.

“When I get home I try as much as possible to step

away from the work, even if it is only for two hours.”

“So I must say what has helped me a lot is having

a family, if you have a baby at home or a one-year-

old, the moment you get home that person doesn‟t

know that you are the CEO at all, and that person,

or people and your husband demands attention

from you, so that helped me to escape a little bit

from the stress of the corporate environment so

that has really helped me a lot.”

“…and maybe that is a part of not taking yourself

too seriously, I didn‟t mind coming down to come

and fetch you. Some of my colleagues would see

that as far beneath them to do.”

“I don‟t think I take myself too seriously. I don‟t


130

think I am different than other people; I am still to

me a little girl who went to a little school and grew

up on a farm.”

8 Realistic self-image This participant showed a willingness to

introspect and be honest about her

flaws.

“I think one must, first of all, actually be very honest

with yourself, because we all have potentially an

inflated idea of what we possibly do, that is just like

that. We all think we are better than we are; we

tend to gloss over our own faults a bit.”

9 Drive for success P4 expressed her sense of tenacity,

drive, perseverance, competitiveness

and need to win.

She also shared the importance of

being goal- and results-orientated

“I think one of the things that have contributed to

my success is that I hate not winning, I am very

competitive. I really don‟t give up easily. I also have

to be strong enough to admit that I can lose. But

generally, any problem I believe has a solution to it.

I firmly believe that you eat the elephant bite by

bite. Every little bit of effort gets you ultimately

towards your goal. For me it‟s about wanting to be

the best, in whatever you have chosen to do.”

“I think I am as competitive as any other human

being, but in general what I see with women

around me is that they are just not that driven to

get to the top. They feel they are a success when


131

they have sort of reached middle management.”

“I think you have to be very results driven. Make

sure that you reach goals that are set for you, and I

am talking about the corporate world. With

corporate world it is pretty much results driven,

they are going to forget you are a woman, they are

going to forget you are young, if it is an age thing,

because that is also the same problem with

younger people, or they are going to forget you are

old. It is all about results. And it doesn‟t matter how

friendly you are, or how good-looking you are, or

how sporty you are, if you don‟t get the results,

eventually it will count against you in the corporate

world. It is about getting the right results.”

10 Need for Recognition Participant 4 provided a useful insight

about using her need for recognition to

drive her success.‖

I have always wanted my family to be proud of me.

Well I mean initially my parents, now my daughter

and husband, maybe it is a need for people to really

appreciate me, I don‟t know. I have just always

wanted people to be, don‟t most people want them

to be proud of them.”

“I think it must be very, I think every human being,


132

well most normal human beings have got a desire

for other people to like them and actually think they

are not so bad. Mine is just maybe a bit stronger

developed than other people. Or maybe I am just

more, I am fortunate to have the ability to get

something more out of it, I don‟t know.”

11 Risk Taking and Openness

to Change

She expressed the importance of taking

risks, seizing opportunities and not

being rigid in one‘s expectations.

“Stretch yourself, and then use an opportunity

when it comes along, even if it scares the hell out

of you. I know that if I don‟t use the opportunity,

somebody else will and then it will be too late.”

“I mean I was thrown in the deep end many times,

you learn to swim. But if you are scared and you

don‟t jump in you won‟t get there, so you have to

take risks sometimes, and I think women are

inherently different than men, we are less likely to

take risks and you have to take risks.”

“To be a successful leader you cannot be

absolutely rigid in your expectations, because life

is fluid around you and you need to go with

wherever life is taking you.”


133

12 Mature and pragmatic

approach to gender

inequities

The participant shared her view on the

gender inequities which exist. She

appears to have a mature and

pragmatic approach to these.

“Double standards exist. My male colleagues can

go out on a heavy night together and still respect

each other as colleagues the next day. You cannot

be one of the boys tonight and a professional

woman the next day. It‟s not fair, it‟s not right, but

I‟m not going to lose any sleep about it. I accept

those sorts of things. That‟s it, that‟s the way the

game is, play the game the way it is…”

“I don‟t have hang-ups about gender discrimination

issues. Yes I need to deal with some difficulties

from my male colleagues at times, but they also

need to deal with an absent me when I have been

on maternity leave for 6 months, so there are

different issues.”

“If you are so busy fighting gender issues, how can

you focus on your job? Two thirds of men are on

the same page as you anyway, and you eventually

just end up irritating everyone. We are all here to

work and I think that that is where the focus should

be. I suppose there must be women in an

organisation who fight the necessary fights, but

that‟s just not me.”


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13 Accepting compromise Participant 4 displayed a realistic

acknowledgment of compromises and

decisions which she had to make in her

career.

“It‟s also about your definition of success. I had the

opportunity to run a company in India, which I am

fully capable of doing, but chose not to, due to my

family situation. This does not make me any less

successful than my colleague who has recently

accepted the offer. It makes me someone who has

exercised a personal choice and I think you have to

believe in yourself. I cannot deny that I sometimes

think about opportunities that I have missed, but I

don‟t dwell on it and remind myself why I have

made the decisions which I have.”


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1 Self-belief She shared her perception of women

who do not have sufficient self-belief

and how this can derail them.

“I have a strong belief in myself. I thus don‟t have

the need to continuously prove myself. Women

who are continuously fighting and telling you how

good they are and that they aren‟t being noticed or

given a chance, speaks to me of someone who

does not believe in herself, or her own opinions or

that she deserves to be listened to.”

2 Seeking positive meaning

in events

This participant shared her belief in a

positive future and finding meaning in

the events that occur.

“One needs to be able to let go of the past and

move on. I try to be positive about the future and I

think this is important. I am a glass half full type of

person. It works for me and makes me feel good. I

always look for the reason in things and believe

that things will work out”.

3 Emotional control P5 shared her ability to put her

emotions aside and display an ability to

deal with situations calmly and in a

stable manner.

“My husband is extremely unemotional and I think

that this has rubbed off on me. I tend to sit back

and think things through a bit before I get

emotional. I am able to put my emotions aside and

think „is it really worthwhile to stress about this?‟

and then I just move on. This has definitely


136

contributed to my success.”

“Because of the perception, and sometimes reality,

that women are more emotional than men, it is

important for me to show that I can think calmly

about things and behave in a stable manner. You

can‟t come to work in a bad mood because you

have had a fight with your husband.”

4 Trusting relationships The participant displayed an innate

belief in the good in human nature. She

also expressed the ability to build

deeper and trusting relationships with

colleagues, whilst being able to

maintain a professional relationship with

them.

“I‟m very inclined to give people the benefit of the

doubt or a second chance if they have hurt or

disappointed me. I‟m not naïve, I know what I am

letting myself in for, but I always try to see the best

in human nature.”

“Working relationships are very important. I have

become friends with many of the people I work with

and it‟s important to be able to separate with work

from the personal relationship. To have a meeting,

disagree and treat each other with professional

respect and then still to be friends afterwards.”

5

Sponsorships in the

workplace

“What has helped me a lot is that I have been able

to identify people in the organisation who I trust


137

and who trust me. I have people who I can test my

opinions with, and even become emotional with,

but then afterwards I am better able to deal with

things. Sometimes other people view things

differently or have better insight into certain

circumstances”.

6 Resilience and dealing

with adversity

She described her emotional resilience

and ability to learn from past mistakes.

“I am mentally quite strong. You take the knocks in

life and carry on and you actually learn from it rather

than let them define your life in a negative way. For

some reason or the other I can do that. I don‟t think

it is something that can be taught, but I think it is

something that can be encouraged, so if there is an

element of that in an individual, I think you can

develop it and encourage it. If someone is just prone

to not deal well with whatever happens in life, then I

am not sure that you can teach that, I don‟t think

so”.

7 Balancing Multiple Roles

and Demands

The participant expressed the

psychological and mental strength

required to deal with the challenges of

multiple roles without allowing it to

derail her career.

“One of the biggest challenges for me personally

has been my family versus my career. They are

sometimes in conflict and there are always issues

around it. I think it is natural for a woman to ask, „am

I being the best mother, wife, career woman I can


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be‟? It‟s difficult to balance them all because you

can be doing great in one department but poorly in

another. If you feel like you are not being a great

mom, it does spill over into your work…”

“…I continuously ask myself the questions, how are

my decisions going to impact in the long term on my

children, my marriage, and my work? You have to

be unselfish because you have very little time for

yourself, yet you feel selfish all the time because

you work. It‟s really tough.

8 Self-insight and self-

awareness

She expressed having insight into

herself, but also displayed insight into

the behaviour of others.

“I think I know myself pretty well. I am aware of my

behaviour, am aware of my strengths and

weaknesses and try to manage those. For me it‟s

important to recognise that other people try to often

look at someone else as the problem and not

themselves. I try to have empathy with them rather

than getting angry or defensive.”

9 Passion and drive to

succeed

P5 spoke with passion about her pro-

active, almost obsessive engagement

with the world around her. She

expressed that this has helped her

“I was born with the drive to succeed. I only fully

understand that now that I have children. I

participated in everything at school. If there was

netball, I played netball, if there was a choir; I wanted


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succeed in her career, where others

have been unable to.

She also specifically highlighted the role

of perseverance in her success.

to sing in the choir. I look at my daughter who often

says she is not in the mood to take part in her extra-

mural activities. I was never like that. I would

participate and do my best in everything that I could.

Since I was young I had this drive to try new things

and to try everything I could lay my hands on.”

“I want to add another word and that is

perseverance. Just don‟t give up, it is tough but don‟t

give up.”

10 Sincere and genuine

recognition for

achievements

The participant shared that because

recognition is a part of the

organisational culture, it can sometimes

come across as ―institutionalised‖ and

that this has the opposite effect to

recognition which is experienced as

sincere and genuine.

“It is very much part of our organisational culture to

recognise each other‟s achievements. I‟m not sure

that I need any more or less recognition than my

colleagues, but if I think about it, many of my female

colleagues, and women managers at other levels in

or organisations really appear to thrive on it.”

“For me recognition must be sincere and genuine. I

know that my efforts are valued in the organisation,

even if I‟m not told. I must admit though, it‟s nice to

hear it sometimes, especially if I‟ve dealt with a

particularly difficult project or been able to drive

implementation of a particularly important strategy.‖


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11 Flexibility and open-

mindedness

She expressed her enjoyment in having

opportunities to experiment with new

undertakings and improvements,

despite the discomfort it causes. She

highlighted the importance of flexibility,

and how it contributed to her success.

“I was born as someone who always wants to try new

things. I can‟t sit still and am always on the lookout

for new ways to do things better. It‟s also the

realization that the world will not end if something

was a flop. It‟s actually good and enjoyable to be put

outside of your comfort zone and to feel a little shaky

and nervous about a new venture. The more it

happens the better you learn to handle it.”

“The ability to cope with things that have not worked

out the way I yesterday thought they would is

important. Nothing works out the way you thought it

would. Things always change and there are always

new balls to juggle. If you are not flexible and cannot

deal with change, you will absolutely derail.”

“I‟m a very flexible person, I‟m not sure why. We

recently underwent some Executive Coaching and

discussed this a lot, I guess it‟s just the way I am put

together.”

12 Realistic approach and

compromise

P5 expressed the importance of the

need to compromise and of being

realistic within the context of being a

“Women who I have seen derail are not realistic

about what they do or where they stand in terms of

their challenges. I think that a woman who says I


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woman leader. can be the CEO, and have a fantastic family life

and a husband who also has a fantastic job as a

CEO, is smoking something. There are very few

such scenarios. As husband and wife in that

scenario, you both have to have very specific

personalities if that is going to work, because

somebody has to compromise, and it‟s usually the

woman…”

13 Dealing with gender

differences

The Participant acknowledged that

differences in gender exist, especially in

terms of credibility being assigned

based on gender. She further

described how she deals with it.

“I still think that it is still a bit more difficult, not as

difficult as it used to be, but a bit more difficult for

women leaders to get on the same level of

credibility, I always say men always get the

credibility and they have to lose it, women have to

earn the credibility, once they have earned it they

don‟t lose it so easily.”

“I had to earn my credibility here. Some men come

in with it, but as I said sometimes they lose it, but

they almost get it automatically, if they have the

experience and education, they come in with the

credibility, I and some women have to earn that.”

“Sometimes it does feel awkward to be the only


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woman in a meeting with 11 other men, but I try not

to think about it like that. I don‟t think about the fact

that I‟m the only woman there, or be worried that

my opinion won‟t count. It‟s unnecessary to make

yourself feel more different than you are. “

“I‟m not afraid to put my opinions on the table.

More and more, over time my colleagues respect

my opinion. A woman brings a different perspective

to a discussion and an extra angle that sometimes

men don‟t think about, and this sometimes makes a

massive contribution which my male counterparts

value and appreciate.”

“I think that a big part of my success is that I am

not busy fighting the whole day. The thing is those

women who are so incredibly bitchy and always

moaning about everything…it does not work…

They are defensive. They are always trying to

defend their abilities or their competence, not their

work. That‟s the perception that I have. In meetings

some women first spend ages explaining why they

are entitled to their opinions, rather than just giving

their opinions. Express your opinion and that‟s that.


