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Corn Wet Milled Feed Products Corn Wet Milled Feed Products
Corn WetMilled Feed
Products
Corn WetMilled Feed
Products
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Corn Refiners Association1701 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20006-5805202-331-1634 Fax: 202-331-2054
www.corn.org
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
4th EditionCopyright 2006
Member Companies and Plant Locations ............................ 2Foreword ............................................................................. 3The Corn Crop .................................................................... 4The Corn Kernel .................................................................. 5The Corn Wet Milling Process ............................................ 6Composition of Wet Milled Feed Products ......................... 8Applications of Wet Milled Feed Products ........................ 11Nutrient Values of Wet Milled Feed Products ...................19Analytical Examination of Feed Products ..........................24Literature Cited .................................................................. 25
TABLES1. Proximate Analysis of Yellow Dent Corn Grain ............ 52. Composition of Corn Wet Milled Feeds ....................... 203. Nutrient Composition of Corn Wet Milled Feeds ......... 214. Mineral Content of Corn Wet Milled Feeds .................. 225. Amino Acid Content of Corn Wet Milled Feeds ............ 23
FIGURES1. The Corn Kernel ............................................................. 52. The Corn Wet Milling Process ....................................... 7
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Archer Daniels Midland CompanyP.O. Box 1470Decatur, Illinois 62525
Cargill, IncorporatedP.O. Box 5662/MS62Minneapolis, Minnesota 55440-5662
Corn Products International, Inc.5 Westbrook Corporate CenterWestchester, Illinois 60154
National Starch and Chemical Company10 Finderne AvenueBridgewater, New Jersey 08807-0500
Penford Products Co.(A company of Penford Corporation)P.O. Box 428Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52406-0428
Roquette America, Inc.1417 Exchange StreetKeokuk, Iowa 52632-6647
Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas, Inc.(A subsidiary of Tate & Lyle, PLC )P.O. Box 151Decatur, Illinois 62521
MEMBER COMPANIES