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It immediately places a question mark over that

person for me.”


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4.2.1 External factors which support the development of characteristics that prevent derailment

Of interest to me is that all the participants described their upbringing and home environment as having played a

pivotal role in developing certain personality characteristics which come to bear in preventing derailment. The findings are

outlined in table 4.6 below:

Table 4.6: External factors supporting the development of characteristics preventing derailment


P 1

1 Exposure and recognition

when growing up

Participant 1 ascribed her ability to

avoid derailment to her upbringing.

“I certainly think that it‟s got to do with your

upbringing and I think it‟s got to do with exposure in

your family life as a child…My parents recognised

my achievements. As kids we grew up with a

certain amount of freedom, without there being

chaos in the house and each of us was treated as

individuals”

2 Stability in areas of life

other than work

A well-managed personal life was

described by P1 as being instrumental

in helping to prevent her own

derailment.

“I think that your current personal situation when

you are in a position like this plays a very big role –

I think that if there is disaccord within your family,

emotional life, or personal situation it is going to

play out into your career. You are susceptible to


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failure and derailing. Your personal life needs to

be managed.”

P 2

1 Sense of confidence

instilled by parents

P2 ascribed her ability to avoid

derailment to her upbringing.

“I grew up with a sense of “I‟m okay” and I don‟t

have to outperform everybody and be the best at

everything to be okay. I know my parents are proud

of my achievements and that carries me every day”

2 Support of life partner She further shared the importance of

the role her husband played in her

success as a leader.

“My husband forces me to keep my feet flat on the

ground but is also very proud of my achievements.

He is so supportive of me, and I know that I would

not have been able to achieve what I have if he

was not in my life.”

P 3

1 Sense of confidence

instilled by parents

P3 ascribed her ability to avoid

derailment to her upbringing.

“The confidence I have in myself comes from the

very strong positive reinforcement that I received

as a child.”

2 Nurturing received from

mother as adult

This participant also shared details

about the strong bond she has with her

mother and the nurturing role which she

plays in her life.

“It‟s terrible to say this, I am almost 50, but I still run

to my mother when I have a really big stressful

situation be it work or family related. That is

comfort for me, I just go to her and I sit, she cooks

for me. She just treats me like a baby, she mothers

me. I can‟t really put a value to that. I don‟t think

she realised how much she has actually


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contributed to my career, just by being there.”

P 4

1 Role modelling by parents P4 described her parents as role

models for her on gender equality and

support of spouses for each other.

“I think that cultural upbringing is massive in terms

of the role of the woman within the family. In my

environment, it was very much my dad who was

the head of the house, but my mother had a career,

she had a strong role to play. My dad completely

supported her; he didn‟t feel threatened by it so it

was all ok”.

2 Strong role of mother in

moulding self

She further ascribed her ability to be a

successful leader to the role of her

mother whilst growing up.

“My father was an observer. He loved us terribly,

but he wasn‟t a talker. So our attitude, outlook on

life and the way we did things came from my

mother. My mother was definitely the caregiver in

the house. I have an unbelievably close

relationship with my mother.”

3 Practical support

mechanisms

This participant described the practical

support mechanisms which she has put

in place to provide her with the support

she needs to succeed.

“Being a working mother, it is really important for

me to have a good structure at home, so I have

always had a full-time au pair, so I don‟t worry

about being a good housekeeper, or cooking. My

husband knew what he was getting into when he

married me and my poor child didn‟t, she can cook

for herself if she wants to.”

P 5

1 Support and Participant 5 ascribed her ability to “I think it has lot to do with your upbringing. I grew


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encouragement from

parents as child

avoid derailment to her supportive

upbringing.

up in an average home, my parents earned an

average income, and I was an average child whose

performance was average, but my parents always

supported and encouraged me. I wanted to make

them proud.”

2 Strong role of supportive

stay-at-home-mom as a

child.

She also ascribed her ability to be a

successful leader to the supportive role

of her mother whilst growing up.

“The fact that my mother didn‟t work I think helped

me to be what I am. She was always there for me

100%. My mom was not competition for me. She

was just my mother. There is a very big role for

that, maybe as a society we would be a better

place if we had more stay at home moms”.

3 Role of mentor or role-

model in workplace

In addition, she shared the details of

some of the mentors she has worked

with and how they influenced her ability

to remain successful over time.

“Everywhere that I have worked and been able to

succeed, I‟ve had the benefit of a mentor or

somebody that I‟ve connected with or aspired to

work with. I‟ve always tried to find someone who I

can look at and say “this is what success looks

like”.


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4.2.2 Derailment experiences

During the research each of the participants shared experiences in their careers which could have led to their

derailment. I utilised these experiences as a point of departure to begin exploring the constructs which the participants

expressed as having prevented them from derailing.

Table 4.7: Derailment experiences

No Construct Supporting quotes

P 1

Participants 1 described the situation where a project team was put

together to deal with a specific project which was a few years in

duration. She was the most senior person on the project team and

when the project was complete, the rest of the team was absorbed

back into the normal organisational structure.

Because of her seniority, for her, there was no position available.

She was told that the organisation could ―create‖ a position for her,

which would encompass ad-hoc duties to assist the CEO. She

experienced this as very difficult and as if she was being side-lined.

She seriously considered leaving the organisation and had to struggle

immensely with herself.

“The respect that this earned me within the

organisation is immeasurable...I think my long-term

view and willingness to experience short-term

discomfort in exchange for potential long-term

benefit is what prevented my career from derailing

at that point… I discussed my disappointment with

my CEO but continued to deliver my best, which I

think was also important… I had to confront myself

on a daily basis…. and I had to learn to forgive…”


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Eventually she opted to fill a position at a lower job grade and for two

years reported to someone who had previously reported to her.

P 2

This participant reported the challenge of being appointed in the

organisation due to employment equity requirements of the business,

which placed pressure for the appointment of a woman.

In addition to this, she reported that the view of the organisation was

that her role as General Manager: Human Resources, is traditionally

a woman‘s role. She reported that both these factors present a

number of challenges that she continuously has to deal with.

She stated experiencing that she continually has to prove herself,

even after years in the position. She believes that if she did not have

the personality and approach that she does, this could easily have

derailed her career.

“Questions exist amongst my colleagues about

whether I was appointed into this position because

I am a woman or because I am good at what I do. It

is a continuous challenge to be able to dispel that

myth amongst my colleagues.”

“I think the point of entry into your position is

important. It‟s an issue of legitimacy, so that you

don‟t have to fight that aspect as well. You start on

the back foot if that has not happened.”

P 3

This participant‘s challenge was not imposed on her by an external

situation but rather by herself. P3 had to overcome aspects of her

own personality which she believes would have led to her derailment.

“I had to learn that I was sometimes too confident

and I often didn‟t know when it was appropriate to

play the strong and confident role that I needed to

play.”

“This can seriously rub people up the wrong way

and I still have to watch myself all the time, even in


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my current position.”

P 4

She described failing her actuarial exams a number of times, whilst

being employed in her current organisation, as almost derailing her

career in the financial sector.

This had consequences for her career progression and the perception

of decision makers of her.

“When I started working here I started with my

actuarial studies, and qualified as an actuary after

quite a lengthy period, 6 to 7 years.”

“When I didn‟t pass all of my subjects, it felt like my

world ended, It was terrible it was like I couldn‟t

believe that it was happening to me…”

P 5

P5 described reporting to a CEO whom she experienced as difficult

and unreasonable in terms of the demands which he placed on her

and in terms of his own personality and behavioural style.

She believes that her career would have been derailed had he not

been forced to resign from the company.

“He was a control freak and would treat his

executive team like children, often belittling us or

criticising our work publicly.”

“I thought of resigning several times and my

confidence was at an all-time low.”


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4.2.3 Participants definitions of derailment

The participants were asked to describe their personal definitions of career derailment as it applies to women

leaders. The findings are outlined in table 4.8 below:

Table 4.8: Definitions of derailment

No Construct Supporting quotes

P 1

When, due to

discrimination, a women‘s

success is undermined as

a result of being forced to

play a specific role in order

to be recognised as an

equal

“When discrimination is inherent in the people that you are interacting with… the role that you

take on is sometimes „more in your face‟, or forceful than it would be, because you need

recognition as an equal.”

“This can impact on the success of a woman. I also think that in some work environments

there are stronger…external (discrimination) factors at play than in others…”

P 2

Women blaming

discrimination for not

meeting career

expectations

"I think us women find it easy to blame discrimination or the glass ceiling for not getting where

we want to be, and sometimes it is, but I would say in 25% of the cases it actually is, 75% of

the cases we actually discriminate against ourselves.”

P 3

Women who make “The thing is, rightly or wrongly, if women are always hammering on the fact that they do not


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excuses for their own lack

of success

have fair opportunities, one starts to wonder if she would have deserved it in the first place.”

“If a woman is busy telling you the whole time how men are putting stumbling blocks in her

path, then I think she is busy making excuses for herself.”

“I ask myself, why I have not experienced this, because I work in the same organisation as the

women who tell me these things.”

“I‟d be interested to know how many successful women have given you examples of not

having had opportunities because they were women. I hear many women say that, but I place

them in the category of “I also would not have given her the position”.

P 4

Self-stereotyping and

believing that women are

less successful

“Women who derail are those who Stereotype themselves.”

“Like creating the role in their own head of: „women never get anywhere‟. I have never felt like

that in my life, that I‟m not going to get anywhere because I am a woman. I‟ve never felt like

that.”

P 5

Not meeting the

expectations that you set

for yourself

I think for any person, women or men, your career has probably derailed when you are not

meeting the expectations that you set for yourself... it is when you have the ability and the

desire to do something and you don‟t do it. …Sometimes you have the desire and not the

ability, so that for me is heading for derailment, because if you really don‟t have the ability,

you don‟t have the ability…


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4.2.4 “Opting Out” and “Voluntary Separation” as they relate to derailment

Based on the findings of the current study, it appears that under certain circumstances―Opting Out‖ and ―Voluntary

Separation‖ can be linked to, or even seen as a form of derailment. The findings in this regard are outlined in table 4.9

below.

Table 4.9: “Opting out” and “voluntary separation” relating to derailment

Participant Opting out and derailment Supporting quotes

P 1 This participant viewed opting out or voluntary

separation as derailment if the choice to leave

was not truly ―voluntary‖. I.e. a women is forced

to leave an organisation due to internal push

factors or external pull factors‖

Well for me it (choosing to leave an organisation) isn‟t really

derailment… but it is derailment if it is not your choice”

“…and then the derailment is probably because there is a

husband that says you have to (leave the organisation) or

something in the organization is pushing you.”

“…but if it is a choice then I don‟t see it as derailment,

because I don‟t think there is anything wrong with that

(choosing to leave an organisation)”.

“If, and I have friends who are stay at home mothers who

are highly educated, two/three Degrees, it is what they really

want to do, good for them. They have a much easier life than


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I have, but it is what they chose to do. If it makes them happy

it is not a derailment, if it makes them unhappy it is a

derailment.”

P 2 P2 expressed the view that some organisational

cultures were more ―tough‖ for women than

others and that these organisations would

always struggle to retain top, competent women.

In this event opting out and voluntary separation

from these organisations could be linked to

derailment.

“I have a friend who worked at (company name). She is really

good at her job and had performed well in all her previous

companies, but she was so unhappy at (company name) and

felt that like she was always hitting her head against a brick

wall. Eventually she decided to leave. She is now working for

(company name) and is again at the top of her game, fulfilled

and happy”.

P 3 Participant 3 expressed the view that very often

women who don‘t have the ability to face their

own shortcomings opt out or leave

organisations. In this instance opting out and

voluntary separation could be regarded as

derailment.

“They leave their jobs with a long list of reasons why the

organisation or their family did not allow them to succeed.

Sometimes this is the case, but it‟s also sometimes a

convenient excuse.”

P 4 She stated that if women opt out or leave an

organisation because they doubt the likelihood

of their being successful because they are

women and thus chose not to (or believe that

they need not) compete with men, have

“We all need to deal with our own insecurities and not use the

fact that we know there are only a limited number of women

who are successful in senior positions, to immediately start

saying „what chance do I have of being successful?‟ In some

women there is almost a (sense of), „I don‟t need to be equal


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derailed.

to any of my male counter parts‟.”

P 5 P5 postulated that women, who make excuses

to opt out or leave an organisation because they

have given up, have derailed.

I see many women just giving up actually, and maybe it is

because you have the easy way out of well "I am married, I

have kids and I need to go sort out that.”

4.3 Conclusion

In this chapter the results of the research were outlined. The participants‘ personal definitions and experiences of

derailment, as well as their views of the leadership landscape and their view of themselves as leaders were discussed.

Trends regarding external factors which support women leaders as well as their views regarding opting out and voluntary

separation were also elaborated on.

In Chapter 5, an interpretation and synthesis of the results above will follow. In addition, findings and interpretations

will be discussed in the context of the relevant literature. Finally, an integrated framework of characteristics which prevent

career derailment of women executives, based on the emerging themes, will be presented.


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CHAPTER 5

INTERPRETATION AND SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS

5.1 Introduction

The primary aim of this study is to gain an in-depth understanding of the

characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders. A secondary aim is to

reach a more integrated and holistic understanding of the phenomenon of leadership

derailment as it is experienced and interpreted by women, themselves. This exploration

was undertaken making use of grounded theory.

In addition to the above, during the study, participants‘ experiences of how the

external environment has either supported them in developing the characteristics which

prevent derailment, as well as their views regarding ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary

separation‖ as these concepts relate to derailment, were also explored.

In Chapter 4, the constructs and themes that emerged from the participants‘

interviews were reported. The constructs were made sense of and categorised

according to the various themes which they represent. In this chapter, the interpretation

and synthesis of major findings are undertaken; whereafter an integrated framework of

characteristics which prevent career derailment of women executives will be

constructed.

Eleven main themes emerged from the data. Each of these will be discussed and

interpreted within the context of personal construct theory as well as existing literature

on derailment. This is followed by an interpretation of external factors which support the

development of characteristics that prevent derailment, ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary

separation‖ as they relate to derailment, and finally, leadership derailment as it is

experienced and interpreted by women executive leaders.


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5.2 Interpretation of themes

5.2.1 Contextualizing personal construct theory

As discussed in Chapter 3, personal construct theory is primarily a theory of

examining how humans continually construct meaning in a continually changing world

(Epting & Paris, 2006). Individuals give meaning to their world and experiences by

creating an unspoken theoretical framework, which personal construct theory refers to

as a personal construct system. It is thus within this system that individuals anticipate

the future and engage with their environment.

Personal construct theory is a psychological theory, but unlike other

psychological theories, it postulates that individuals display certain behaviours and

develop certain characteristics based on their personal construct system.

Epting and Paris (2006), demonstrate how divergent Kelly‘s theory of Personal

Constructs was from other dominant psychological theories, by describing nine

exclusions in the positioning of his theory. These are briefly described below.

The theory has no concept of self or ego, but rather of core constructs

which involve meaning-making as the foundation of personality.

Constructs deal with the process of invention rather than a process of

discovery (of the self). The process of meaning-making is relational, in

that an individual evolves core constructs in the context of seeing

himself through his interactions with others.

The theory has no concept of psychological dynamics or of motivation as

being an important component of the human psyche. Kelly rejects that an

underlying activating entity serves to push or pull human behaviour, but

rather that humans are already in motion and deciding in which

direction to go. In addition, the direction they are going in is an


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elaboration of what they are already doing, based on how they construe

things.

There is no concept of a human going through developmental stages.

Rather, constant change takes place and humans formulate their own

view of themselves and the world, given their particular age and

circumstances.

There is no typology of traits which slot people into categories. Rather, the

theory makes provision for giving guidelines to assist humans in

understanding the constructive process (or process of construing), and

how it differs from person to person.

The theory does not rely on establishing cause and effect relationships to

gain psychological understanding of an individual. Rather, Kelly tries to

understand the individual’s context, how he construes his context

and what he is trying to accomplish. Kelly is interested in the individuals

own constructions of cause and effect, but not in a search for underlying,

real causal relationships.

There is no concept of psychopathology, but rather of how individuals get

stuck. Stuckness is constructed by the individual (not an attribute of

the individual), and can therefore be deconstructed, to move from

stuckness to mobility.

The theory does not separate thoughts, feelings and actions to be

explained in their own right (as does cognitive-behavioural theory).

Construction is an embodiment of all three simultaneously, in a kind

of gestalt.

The theory does not postulate a set of basic needs inherent in individuals.

Rather, individuals live in an interdependent context and it is important

to understand how they go about gaining what they need.

The theory excludes the notion of an ―unconscious‖, rather it describes

characteristics of the constructive process, which may be at low levels

of awareness. The focus is thus on how aware individuals are, rather than

on a ―mysterious‖ unknown part of themselves.


159

Based on the above, it can be seen that the characteristics possessed by women

leaders that prevent their derailment are based on their “meaning-making”, in other

words, how they construe themselves, their world and the leadership milieu. By

understanding the ―meaning-making‖ or constructions of these women who have not

derailed, other women leaders can be assisted to reformulate their own constructions of

themselves and the world. By assisting them in understanding the constructive process,

we are able to help them to ―deconstruct‖ certain unhelpful constructions which lead to

derailment.

Gaining insight into and exploring the constructs of women leaders who have not

fallen prey to derailment, makes a significant contribution to our understanding of

leadership derailment amongst women leaders and enables the empowerment of

women through the investigation of alternative constructions, which may lead to more

success within the leadership realm.

Fransella, Bell and Bannister (2004, pp. 5-6) comment as follows:

In Kelly‘s terms we are ‗scientists‘ who derive hypotheses (have

expectations) from our theories (our personal construing). We subject

these hypotheses to experimental testing (we bet on them behaviourally,

and we take active risks in terms of them). We observe the results of our

experiments (we live with the outcomes of our behaviour), we modify our

theory (we change our minds, and we change ourselves), and so the cycle

continues.

In the context of the current research, by understanding how women executives

who have not fallen prey to derailment, derive hypotheses (have expectations) from

their theories (their personal construing/ internal personal construct system), we are

able to obtain a deeper understanding of how the manner in which they subject their

construing to experimental testing (through their behaviour), leads to specific outcomes


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(within their work environment and roles as leaders), which prevent their derailment, or

assist them in overcoming it.

Kelly (1969, p. 293) describes a personal construct as being like a:

―…reference axis. A basic dimension of appraisal, often unverbalised,

frequently unsymbolised, and occasionally unsignified in any manner

except by the elemental process it governs. Behaviourally it can be

regarded as an open channel of movement, and the system of constructs

provides each man with his own personal network of action pathways,

serving both to limit his movements and to open him up to passages of

freedom which otherwise would be psychologically non-existent.


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5.2.2 Themes related to constructs

Based on the interpretation and integration of the constructs identified in Chapter 4, certain themes have been

developed. These are presented in table 5.1 below:

Table 5.1: Categorisation of constructs into themes

P Construct Frequency Theme

P1 Self-confidence 5 Self –Confidence and Self-Efficacy

P2 ―I‘m okay‖

P3 Confidence in abilities and ability to assert self

P4 Self-belief and -confidence

P5 Self-belief

P1 Positivity 5 Positive Outlook/Optimism

P2 Positive Thinking

P3 Positive and calm approach.

P4 Positive Outlook

P5 Seeking positive meaning in events

P1 Emotional awareness 5 Emotional Maturity and Managing own

emotions P2 Emotional control and self-awareness

P3 Emotional awareness and control

P4 Aversion to emotional displays and use of emotion as a tool

P5 Emotional control


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P1 Team work 7 Building Relationships, personal and work

networks P1 Relationship focus

P2 Nurturing relationships and the needs of others

P3 Cultivating networks

P4 Taking cognisance of others opinions and needs

P5 Trusting relationships

P5 Sponsorships in the workplace

P1 Resilience and Coping Mechanisms 6 Resilience and Coping

P2 Stress management and dealing with adversity

P3 Resilience

P4 Tolerance for stress

P4 Ability to deal with disappointment/failure and adversity

P5 Dealing with adversity

P1 Work-life balance 5 Balancing Multiple Roles

P2 Managing demands of multiple roles

P5 Balancing Multiple Roles and Demands

P3 Self-discipline to balance Multiple Roles and Demands

P4 Balancing responsibilities and roles

P1 Responsiveness to own and other‘s behaviours 5 Insight into Behaviour of self and others

P2 Understanding behaviour and dealing with conflict

P3 Analysing, interpreting and responding to behaviour of others

P4 Realistic self-image

P5 Self-insight and self-awareness

P1 Passion and drive 5 Achievement Drive and Perseverance


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P2 Success driven

P3 Achievement Drive and Perseverance

P4 Drive for success

P5 Passion and drive to succeed

P1 Recognition for and Reinforcement from others for

contributions

5 Receiving recognition from significant

others

P2 Accepting and giving recognition for achievements

P3 Recognition from significant others

P4 Need for Recognition

P5 Sincere and genuine recognition for achievements

P1 Risk taking and following one‘s instincts 5 Risk Taking and Openness to Change

P2 Confidence to take risks

P3 Confidence to take risks and be flexible

P4 Risk Taking and Openness to Change

P5 Flexibility and open-mindedness

P3 Realistic worldview 8 Pragmatic approach to gender issues and

willingness to make concessions P4 Accepting compromise

P5 Realistic approach and compromise

P1 Understanding and capitalising on gendered behaviour

P2 Dealing with gender inequality

P3 Appreciation for gender differences

P4 Mature and pragmatic approach to gender inequities

P5 Dealing with gender differences

P2 Identity as a women as part of leadership identity


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From table 5.1 above it can be seen that 11 themes or overarching constructs

have been developed based on the research findings. Within the framework of personal

construct theory, these constructs can be categorised as being either personal

constructs or core constructs.

5.2.3 Themes related to personal constructs

Kelly (Fransella, Bell & Bannister, 2004), defines a personal construct as a way

of transcending the obvious, as when new abstractions are made about events (in other

words, we begin a new process of construing); we escape the limitations what can

easily be seen to be ―fact‖ based on previous constructions.

In addition, personal constructs allow us to make predictions about the future, as

it is through our constructions of reality that we make sense of the world and anticipate

events within it. Thus by understanding and exploring an individual‘s constructs, we are

able to understand the predictions they are making (Fransella, Bell & Bannister, 2004).

The predictive nature of a construct differentiates it from a concept (Warren, 2001).

From the above table, it can be seen that in this study, the following themes

relating to the personal constructs of women who have not derailed were explored.

Pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions

Insight into Behaviour of self and others

Positive Outlook/Optimism

Building relationships, personal and work networks

Each of these will be discussed in more detail below:


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The participants appeared to have realistic and pragmatic constructions of their

environment and of their functioning within it. P1 shared her acceptance of the fact that

she would never be as good a housewife as a woman who does not work, or as good at

work as someone without family commitments. P4 shared a career opportunity which

she had to compromise due to family commitments. P5 too, spoke poignantly of the

need to make concessions in order not to derail. This pragmatic construction and

mindset of making concessions appears to have assisted the participants on focusing

their energy positively within their contexts rather than focusing their energy on an

unattainable ideal.

Construing that ―life isn‘t fair‖ and that sometimes women have to work harder

and longer than their male counterparts, and to earn credibility, appeared to be a given

assumption amongst the participants. Whilst this may be viewed as somewhat sad, it

appears that the participants have moved beyond being ―stuck‖ on the need for fairness

and are working constructively within their contexts, despite inequities which may exist,

rather than attempting to fight them. In so doing, they have attained and sustained

success rather than derailing. P4 stated that ―it‘s not fair, it‘s not right, but I‘m not going

to lose any sleep about it…that‘s the way the game is…play the game the way it is‖ P2‘s

comment of ―so be it‖, sums up the construction of the participants in this regard, quite

succinctly.

As the researcher, I feel that although it remains unfortunate that women leaders

function in an environment where they are forced to make concessions and accept a

certain amount of inequality and unfairness, I find myself greatly respecting the

participants of this study for their tough-mindedness, maturity and ability to forge

forward without taking issue with the concessions and inequities which they face.

In addition to the above, the participants in the study appeared to share a sense

of their identity as a women being intermingled with their identity as a leader. However


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their construction of how this impacts on them as leaders appears to be neither to

overplay nor underplay their ―womanness‖. P2 shared how she does ―not make gender

an issue‖, whilst P3 stated that ―I don‘t try to pretend that I am less of a woman‖. P4

displayed an awareness of gender issues, but regarded focusing on ―the job‖ as

superceding these.

In addition the participants appeared to display an appreciation for their male

counterpart‘s worldview and have an awareness of the positive aspects that their

gender differences bring. They even go so far as expressing an understanding of some

of the frustrations which male colleagues may have with their female counterparts. P3

reported that ―understanding and showing an appreciation for their world, goes a long

way to being successful in it‖. She also shared the construction of a woman ―bringing

something to the table‖ which is different and valued. This view was also strongly

expressed by P5, who stated that ―a woman brings a different perspective to the

discussion and an extra angle that men sometimes don‘t think about, and this

sometimes makes a massive contribution which my male counterparts value and

appreciate‖.

P4, for example displayed a sensitivity and maturity in her construing of issues

which her male counterparts deal with from women, just as women have issues to deal

with from their male counterparts. So again, reality is construed as ―as differing genders,

we have our respective issues to deal with‖, rather than: ―as women, we have issues to

deal with‖

P1 reported how she construed the fact that her male colleagues sometimes

treat her differently, as positive, and consequently is able to use this to her advantage.

She described understanding why her male colleagues adopt specific behaviour

towards her, and sometimes viewed her as inherently needing to be protected at times,

based on her gender. She further described how she played to this behaviour rather

than feeling antagonised by it. She also consciously adopts an attitude of ―let it go and

move on‖. As the researcher, I wonder whether ―benevolent sexism‖, which may inhibit


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a women‘s progress within an organisation, may be advantageous once a women

reaches executive level.

In addition, a further interpretation may be that women with the necessary self-

confidence and self-knowledge will have their own definition of success and will be

sensitive to understand if, where and how this may differ from the views of the people

around them. It appears that they may ―play‖ this knowingly, which is quite shrewd. The

ability to be positively shrewd, rather than naïve may thus also contribute to the success

of women who do not derail.

Upon deeper analysis of the theme of pragmatic approach to gender issues and

willingness to make concessions, it appears that the ability to hold this construction

originates from a deeper core construct, in other words, how the participants construe

themselves, which lead to their realistic construction of the world. This is further

discussed in below.

When considering the lack of literature available on leadership success or

derailment amongst women leaders in relation to their approach to gender issues, the

findings of this study could be considered to be amongst its contributions. In addition,

this aspect could be considered for further exploration and research.

Positive outlook/optimism

The participants in the study appear to share the construction of positivity about

the future and an optimistic view of the world. P1 described that in her position as a

senior executive being negative is not an option if she wishes to succeed. She shared

the awareness that negativity has the tendency to spread to all areas of one‘s life, and

has thus consciously adopted the construction of positivity. P2 further shared how she

consciously stops herself from thinking in a negative manner, and how she refocuses

her energy positively, again displaying the conscious constructing of reality in a

particular manner in order to prevent derailment. The same was true for P3 who shared


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her approach of projecting positivity and the consequences of allowing oneself to feel

negative. P4 and P5 too shared their construction of being satisfied, happy and positive

about life and taking accountability of these feelings rather than attributing both positive

and negative events to others.

As the researcher, I left felt upbeat and positive, after completing each interview.

Upon reflection, I realised that this was due to the fact that the participants not only

projected positivity and energy throughout my interaction with them, but that these

feelings were infectious.

From the above, it can be concluded that women who do not derail or who are

able to overcome derailment, appear to construe the world in a positive manner and

assist those whom they encounter, to do the same. Those who are likely to derail, or

who are unable to overcome derailment, however, may thus tend to have a more

negative construction of life and tend to be less satisfied with their lives.

The construct of optimism appears to have a link to the positive psychology

construct of dispositional optimism (Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 2002). Snyder, Rand

and Sigmon (2002; p. 257), further link optimism to hope, which is also seen as ―a

member of the Positive Psychology Family‖ and define hopeful thoughts as reflecting

the belief that one can find pathways to desired goals, and that these thoughts can

motivate individuals to use these pathways. It would thus appear that women leaders

possessing characteristics which are linked those typically associated with positive

psychology, may be less likely to derail.

Insight into behaviour of self and others

In the current study, participants displayed insight into the behaviour of others.

They further displayed a realistic self-image as well as insight into their own behaviour

and how this affects others. P5 stated the importance of being honest with oneself,

which requires a level introspection and accurate insight. P1 described being alert to the


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emotional cues and responses from others and adapting behaviour accordingly, whilst

P2 also shared this sensitivity, as well as the importance of being aware of one‘s own

emotional triggers. She emphasised that ―It is important to think about how you are

being perceived, to have an awareness of how you are coming across. People are

sensitive and you need to be aware of these at all times.‖ P3 described this ability as

being almost on an intuitive level.

The ability to the participants‘ ability to accurately construct and act upon the

behaviour of others as well as themselves, implies a high level of insight into deeper

human motives and desires and highlights the vital importance of the accuracy of one‘s

constructions. Inaccurate constructions will ultimately lead to inappropriate behaviour,

which will ultimately lead to derailment.

Whilst personal construct theory is not interested in the factual accuracy of

constructions, it is interested in their consequences (Epting & Paris, 2006). In the

context of leadership derailment, inaccurate constructions and insights into human

motives and desires, have dire consequences for leaders. As was seen in Chapter 2

research has found that low self-awareness, lack of interpersonal shrewdness and

insensitivity are all characteristics linked to derailed leaders (Eichinger & Lombardo,

2003; McCall & Lombardo, 1983).


All of the participants in the study construed the building of relationships as

fundamental to their success and further construed their ability to build relationships as

important in preventing them from derailing. They appear to share the belief that those

leaders who do not construe building relationships as important are at risk of derailing,

regardless of many other useful constructions that they may hold.

P1 reported on the importance of being able to work within a team and of building

relationships and respecting those around you. P2 and P5 shared the importance of


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genuinely caring about others and their needs, listening to others, as well as the

importance of building social networks with other women for support. P3 stated that

often the ability to build and cultivate networks is crucial in reaching organisational

goals. She also highlighted the importance of widening one‘s sphere of influence as a

woman leader.

Of interest, whilst all of the participants construed the building of relationships as

central to their success, they also shared that building and cultivating networks is

difficult, requires significant energy and is not necessarily within the comfort zone of

many women leaders. P2 shared that many women were uncomfortable with being

seen as attempting to build ―formal‖ women‘s networks, or what some may consider to

be ―girls clubs‖, whilst P3 stated that, she had to teach herself networking skills as she

had not seen role-modelled by many other women leaders. P2 shared the time

constraints that women are faced with. She also revealed the insight that interaction

between men is sometimes is easier and more relaxed than it is amongst women.

Difficulties in building relationships and networks appear to correlate with

derailment. Deloitte and Forbes (2010) found a lack of support networks as being one of

the greatest barriers to the success of women leaders. In addition, research has shown

that the inability to build a cohesive team, problems with interpersonal relationships,

inability to build relationships with a network of contacts and poor political skills, are all

linked to leadership derailment in general (McCauley & Lombardo, 1990; Bentz, 1985a;

Eichinger & Lombardo, 2003 and Lombardo et al, 1988). Lombardo and Eichinger

(2002) found that having weak relationships and networks lead to executives being

fired, whilst lack of relationship building and networking was also found by Schmidt

(2009) to be a career derailment theme linked specifically to women.

Based on the above, it appears that constructions around building and cultivating

networks are important for success and requires active and continuous cognitive

engagement from women leaders to ensure that their constructions lead them to

effective behaviours, especially because current constructions may fall short of what is


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required for success. These constructions, in Kelly‘s words, will open them up to

―passages of freedom which otherwise would be psychologically non-existent‖ (Kelly,

1969, p. 293).

5.2.4 Themes related to core constructs

In the same way individuals construct meanings about their world, they construct

meanings about themselves. Core constructs are, according to Kelly (1995), higher

order constructs, which govern the maintenance of a person‘s identity. ―Such constructs

lie fundamentally at the heart of the individual‘s sense of self, guiding each anticipatory

choice, action and stance they may take.‖ (Butler, 2006, p. 27). Core Constructs remain

stable over time, leading individuals to preserve a core belief about themselves, even in

the face of invalidating evidence (Rowe, 2003).

According to Butler (2006), experiences which fail to validate the self, lead to

emotion. McCoy (1977) contests that love and happiness result from the validation of

core constructs, and that invalidation leads to sadness, guilt, and other negative

emotions.

Alternative constructions may be …‖avoided in our everyday thought processes

because of the incompatibility with the rest of our life‖ (Epting & Paris, 2006, p. 26).

According to Rowe (2002), we attempt to preserve the core beliefs we have about

ourselves, rather than seeking an alternative construction of the self. Thus invalidation

of core constructs (belief about one‘s self) represents a profound threat for an individual,

is difficult to accept and leads to negative emotions. However without invalidating or, at

the very least, testing, our core constructs, which is a painful process (leading to

sadness, guilt, and other negative emotions), no growth, reaching of new insights, or

learning of new behaviours can take place.


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Core constructs (beliefs about one‘s self) exist at a low level of awareness,

making them difficult to identify and analyse (Leitner & Thomas, 2003; McWilliams,

2004).

The role of the researcher within the personal construct theory paradigm is to

respect research participants and see them as active collaborators, rather than impose

any artificial frames of reference on them. The researcher is required to attempt an

understanding of the participants‘ world, rather than have the participant attempt to

understand the researcher‘s frame of reference (Jahoda, 1988, Adams-Webber &

Mancuso, 1983). As the researcher, I experienced the process of uncovering the core

constructs of the participants as quite challenging. However, it was equally satisfying

seeing the participants experience ―ah ha‖ moments in the process of exploring

constructions that were previously at a low level of awareness.

Through a collaborate approach, and by making use of grounded theory

principles, the following themes relating to the core constructs of women who have not

derailed were explored:

self-confidence and self-efficacy;

resilience and coping;

emotional maturity and managing own emotions;

Receiving recognition from significant others;

achievement drive and perseverance;

risk taking and openness to change;

balancing multiple roles.

Each of these will be discussed in more detail below:

Self-Confidence and Self-efficacy

Based on the findings, all of the participants in the study hold the Core Construct

of Self-confidence and Self-efficacy. As noted in Chapter 2, self-efficacy refers to an


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individual‘s convictions (or confidence) about his or her abilities to mobilise the

motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to successfully execute a

specific task within a given context (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998).

My personal experience of the participants was that they were ‗quietly confident‖

with no need to boast about, or underplay their achievements and ambitions. It is my

experience that such individuals are able to suspend concerns for their own ego and

create a leadership environment of congruence, unconditional positive regard, and

empathic understanding, which allows their subordinates and those around them a safe

environment in which to grow.

In the study, not only did the participants share how the core construct of self-

confidence and self-efficacy has prevented them from derailing, but also shared how

their levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy translate to a sense of assertiveness,

which allows them to express their needs and desires with comfort. P1 described her

confidence in her organisational role. P1, P2 and P3 reported feeling comfortable

confronting issues and situations that they are not comfortable with and believing that

they are as entitled to their opinions as their male colleagues, without having to ask for

―permission‖. P4 described how her construction of herself as being confident and self-

efficacious was developed from childhood and from developing an image of ―being the

best‖ throughout her schooling. This suggests that not only does the sense of self-

confidence and self-efficacy develop during childhood, but through being exposed to a

number of experiences of success.

Based on the findings of this study, it appears that the construction of self-

confidence and self-efficacy may thus prevent derailment amongst women leaders. The

participants also shared their experiences of the low levels of self-confidence and self-

efficacy, which exist in women leaders whom they have seen derail. P 5 shared how

derailed women are defensive due to their poor self-confidence and thus continuously

attempt to defend their abilities, competence and opinions, with negative consequences

for their careers. P2 shared the following insight:


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I think that when you don‘t have a sense of ―I‘m okay‖, you tend to take

things up sensitively at work. One can immediately see when a woman

does not feel okay about herself, because she cannot deal with criticism.

This correlates with research on derailed leaders by McCall and Lombardo (1983), as

well as Morrison, White and Van Velsor (1987), which found that ―having a poor image‖,

was unique to women who had derailed, and did not appear to be a characteristic of

men who had derailed.

As noted previously, deeper analysis of the theme realistic approach and

willingness to make concessions appears to be correlated to the core construct of self –

confidence and self-efficacy. It appears that women leaders who have not derailed do

not exhibit defensive behaviour and do not see the world as a fearful and threatening

place against which one needs to defend oneself, but rather as a place where they can

confidently mobilise the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed

to succeed. This in turn creates an environment where others can do the same.

Resilience and coping

Resilience can be defined as ―a pattern of psychological activity which consists of

a motive to be strong in the face of inordinate demands‖ (Strümpfer, 2002a, p.8). It can

thus be seen that construing oneself as being resilient (in other words, possessing the

core construct of resilience) and construing resilience as being beneficial to preventing

derailment (in other words, the personal construction of resilience), is within the realm of

control of leaders.

My experience of the participants was that they possess strong ego-strength, and

are thus able to approach challenges with a sense that they can overcome internal and

external stressors and even grow from them.


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P1 shared the belief that she considers herself as coping well and recovering

quickly when confronted with difficult or stressful situations. This construction is shared

by P4 who also discussed her construction of it being acceptable not to become

stressed and saying: ―it‘s okay‖ when ―I have done everything I can‖. She further

appears to be able to separate her construction of stress, from her construction of

herself, holding the belief that: ―you are better than this, this does not define you‖ when

confronted by stressful or disappointing situations. This participant further reported on

her ability to deal with stress by maintaining balance and perspective by focusing on

areas in her life other than work. P5 defined herself as being mentally strong and not

allowing the ―knocks in life‖ to define her life in a negative way.

P2 shared her experience of women who derail, as being perpetually stressed

and being unable to cope with the demands placed on them. She further stressed the

role of her ability to deal with disappointment, in preventing derailment. P3 shared that

she did not initially possess a core construct of herself as being resilient, but that this

developed because of a traumatic event in her life. Now that she considers herself to

be resilient, she is of the belief that she can overcome any challenge.

Based on the above, it can be seen that the construct of resilience appears to

have a vital role to play as a characteristic preventing derailment. It further appears that

the construing of resilience is an active and deliberate cognitive process exhibited by

participants. In addition, it is a construction, which can be learnt. This is confirmed by

Strümpfer‘s (2002b) fortological view that physical, emotional and social trials can

stimulate growth and strengthen capacities.

Emotional maturity and managing own emotions

Research has shown a high correlation between characteristics such as being

excitable, being prone to melodrama, having poor emotional control, having a high level

of volatility, being overtly emotional, and allowing one‘s emotions cloud one‘s judgment,


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with career derailment (Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Dotlich & Cairo, 2003; Rasch, Shen,

Davies & Bono, 2008; Lombardo et al, 1988; and Bentz,1985 a).

The above was also corroborated by the participants in the current study. They

appeared to share the view that women have a tendency to become more emotional in

the workplace than their male counterparts. They further reported the discomfort that

men feel with emotionality in the workplace (P1; P4; P5). Whether highly emotional

behaviour is due to being passionate or due to poor emotional control, the participants

expressed an aversion to this type of behaviour and report that it correlated highly with

derailment of women leaders.

P1 expressed the belief that individuals who over-internalize experience difficulty

managing their emotions. P3 advised against ―making a scene‖, whilst P3 reported that

women tend to get too emotionally stuck in tough decisions. P4 shared in detail the over-

emotionality of derailed women and their inability to step back from emotions, or even

worse, attempting to use emotions within the workplace to manipulate outcomes.

The participants further expressed their belief that their construction of

themselves as being emotionally mature and consequently appropriately managing their

emotions has prevented their derailment. P1 discussed the importance of understanding

and controlling one‘s impulsive or emotional responses to situations as well as

exhibiting emotional maturity. P3 reported that her ability to emotionally detach, when

required has helped prevent her derailment. P5 reported having learnt to step back from

and analyse her emotions. She also described the high value she places on thinking

calmly and behaving in a stable manner.

Based on the above it can be seen that the construction of the self and

consequent behaviour of emotional maturity and managing own emotions is a personal

characteristic which prevents derailment amongst women leaders.


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Receiving recognition from significant others

It appears that the core construct of receiving recognition from significant others

plays a strong role in preventing the derailment of the participants in this study. P1

reported the strong role that recognition from significant others played during her

childhood as well as an adult. She reported a positive response towards reinforcement

and recognition of achieved deliverables. P2 expressed the belief that recognition is a

basic human need and is often underestimated. P3 stated that whilst she did not require

recognition in her work environment, recognition of her achievements by her family

members is important. P4 shared the opinion of P2 and P3, going on to state that her

construction of recognition may be stronger than others and that she has been able to

construe recognition in such a way so as to have gained significant benefit from it. P5

stated the importance of sincere and genuine recognition, if it is to be of benefit.

Based on the above it can be concluded that the ability to positively construe

genuine recognition from others, appears to play a role in preventing derailment. There

appears to be paucity in the literature on the link between recognition and success as

well as recognition and preventing derailment. This aspect may thus warrant further

exploration and research.

Achievement drive and perseverance

All of the participants in the study appear to possess a strong achievement drive

as a core construct. They all reported being passionate, having high levels of drive and

a strong desire to grow, learn, achieve, and seek new challenges. It appears as if this

internal driving force has led to long-term success overtime and has prevented their

derailment. It further appears that they had created their own definition of success and

were able to deal with the different views of what those around them may have of what

success for them should be. As the researcher, I was struck by the achievement drive of

the participants, as well as their level of comfort with being ambitious and driven.

Despite this obvious drive, the participants did not come across as over-aggressive or


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overly-competitive in their need to achieve, but rather as possessing healthy levels of

drive and perseverance.

P1 admitted that it has always been important for her to do well. P2 reported that

it was important for her to succeed and that she ―likes being successful‖. P3

emphasised the importance of persistence and never giving up until you have

succeeded. P4 states that she is competitive and enjoys winning. P4 further appeared

to have a core construct of herself as being results driven and ascribed her success to

this, stating that other factors such as gender or age become irrelevant in the fact of

producing the required results. P5 stated that she was born with the drive to succeed

and was thus actively engaged in numerous activities as a child.

With regards to women leaders who have derailed, P2 stated that women feel

that they cannot say aloud that they desire success, which influences their ability to be

so. P4 stated that women who derail are not as driven as those who don‘t derail and

feel they have attained success when they have reached middle management. It is

interesting to note that research by Lombardo et al (1988) and McCall and Lombardo

(1983) suggest that being overly ambitious leads to derailment. In this regard P2

highlighted the importance of making concessions and accommodating ―others to a

point that is reasonable.‖

Risk taking and openness to change

As noted in Chapter 2, research lists lack of initiative, relying on outdated

strategies and tactics, being unable to adapt to a boss with a different management

style, and excessive caution, amongst the characteristics of derailed leaders (Zenger &

Folkman, 2002; Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Dotlich & Cairo, 2003; Finkelstein, 2003; McCall

& Lombardo, 1983). In addition to the above, research conducted by Morrison et al

(1992) revealed that the inability to adapt was one of the serious flaws perceived to be

causes of female derailment. Conversely, Grzeda (1999) reports that adaptability,

flexibility, and tolerance of uncertainty, contribute positively to career changes.


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The above was confirmed by the research undertaken here, which suggests that

the core construct of risk taking and openness to change prevent the derailment of

women leaders. The participants in the study described their approach towards change

and to taking risks as follows: P1 reported the vital importance of risk-taking in not

derailing, reporting that the longer she had been in her role, the more comfortable she

felt taking risks. She further reported that she had reaped the benefits of this as well as

from learning to follow her instincts and acting upon them. P2 similarly shared the

importance of trusting her own judgment and further stated that she associates risk with

reward. Interestingly, she reported that the times she was not successful in her career,

was those times where she held back on trusting her judgment and taking action, rather

waiting for ―permission‖ from others to act.

P3 associated taking risks and trusting one‘s judgment with having confidence

and links risk-taking, self-confidence and flexibility, stating that these need to be

regularly exercised. P4 stressed the importance of stretching oneself and taking

opportunities before others do, and they become lost to you. She shared that women are

less comfortable taking risks than men. With regards flexibility and openness to change,

she stated the importance of not being rigid in one‘s expectations of life if one is to

succeed.

It may further be interpreted that successful leaders ―plan for failure‖ rather than

being surprised by it. The more one accepts failure as a possibility and plans how one

will deal with it when it happens, the less risk aversive one can be.

Balancing multiple roles

All of the participants shared the immense challenge presented by the multiple

roles required of them. They further expressed the difficulties experienced in dealing

with these challenges on an on-going basis. The effusive manner in which the

participants shared their experiences of the practical and psychological challenges of

dealing with this, leads me to believe that this is an important construct to be explored


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within the context of derailment. As the researcher, I could see from the emotion with

which the participants spoke, that it deeply affects them.

P2 expressed the view that many women derail because they cannot manage

the multiple demands placed upon them. This is supported by a McKinsey study (2010),

which identified one of the main barriers for the success of women leaders as being the

―double-burden‖ syndrome, where women have to balance domestic and work

responsibilities.

P1 described the guilt associated with feeling that she at times falls short of

meeting the demands placed on her by her role as a leader, mother, wife, and daughter.

P2 described sometimes feeling overwhelmed by the challenges presented by the

multiple roles, which she plays, whilst P5 discussed how the various roles required of

her are in conflict and how she feels selfish because of her career, even though she

makes sacrifices and compromises on a daily basis and has little time truly for herself.

Despite the challenges faced by the participants concerning balancing multiple

roles, they appear to have construed this as an accepted aspect of being a senior

woman leader and have incorporated being able to successfully manage the demands

placed upon them, as part of their identity.

P1 described the importance of allowing oneself to nurture the different facets of

oneself as a women leader in order to manage the challenges, which multiple roles

require. P3 reported that when construing balancing multiple roles, she puts practical

solutions in place to manage demands such as pre-preparing meals for children at

home, having lists of responsibilities for each of the children, coordinating schedules

with her husband on a weekly basis and delegating effectively to subordinates. She

further has a support network of family, colleagues and friends, in place. In addition, P3

reported that having self-discipline, good time-management, making sacrifices and

creating boundaries, have been instrumental in not allowing the demands she faces to

derail her.


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The construction of the self as being competently able to deal with this aspect

appears to be linked to three core constructs of self-confidence and self-efficacy,

resilience and coping, and emotional maturity and managing own emotions. Balancing

multiple roles will thus be considered to be a secondary, rather than a primary theme for

the purposes of the exploration of characteristics that prevent derailment in this study.

However, as mentioned above, it appears to warrant further exploration in the context of

derailment.

5.3 External factors preventing derailment

Whilst it was not the aim of the current study to explore the external factors which

support the development of characteristics that prevent derailment, this emerged as a

recurring theme throughout my interviews, with all the participants holding the belief that

this could not be completely separated from the discussion on internal characteristics

that prevent derailment. It was their belief and experience that these external factors

were, and in many cases, remain integral to their constructions of the world, the

leadership landscape and of themselves as leaders who have been able to overcome

derailment whilst others have not. I therefore as the researcher felt that the discussion

warranted further exploration in relation to core and personal constructs held by the

participants.

Based on this exploration, it firstly, it appears that the development of the core

construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy amongst women leaders is correlated to

the sense of confidence instilled during their upbringing. The participants shared

experiences during their childhoods, and related how their achievements were

recognised by their parents, the sense of pride that their parents had in them, growing

up with a sense of being accepted and being worthy whilst not having to outperform

others, receiving positive reinforcement for their achievements and successes, as well

as receiving support and encouragement. The importance of a childhood which

supports the development of the core construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy can

thus be seen.


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Secondly, it appears that a strong and nurturing mother figure, both during

childhood and during adulthood may contribute to the development of characteristics

that prevent derailment. All participants reported the strong bond they have with their

mothers as well as the nurturing, caregiving role played by their mothers. They further

reported that their mothers played a leading role in the household whilst they were

growing up. P4 reported how her outlook and attitude to life was largely shaped by her

mother, rather than her father. P5 reported that having a stay-at-home mother who

devoted all of her time to raising her, played a pivotal role in her success. P3 shared

how, to this day, she seeks her mother out to play a nurturing and caring role, when she

is undergoing a particularly stressful period. It thus appears that the core construction

of a woman leader is linked to her relationship and experience of her mother as creating

a space of safety, nurturing and strength. It is my belief that this in turn leads to a core

construction of a women leader as being worthy of and also possessing these same

characteristics of the ability to provide safety, nurturing and strength for herself and

others, which aids in preventing derailment.

Thirdly, the importance of stability in areas of life other than work and, the

support of a life partner, as well as, practical support mechanisms, appear to have

allowed the participants the time and space to focus sufficiently on themselves and their

careers in order to develop healthy and useful personal as well as core constructions. In

addition, this supports the development of the core construct of self-worth and the

personal construction of the faith and belief of others in their ability to succeed and not

derail. This, in turn, positively influences the behaviours they are able to exhibit over

time.

Finally, it would appear that role modelling, either by parents exhibiting support of

each other and modelling behaviour of genders being equal, or of a mentor in the

workplace modelling successful behaviour which is aspired to, has played a role in the

development of characteristics that prevent derailment.


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From the above, it can be seen that the importance of the role of external factors,

need to be taken into account when considering the development of core and personal

constructs and thus characteristics that prevent derailment amongst women leaders.

5.4 “Opting out” and “voluntary separation” in derailment

As discussed in Chapter 2, Cannon (2009) defines opting out as the

phenomenon of the conscious decision to leave a position as a senior leader. Research

has found several reasons for opting out. Whilst opting out and voluntary separation are

concepts which are not traditionally linked to derailment, it appears, that under certain

circumstances, a link may indeed exist.

Based on the current study, the participant‘s beliefs and experiences of opting

out very much support the findings of the existing literature by Cannon (2009), Hewlett

and Luce (2005) and Deutch (2005). Participants were of the opinion that opting out and

voluntary separation could be considered to be linked to derailment when a woman is

forced to leave an organisation due to internal push factors or external pull factors, and

not really of her own free will, when organisational cultures were not supportive, or were

more ―tough‖ on women than on men, when women leave an organisation rather than

confronting their own shortcomings, and when women doubt the likelihood of being

successful because of their gender, and thus decide to no longer compete or to give up.

The above suggests that there may be a link between opting out/ voluntary separation,

and derailment, which could be further explored.

The findings however also suggest that in addition to the traditional reasons

given for derailment, additional factors, linked more to a women leader‘s construction of

the world, the leadership milieu and herself, may also play a role in her ultimate decision

to leave an organisation.

Firstly, opting out and voluntary separation appears to be linked to the core

construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy, where women lack the belief in


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themselves to confront and take responsibility for their shortcomings. They thus exhibit

the behaviours as described by the participants in the current study, including

defensiveness, oversensitivity, inability to deal with criticism, bemoaning the lack of

opportunities, as well as justifying and defending their opinions. Ultimately, they may

derail by opting out of the organisation due to their inability to face their shortcomings,

rather than build the core construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy, needed to

overcome their shortcomings. In the context of personal construct theory, confronting

their shortcomings and developing alternative constructions represents a profound

threat for an individual and may force them to invalidate their current construction of the

self, which leads to negative emotion and thus in many instances, avoidance.

Secondly, opting out and voluntary separation may be linked to the personal

construct of pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions,

where women leaders see the world as an unfair, fearful and threatening place against

which one needs to defend oneself, and in which one cannot mobilise the motivation,

cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to succeed. In addition, women

leaders may become stuck on the unfairness or lack of equity, which they experience.

They thus derail by opting out, rather than construing reality in such a way that allows

them to compete and display self-efficaciousness without the need for the world or

leadership environment to be fair.

5.5 Leadership derailment

Whilst the primary aim of this study is to explore the characteristics that prevent

the derailment of women leaders, it was also the aim of the study to reach a more

integrated and holistic understanding of the phenomenon of leadership derailment.

It appears that paucity exists in the research of exploration of derailment as it is

experienced and interpreted by women executive leaders, who are confronted with

derailment. Rather, research has focused on the experience of others of these leaders


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or on externally identified characteristics and behaviours which these leaders possess

or fail to possess.

Existing research on derailment, defines derailment as occurring when an

individual in an executive role who was judged to have the ability to be successful in this

role, is fired, asked to resign, forced out of the organization or has their career plateau

below expected levels of achievement. Their careers are seen to have been thrown off

course or to have deviated from the path set for them, with the executive being unable

to move forward. Existing research further defines derailment is involuntary, punitive,

and unexpected (Lombardo & McCauley, 1988; Schmidt, 2009; Furnham, 2010).

The participants in the current research shared their derailment experiences,

which included:

being side-lined and placed in a position at a lower job grade after being involved

in project put together to implement a specific business strategy;

failing to complete professional studies within the required field;

being appointed in the organisation due to employment equity requirements and

thus being undermined;

reporting to a highly problematic CEO; and

elements of her own personality.

Based on their own experiences as well as their experience as executive leaders,

and of female colleagues who have derailed, the participants of the current study define

derailment as including:

having one‘s success undermined due to the role one is required to play within

the organisation;

not meeting one‘s own internal expectations of one‘s career; and

failing to take responsibility for own failures by blaming things such as

discrimination or lack of opportunities; and

buying into existing stereotypes of women not being able to reach success.


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In addition, from the discussion in the sections above on balancing multiple roles,

external factors supporting the development of characteristics that prevent derailment,

as well as opting out and voluntary separation, the definition of derailment as it relates

to women executives can be further extended to be as follows:

When an individual in an executive role who was judged to have the ability to be

successful in a role, lacks specific personal characteristics, and thus unexpectedly:

opts out of the position;

is fired;

is asked to resign;

is forced out of the organization;

has their career plateau below the levels of achievement expected by themselves

and others;

is undermined because of a specific role they are forced to play;

is unable to effectively overcome or deal with issues of gender discrimination or

other inequities;

is unable to balance multiple roles required, due to lack of support structures and

then fails to take responsibility for failure in the role by blaming external factors,

in the event of it being of their own doing.

5.6 Towards an integrated framework

Based on the results of this study, it appears that the characteristics which

prevent derailment can be construed as developing as a result of useful and supportive

personal and core constructs which women leaders hold. These constructs

subsequently influence their behaviour in a relatively consistent manner. In addition,

should women be aware of less useful constructions, and be exposed to experiences

which invalidate these constructions, they will have the opportunity to develop

alternative constructions thereby leading to growth, reaching of new insights, and

learning of new behaviours.


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It further appears that it is not the existence of a particular personal construct or

group of personal constructs, nor the existence of a particular core construct or group of

core constructs in isolation, but rather the combination of a set of personal and core

constructs in the form of an unspoken theoretical framework, or personal construct

system, which impact of behaviour and thus characteristics which prevent derailment.

In the study, women leaders who have not derailed appear to possess the

following set of personal constructs:

pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions;

insight into behaviour of self and others;

positive outlook/optimism; and

building relationships and networks.

In addition, they appear to possess the following set of core constructs, which are

higher order constructs, impacting on their sense of identity:




receiving recognition from significant others;

achievement drive and perseverance; and

risk taking and openness to change.


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The above thus represent an integrated framework of characteristics which

prevent career derailment. This framework is graphically presented in figure 5.1:

Figure 5.1 Characteristics preventing derailment

Based on the above, exploring the characteristics that prevent the derailment of

women leaders in the context of personal construct theory and based on their personal

construct system (interacting set of core and personal constructs) may provide new

insights into the intrinsic factors at play in women leadership derailment.

It is hoped that the framework above will assist women, CEOs, human resources

practitioners, policy makers and other organisational stakeholders in opening new


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―passages of freedom which otherwise would be psychologically non-existent‖ (Kelly,

1969, p. 293), in the continuing drive for more women leaders to take their rightful place

within organisations.

5.7 Conclusion

Chapter 5 covered the interpretation and synthesis of the major results of the

research. The personal and core constructs which resulted in the development of

characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders were discussed. This was

followed by a discussion of women leaders‘ definitions of leadership derailment, their

constructions of external support factors preventing derailment, as well as their

constructions of the concepts of ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ as they relate to

derailment. The chapter was concluded by presenting an integrated framework of

characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders.

This framework could provide insight into the study of leadership derailment and

assist in making women aware of what may cause derailment, prepare them better to

deal with it and to develop the characteristics and behaviours required to avoid or

overcome derailment. It is my belief that this will contribute greatly to the worldwide

gender parity and transformation agenda at senior organisational levels.

Chapter 6 will provide a summary of the research undertaken and give

recommendations for further research.


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CHAPTER 6

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction

Leadership derailment amongst women remains topical in the context of the

scarcity of women in senior and executive leadership positions. Several studies have

shown the benefits of better representation of women leaders in business, which include

higher return on equity, superior sales, and higher return on investment (ROI). Despite

this, statistics reveal that female directors make up only 16 % of company boards

across the European Union, 20% of senior executives in U.S. companies, and 19.1% of

top and 28.2 % of senior managers in South African companies.

The on-going challenges faced by women leaders in the workplace such as

gender stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination, organisational practices and culture,

the ―glass ceiling‖ phenomenon and more recently the ―glass cliff‖ phenomenon, remain

problematic. Of interest to me, was that some women executive leaders do not derail or

are able to overcome derailment, despite the barriers and potential derailers they face.

The study thus undertook an in-depth exploration of the intrinsic characteristics which

prevent, or assist women executives in overcoming career derailment.

It was thus the primary objective of the study to explore the intrinsic

characteristics possessed by women executives, who have not fallen prey to

derailment, or who have overcome it, which act as preventative measures against

derailment. Based on this exploration, an integrated framework of characteristics which

prevent career derailment of women executives was developed. A secondary aim of the

study was to reach a more integrated and holistic understanding of the phenomenon of

leadership derailment as it is experienced and interpreted by women executive leaders,


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themselves. The context and background of the study, the intended contribution and

motivation for the study as well as the study objectives were outlined in Chapter 1.

6.2 Approach to the research

The research was approached giving regard to relevant literature, which defines

leadership derailment as being when an executive who is placed in an executive role in

an organization and was judged to have the ability to be successful in this executive

role, is fired, asked to resign, is forced out of the organization, demoted, or has their

career plateau unexpectedly.

The study of leadership derailment began in the 1960‘s with the most prominent

thought leaders over time being Bentz, McCall and Lombardo, Morrison, White and

Van Velsor, Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley, McCauley and Lombardo, Van

Velsor and Leslie, Hogan and Hogan, Eichinger and Lombardo, Dotlich and Cairo,

Finkelstein as well as Rasch, Shen, Davies and Bono. Based on their research, a

number of factors, personality characteristics and behaviours, were identified as being

causative of derailment amongst leaders in general. These were presented in Table

2.10 in Chapter 2 and include, amongst others: problems with interpersonal

relationships, avoiding conflict and people problems, poor task performance, difficulty

making tough choices, insensitivity, inability to think strategically , poor emotional

control, poor planning, organisation and/or communication, being overly ambitious and

failure to build a team.

In addition to personality characteristics and behaviours which were linked to

derailment in general, researchers also found that there were specific barriers and

potential derailers which were unique to women executives. Various studies also

focused on the internal as well as external factors leading to the derailment of women

executives, in particular. External factors leading to derailment were shown to include

gender stereotyping, tokenism, discrimination and sabotage. Internal factors included,

amongst others, leadership style and behaviour, the inability to adapt, inability to learn


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from mistakes, and lack of initiative. These, as well as others were presented in Table

2.12 in Chapter 2.

As it was my belief that the phenomenon of opting out merited further exploration

and consideration in the context of the derailment of women leaders, literature in this

regard was also reviewed. Opting out was defined as the phenomenon of the conscious

decision to leave a position as a senior leader, with the ―opting out revolution‖ being

characterised by well-educated professional women leaving the workforce altogether.

The research showed that there are a number of reasons why women executives opt

out. These reasons were broadly grouped in four categories, being organization

reasons; career reasons; family reasons and personal reasons and were discussed in

more detail in Chapter 2.

In order to address the objectives of the study, I decided to adopt a qualitative

research approach, whilst making use of grounded theory methodology. In particular, I

felt that the following features of qualitative research were suited to the exploration I

wished to carry out:

it focuses on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, and creates

a view of what real life is like;

it has richness and is conducted within a framework of holism, with strong

potential for revealing complexities. Qualitative data provide rich, vivid

descriptions, nested in a real life context;

the fact that qualitative data are typically collected over a sustained period makes

it powerful for studying any process;

the inherent flexibility of qualitative studies gives further confidence that what has

been going on is really understood;

it is the best strategy for discovery, exploring a new area and developing

hypotheses;

it allows the researcher to become familiar with the area(s) of interest, to explore

the field and consider the dimensions involved; and


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the adaptability of qualitative methods allows for a reasonably flexible plan of


development.

I believe that grounded theory was particularly suitable for the purposes of this

research as the objective of grounded theory is the development of theory that is

grounded in data and focuses on generating theory based on the study of social

situations. In addition, it provides a specific, highly developed, rigorous set of

procedures for producing formal substantive theory.

Purposeful and snowball sampling was decided upon and yielded five case

studies. In-depth interviews were conducted with research participants, which were

digitally recorded and subsequently transcribed. The interpretation of interview data, in

conjunction with data from my personal diary and project journal as well as memos and

field notes, were analysed during a specific data analysis process, which was outlined in

Table 3.3 in Chapter 3. The process included firstly getting an idea of the whole by

reading all the transcripts and jotting down ideas, proceeding to each transcription and

understanding the broad meaning it conveys and the main categories and topics which

emerge, applying line by line analysis to data in each transcription and code the data

line-by-line and comparing and integrating the emerging categories to the categories

already found from the previous analysis, and finally, applying theoretical coding to the

established categories as a basis for the development of a theoretical framework.

In addition to the qualitative approach and methodology outlined above, I further

approached the analysis of the data within the context of personal construct theory, as it

is my belief that this would facilitate greater understanding of the characteristics that

prevent the derailment of women leaders. As discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 5,

personal construct theory is primarily a theory of examining how humans give meaning

to their world and experiences by creating an unspoken theoretical framework, or

personal construct system, within which they anticipate the future and engage with their

environment. A personal construct system is made up of personal constructs and core


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constructs. It is through personal constructs that reality is construed and events

anticipated, whilst core constructs are higher order constructs, which govern the

maintenance of a person‘s identity and core beliefs about themselves.

Working within the context of personal construct theory allowed for greater

understanding of the mental representations and constructions of meaning held by the

participants, which lead to their learnt behaviour and ultimately development of

personality characteristics which prevent derailment.

6.3 Summary of the major results

Eleven main themes emerged from the data. Each of these were discussed and

interpreted within the context of personal construct theory as well as existing literature

on derailment. This was followed by an interpretation of external factors which support

the development of characteristics that prevent derailment, ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary

separation‖ as they relate to derailment, and finally, leadership derailment as it was

experienced and defined by the research participants.

The research identified several core constructs, which were further integrated

into themes. The findings with regard to these are as follows.

6.3.1 Core constructs

Self-confidence and Self-efficacy

Findings of the study showed that all of the participants hold the core construct of

self-confidence and self-efficacy, defined as an individual‘s convictions about his or her

abilities to mobilise the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to

successfully execute a specific task within a given context. This further translates into

the assertiveness required to have needs and desires met. The results further indicate

that this core construct is developed during childhood and linked to personal upbringing

and experiences.


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It appears that the absence of the core construct of self-confidence and self-

efficacy leads to viewing the world as threatening, general defensiveness, as well as a

tendency to defend abilities, competence and opinions.

Resilience and coping

The participants in the study possessed the core construct of resilience and

coping, resilience being defined as a pattern of psychological activity which consists of a

motive to be strong in the face of inordinate demands. This is linked to coping with

disappointment and unexpected eventualities. The findings suggest that the construing

of resilience is an active and deliberate cognitive process and one which can be learnt.

This is confirmed by Strümpfer‘s fortological view, which states that physical, emotional

and social trials can stimulate growth and strengthen capacities.

Emotional maturity and managing own emotions

The findings of the study showed that women leaders who do not derail display

high levels of maturity and the ability to manage their emotions. They further have a

self- identity of self-control and consequently manage their emotions appropriately.

They understand and are in control of their impulses, are able to emotionally detach,

and are able to step back from and analyse their emotions.

In addition, participants value calmness and stable behaviour whilst they express

an aversion to the display of highly emotional behaviour. This supports research showing

a high correlation between being excitable, being prone to melodrama, having poor

emotional control, having a high level of volatility, being overtly emotional, and allowing

one‘s emotions cloud one‘s judgment, with career derailment.

Results further indicated that women leaders who derail over-internalize,

experience difficulty managing their emotions, are known for ―making a scene‖, get


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emotionally stuck in tough decisions, are unable to step back from emotions, and use

emotions within the workplace to manipulate outcomes and others.

Receiving recognition from significant others

The study found that the core construct of receiving recognition from significant

others plays a role in preventing derailment. This appears to stem from childhood and is

regarded as a basic human need. It appears plausible that participants‘ construction of

recognition may be stronger than others and that this contribute to the prevention of

derailment.

Achievement drive and perseverance

Participants in the study possessed a healthy achievement drive, are passionate,

and possess a strong desire to grow, learn and seek new challenges. The findings

show that for women who do not derail, doing well, succeeding, persevering, enjoying

healthy competition and being results driven, are all seen as an important part of their

self-identities. Researchers suggest that being overly ambitious leads to derailment,

which emphasises the importance of a healthy achievement drive, rather than an

obsessive, all-encompassing one.

Risk taking and openness to change

The results of the study suggested that the core construct of risk taking and

openness to change prevents derailment. Participants regard the development of

responsible risk-taking behaviour, seizing opportunities, flexibility, openness to change,

and trusting ones judgment as being important in preventing derailment.

Research has shown that adaptability, flexibility, and tolerance of uncertainty,

contributes positively to career changes and lists lack of initiative, relying on outdated

strategies and tactics, being unable to adapt to a boss with a different management


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style, and excessive caution, amongst the characteristics of derailed leaders. In

addition, research found that the inability to adapt was one of the serious flaws

perceived to be causes of female derailment.

Balancing multiple roles

The final core construct explored during the research was that of balancing

multiple roles. However, as this construct appears to be linked to three core constructs

of self-confidence and self-efficacy, resilience and coping, and emotional maturity and

managing own emotions, it is regarded in the current study as being a secondary

theme.

Results in this study confirmed research which identified one of the main barriers

for the success of women leaders as being the ―double-burden‖ syndrome, where

women are required to balance domestic and work responsibilities. Derailment appears

to occur when women are unable to balance these responsibilities sustainably over

time. Feelings such as guilt, being overwhelmed, and being conflicted were

experienced, also require management over time if derailment is to be prevented.

Successful management of multiple roles includes nurturing the different facets

of oneself, putting practical solutions in place, coordinating schedules with spouses, and

having a support network of family, colleagues and friends, in place. In addition, self-

discipline, good time-management, making sacrifices and creating boundaries, are

important.

6.3.2 Personal constructs

This research identified several personal constructs, which were further

integrated into themes and are outlined below.


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Results indicated that women leaders who do not derail have realistic and

pragmatic constructions of their environment and of their functioning within it. This

allows them to focus their energy constructively. The construction of ―life isn‘t fair‖ is a

given assumption and allows women leaders to beyond being ―stuck‖ on the need for

fairness. They possess a tough-mindedness, maturity and ability to move forward

without taking issue with the compromises and inequities which they face.

In addition, participants shared a sense of their identity as a woman and their

leadership identity being interwoven without overplaying or underplaying their

―womanness‖. Whilst displaying an awareness of gender issues, they do not make

gender an issue. They further display an appreciation for their male counterpart‘s

worldview and have an appreciation of the positive aspects of gender differences and

the unique contribution that women make. Their reality is construed as ―as differing

genders, we have our respective issues to deal with‖, rather than: ―as women, we have

issues to deal with‖. Findings further confirmed that this construct may be linked to the

core construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy.

Positive outlook/optimism

The construct of optimism is linked to the positive psychology construct of

dispositional optimism. In addition this is linked to hope, with hopeful thoughts reflecting

the belief that one can find pathways to desired goals, and that these thoughts can

motivate individuals to use these pathways.

Women leaders who do not derail share the construction of positivity about the

future along with an optimistic, hopeful worldview. The realisation of the importance of

maintaining a positive outlook, leads to the conscious construction and on-going

reinforcement of a positive outlook and behaviour. Successful women leaders hold the

construction of being satisfied, happy and positive about life and taking accountability


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for their feelings rather than attributing both positive and negative events to others. On

the contrary, the research further suggests that women who are likely to derail, or who

are unable to overcome derailment, have a negative construction of life and are less

satisfied with their lives.

Insight into behaviour of self and others

Research has found that low self-awareness, lack of interpersonal shrewdness

and insensitivity are all characteristics linked to derailed leaders.

Findings of the study indicated that insight into the behaviour of others, a realistic

self-image, and insight into own behaviour and how this affects others, is linked to the

prevention of derailment. Women who do not derail engage in critical self-appraisal, are

alert to the emotional cues and responses of others, are able to adapt their behaviour,

are aware of their emotional triggers and are aware of how they are perceived by

others. Whilst personal construct theory is not primarily concerned with the factual

accuracy of constructions, but rather in the consequences of constructions, in this

instance, women who do not derail have a high level of insight into deeper human

motives and desires and are able to form accurate constructions and subsequently,

appropriate behaviours, with positive leadership consequences.


Research shows that difficulties in building relationships and networks correlate

with derailment. Deloitte and Forbes (2010) found a lack of support networks as being

one of the greatest barriers to the success of women leaders, whilst research has also

shown that the inability to build a cohesive team, problems with interpersonal

relationships, inability to build relationships with a network of contacts and poor political

skills, are all linked to leadership derailment in general. In addition, weak relationships

and networks lead to executives being fired, whilst lack of relationship building and

networking is a career derailment theme linked specifically to women.


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The current study appears to indicate that those leaders who do not construe

building relationships as important are at risk of derailing, regardless of many other

useful constructions that they may hold.

Leaders who do not derail construe the building of relationships, working within a

team, respecting those around you, genuinely caring about others and their needs,

listening to others, as well as the importance of building personal and work networks, as

fundamental to their success. The study further suggests that the ability to build and

cultivate networks is crucial in reaching organisational goals and widening one‘s sphere

of influence.

Findings further reflect that many women experience building and cultivating

networks as difficult, requiring significant energy, and being outside of their comfort

zone. Networking skills thus need to be learnt, practiced and nurtured, in order to

prevent derailment. This requires active and continuous cognitive engagement from

women leaders to ensure that their constructions lead them to effective behaviours.

6.3.3 External factors preventing derailment

In addition to the core constructs and personal constructs identified in the

research, certain themes relating to factors within the external environment that prevent

derailment emerged. These are broadly categorised into themes related to upbringing,

the role of the mother during upbringing, the role of the mother during adulthood,

external support factors as adults. The constructs identified within each of these themes

were as follows.

Upbringing:

Exposure and recognition when growing up

Sense of confidence instilled by parents

Role modelling by parents

Support and encouragement from parents as child


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Role of the mother during upbringing:

Strong role of mother in moulding self

Strong role of supportive stay-at-home-mom as a child.

Role of the mother during adulthood:

Nurturing received from mother as adult

External support factors as adults:

Stability in areas of life other than work

Support of life partner

Practical support mechanisms

Role of mentor or role-model in workplace

The results suggested that several external factors exist which assist in the

development of the characteristics which prevent derailment. The findings further

indicated that these external factors need to be considered in conjunction with the

characteristics presented by women leaders, if one is to obtain an integrated

understanding of what prevents their derailment.

6.3.4 Opting out and voluntary separation in derailment

Based on the results of the research, opting out and voluntary separation were

be considered to be linked to and be a form of derailment. Whilst extensive literature

has explored the concepts of opting out and voluntary separation, the study found that

opting out and voluntary separation may be experienced as a form of derailment when

women are forced to leave an organisation due to internal push factors or external pull

factors, and not of their own free will, when organisational cultures do not support, or

are ―tougher‖ on women than men, when women leave an organisation rather than

confronting their own shortcomings, and when women decide to no longer compete in a

leadership role due to doubt about the likelihood of being successful based on their

gender.


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The results further indicated that opting out and voluntary separation are also

linked to the core construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy, as well as the personal

construct of pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions.

It was shown that women may opt out of an organisation because they do not have the

self-confidence and self-efficacy needed to overcome their shortcomings and are

unable to compromise and tend to become stuck on the unfairness or lack of equity,

which they experience. These women may opt out as they are unable to construe reality

in such a manner which allows them to compete and display self-efficaciousness

despite an inequitable environment.

6.3.5 Leadership derailment

A secondary aim of the study was to reach a more integrated definition of

derailment, which includes the definitions and experiences of women leaders as well as

other emerging themes in the research. The derailment experiences shared by

participants included:

being side-lined within the business;

not completing professional studies within the required field within the specified

timeline;

appointment being due to employment equity requirements;

difficulties with reporting CEO; and

elements of own personality.

Researchers‘ traditional definition of derailment is conceptualised as being when

an executive is:

fired;

asked to resign;

forced out of the organization;

demoted;

having their career plateau unexpectedly.


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Based on the results of this study, possessing certain personality characteristics,

opting out or voluntarily leaving an organisation, being unable to deal effectively with

issues inherent in the leadership landscape (which include balancing the demands of

conflicting roles, dealing with issue of gender discrimination, and dealing with other

issues of inequity based on gender, overcoming being undermined as result of a

particular role which one is forced to play), and failing to take responsibility for failure,

were also found to make up the definition of derailment.

Thus, based on the results of the study, a more integrated and inclusive definition

of derailment is reflected below:

When an individual in an executive role who was judged to have the ability

to be successful in a role, lacks specific personal characteristics, and thus

unexpectedly opts out of the position, is fired, is asked to resign, is forced

out of the organization, has their career plateau below the levels of

achievement expected by themselves and others, is undermined because

of a specific role they are forced to play, is unable to effectively overcome

or deal with issues of gender discrimination or other inequities, is unable to

balance multiple roles required, due to lack of support structures, and then

fails to take responsibility for failure in the role by blaming external factors,

in the event of it being of their own doing.

6.4 Contribution to the body of knowledge

The characteristics which prevent derailment were conceptualised as a

theoretical framework where women leaders who have not derailed were shown to

possess the following set of personal constructs:

pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions;

insight into behaviour of self and others;

positive outlook/optimism; and

building relationships and networks.


204

In addition, they were shown to possess the following set of core constructs:




Receiving recognition from significant others;

achievement drive and perseverance; and

risk taking and openness to change.

The specific higher order constructs (core constructs) which they possess,

govern the maintenance of their identity and lie at the heart of their sense of self as

leaders, whilst the personal constructs they possess, guide their sense-making of the

leadership landscape, anticipation of events within it and the predictions they make

about the future. This particular set of core and personal constructs, make up their

personal construct system, and guide the actions they take, the behaviours which they

consistently display over time, and ultimately the characteristics which they possess

which prevent their derailment.

In general, the study found that personal constructs, and to an even larger

extent, core constructs lie at a low level of awareness. It is only through a collaborative,

in depth interviewing process utilizing techniques such as laddering that they were

accessed and that the process of exploring them and the impact which they have on

leadership behaviour, could begin. The specific set of core and personal constructs

held by the participants of the study and uncovered could be of assistance to other

women leaders in preventing their derailment.

The study showed that whilst many external barriers and factors leading to

derailment exist, there are also a number of internal factors at play which may

predispose women leaders to derailment. It is only through the exploration and

recognition of unhelpful constructions and the willingness to engage in debate and

adopt alternative constructions that a more useful pattern of behaviour and beneficial


205

leadership characteristics can develop. For many women, however, much more

organisational and professional support may be necessary to develop or enhance

characteristics which prevent derailment.

Based on the results of the study, useful recommendations for CEOs, human

resources practitioners, policy makers, drivers of organisational change and women

themselves, include the following:

Coaching and mentoring activities of women both in the executive pipeline as

well as within executive positions, should take cognisance of the findings of this

study in order to explore the constructs held by women, and compare them to

those identified in this study. This can from the basis of developmental

discussions and better insight into the behavioural consequences of constructs

held and the alternative constructions available, which could better serve women

leaders.

Organisational interventions should be made available where existing women

leaders as well as women in the executive pipeline can increase self-awareness,

as well as reflect and learn from other women, and men. Initiatives within

organisations should be focused specifically on providing opportunities to

enhance the development of the characteristics highlighted in this study. These

should include experiential learning interventions such as role-plays and group

discussions where certain behaviours are elicited and dealt with, grounded in

scenarios applicable to the organisation and which women are likely to be

confronted with within their positions.

The characteristics identified within this study should be built into the culture and

value system of organisations. Group interventions which build and reinforce the

organisational values should be held, whilst organisational systems such as

performance management and discipline should be linked to rewarding


206

behaviour which enhances the development of these characteristics and learnt

behaviours, not only in women, but in men as well.

Selection and recruitment processes for senior leadership positions within

organisations should be structured to effectively screen for the characteristics

and behaviours highlighted in the study. Interviewers should then be trained to

conduct these interviews. This will go a long way to increasing the likelihood of

success of women placed within executive positions, who would then in turn act

as role models for younger recruitees within the organisation.

It is not intended that the above recommendations should by any means replace

existing gender initiatives within organisations, but rather support them. As there may

be a stigma in many organisations associated with women leaders being trained

differently, it is recommended that these interventions be interwoven with

developmental actions for all leaders, both male and female.

Senior and executive women leaders are likely to benefit from one-on-one

coaching interventions to assist them in remaining successful and dealing appropriately

with the realities and potential derailers they face. Younger women, on the other hand,

may benefit more from being sensitised and being made aware of the characteristics

required as well as being provided with opportunities to develop the necessary

characteristics.

6.5 Limitations of the study

The study also has its limitations, which may include the following:

As this was a qualitative study, it focused more on depth than on width; the

constructions of only 5 participants were explored. A larger sample size may

have allowed for the improved generalisation of the findings to the rest of the

population of women leaders in South Africa.


207

The focus of the study was on the internal characteristics held by women leaders,

taking cognisance of the existing literature on derailment. However, broader

political, economic and social factors which may further influence the development of

characteristics of women leaders, was not taken cognisance of. In future studies,

these broader aspects may be further considered, for an even more inclusive model

of derailment.

Whilst the primary aim of the study was not to explore opting out and voluntary

separation, it emerged during the study that these concepts may indeed be

linked to the derailment of women leaders. A possible shortcoming of this study

is that this was not explored in sufficient depth in order to make a meaningful

contribution and generate new insights into opting out and voluntary separation.

The study was qualitative in nature, and whilst the exploration yielded valuable

findings, it is believed that the utilization of a mixed-method methodology may

have led to deeper understanding of the constructs explored. The quantitative

elements of a mixed method approach would have allowed for an exploration of

the correlation between various constructs as well as for a larger sample size

with which to test the constructs under exploration.

The nature of a qualitative study is for the researcher to collaborate with the

participants and interpret and assign meaning to the experiences of the

participants. As such, meaning-making and interpretation by their very nature

are somewhat subjective. It is possible that new or different core and personal

constructs could have been identified, had the research been conducted by

another researcher. Different interpretations may open up different themes for

exploration. In addition, further exploration could have led to certain themes

being combined due to similarities in the constructs which they represent.


208

6.6 Recommendations

It is recommended that the following areas be considered for future research:

The characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders can be further

explored in the context of positive psychology as many of the personal and core

constructs explored appear to be related. Snyder and Lopez (2002) edited the

―Handbook of Positive Psychology‖, and identified constructs such as creativity,

well-being, optimism, hope, self-efficacy, goal-setting, humour and toughness as

being part of the positive psychology paradigm. Other positive psychology

constructs which could further be studied further in the context of leadership

derailment may include: sense of coherence, meaning-as-comprehensibility and

meaning-as-significance, forgiveness, dispositional optimism, positive illusions,

constructive thinking, subjective vitality, and resilience.

Whilst opting out and voluntary separation as they relate to leadership derailment

were not explored in depth in this study, a correlation between these concepts

appears to exist, which may warrant further research and exploration.

Of interest to me as the researcher was the role played by external factors in

developing characteristics which prevent derailment amongst women leaders. In

this regard, the following areas may merit further exploration and may be

interesting areas of study:

o the link between the core construction of a woman leader and her

relationship and experience of her mother and how this prevents

derailment;

o the role of parents exhibiting support of each other and modelling

behaviour of genders being equal, in preventing derailment; and

o the role of a mentor in the workplace modelling successful behaviour

which is aspired to, in preventing derailment.


209

The experience that women leaders have of balancing multiple roles and dealing

with responsibilities outside of work may very well be linked to their age. The

research participants were between the ages of 38 and 53 and it would be

interesting to explore the experiences of younger executives who function in a

context where there is a more equal gender distribution in the sharing of parental

and household responsibilities between partners. An exploration of the

differences between the experiences of babyboomers, generation X, generation

Y and millennial women leaders could yield useful findings.

6.7 Conclusion

The objective of the study as set out in Chapter 1 was primarily to explore the

intrinsic characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders. A further

objective of the study was to reach a holistic understanding of the phenomenon of

leadership derailment as it is experienced and interpreted by women leaders. The

personal construct systems of leaders who have not derailed were explored, within the

framework of grounded theory and personal construct theory.

The findings of the study revealed that women leaders who do not derail possess

a specific set of core and personal constructs which they have developed over time and

which govern their sense-making of the leadership landscape, guide the actions they

take, the behaviours they display, and ultimately the characteristics which they possess.

The framework developed in this study could contribute to a broader

understanding of the personal characteristics in preventing derailment, and provide new

insights into the alternative constructions available to women leaders, thus resulting in

the complete unleashing and unlocking of leadership potential in women executives.


210

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Annexure 1: Request for Participation

Dear XXXX

My name is Michelle. I‘m an Industrial Psychologist and am currently doing my PhD

though UJ on Women Leadership and what makes some women leaders so successful,

whilst others have had their careers derail.

XXXXX recommended that I contact you as you are a very successful in your role of

XXXXXX and may be willing to assist me with my research. I would really appreciate it if

you would be willing to spend some time with me, at a time that is convenient to you.

You and I will need to spend approximately 1 ½ hours to 2 hours at the most, and will

be engaging in an informal discussion about your experience as a women in a senior

role and the factors that have influenced your success, and ability to overcome potential

failures thus far.

With your consent, the discussion will be tape-recorded and transcribed. This will then

be returned to you to modify and review if necessary. The total time commitment for this

study will not exceed 2 ½ hours including a possible follow-up telephone conversation

should any issues need to be clarified and the time taken for you to review the transcript

should you wish to do so.

Our discussion will be completely confidential and your name or any other names you

may mention will not be disclosed to a third party. I will ask you to select a pseudonym


242

for inclusion in the final dissertation. All transcripts and recordings will be safely locked

away and destroyed after the completion of the study.

I will be meeting with 4 or 5 participants and if you would be interested in the findings of

the final thesis, I will happily provide this to you.

Your participation in this study will help to develop a better understanding of the factors

involved in making women leaders successful despite the barriers they face, which can

be used as a tool to guide and empower women into the future. I would really

appreciate your time. If you have any questions about any aspect of this research,

which may make it easier to decide whether you would be willing to be involved or not,

please feel free to contact me at any time.

I‘m looking forward to hearing from you and hopefully getting to know you better.

Warm Regards

Michelle Nobre


243

Annexure 2: Participant Details

Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3 Participant 4 Participant 5

Organisation A financial services

group listed on the

JSE Stock

Exchange

An independent

financial services

company, delivering

a broad range of

financial services.

A manufacturer of a

large range of

lighting products.

The group also

includes a

renewable energy

brand including

micro-wind turbines.

A large timber

organisation that

grow, harvest and

process pine

products for use by

the building and

furniture industry

across Southern

Africa.

A Golfing resort,

comprising three

18-hole golf

courses, two hotels,

a spa, three

restaurants,

conference and

event facilities and

a real estate

portfolio

Age 42 47 53 49 38

Title Head: Personal

Finance

Chief Operating

Officer

Chief Executive

Officer

Executive Manager:

Human Resources

Chief Executive

Officer

Number of direct

reportees

5 4 6 3 6

Length of time in

position

12 Years 3 years 6 years 4 years 5 years

Length of time in

company

21 Years 29 Years 27 years 4 years 5 years


244

Annexure 3

Informed Consent Form for _________________________________ (Name and

Surname)

Introduction

My name is Michelle. I‘m an Industrial Psychologist and am currently doing my PhD

through UJ on Women Leadership and what makes some women leaders so

successful, whilst others have had their careers derail.

Purpose of the research

Women remain underrepresented in senior management positions within organisations.

It is purpose of this study to explore the characteristics possessed by women executives

who have not derailed, or who have overcome derailment, which act as guards to

possible derailment.

Type of Research Intervention

This research will involve your participation in an interview that will take about 1 ½ to 2

hours.

Participant Selection

You have been approached to participate in this research as you are successful senior

manager and your experience as a woman in a senior role and the factors that have

influenced your success, are extremely valuable.

INFORMED CONSENT - EXPLORING CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT THE

DERAILMENT OF WOMEN LEADERS


245

Voluntary Participation

Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. If at any stage, you choose to no

longer participate, even subsequent to the interview having taken place, any information

provided by you will not be used in the research study.

Procedures

During the research, you will be asked to participate in an interview with myself in an

appropriate venue of your choosing. If you do not wish to answer any of the questions

during the interview, you may say so and I will move on to the next question. No one

else but the interviewer will be present unless you would like someone else to be there.

The entire interview will be tape-recorded.

Duration

The research takes place over 3 months in total. During that time, we will have one

interview which will be approximately 1 ½ hours to 2 hours at the most. The total time

commitment for this study will not exceed 2 ½ hours including a possible follow-up

telephone conversation (or face-to face interview, should you consent) should any

issues need to be clarified. This includes the time taken for you to review the transcript

of our interview should you wish to do so.

Risks

The possible risks to you are minimal. There is a small chance that you may experience

some discomfort, if, for example, the interview brings up past memories and

experiences that are not pleasant. All efforts will be made to keep any discomfort to a

minimum and post-interview support will be made available to you, in the form of referral

to an Executive Coach, to assist you in working through new insights or uncomfortable

memories.


246

Benefits

A possible benefit to you may be the development of a greater awareness and new

insights into yourself as a leader. Your participation in this study will help develop a

better understanding of the factors involved in making women leaders successful

despite the barriers they face, which will be used as a tool to guide and empower

women into the future.

Confidentiality

The interview will be completely confidential and your name or any other names you

may mention will not be disclosed to a third party. I will ask you to select a pseudonym

for inclusion in the final dissertation. All transcripts and recordings will be safely locked

away and destroyed after the completion of the study.

Sharing the Findings

I will be meeting with 4 or 5 participants and should you be interested in the findings of

the study, these will be provided to you.

I have read the foregoing information, or it has been read to me. I have had the

opportunity to ask questions about it and any questions I have been asked have

been answered to my satisfaction. I consent voluntarily to be a participant in this

study.

Print Name of Participant: ___________________________

Signature of Participant: ___________________________

Date: ___________________________


247

Annexure 4

Interview Guide for _________________________________ (pseudonym)

Introduction

Outline purpose of study, as per ―Request for Participation‖ form and ―Informed

Consent‖ form.

_____________________________________________________________________

Background to research Participant

Age:

Title:

Number of reportees:

Length of time in position:

Description of roles and responsibilities of position:

Length of time in company:

______________________________________________________________________

Core Construct – Construct of self

How would you describe yourself as a leader?

PROBE & APPLY LADDERING

What factors do you believe have made you successful as a leader?

INTERVIEW GUIDE - EXPLORING INTRINSIC CHARACTERISTICS GUARDING

AGAINST DERAILMENT OF WOMEN LEADERS


248


______________________________________________________________________

Personal Experiences of derailment

How would you define career derailment as it relates to Women executives?


Please describe your experience of of factors that could have led to your derailment? /

A particular situation?


Could you describe the events that led up to this experience?

Could you tell me about your thoughts and feelings at the time?

How did you deal with the situation?

What helped you to do this? (Internal & External things)

Could you describe the most important lessons you learnt through the experience

What helps you to manage/ deal with these situations? How have our thoughts and

feelings about being a women leader and derailment changed since this experience?

How have you grown as a person as a result of being confronted with …

______________________________________________________________________

What are some of the pitfalls that women fall into, which could contribute to their

derailment?


______________________________________________________________________

Explain “Opting Out” and “Voluntary Separation”.


249

Please share your view of if and how ―Opting Out‖ and ―Voluntary Separation‖ are

related to derailment?


_____________________________________________________________________

Is there anything else that you think I should know to understand … better

Thank-you & next steps

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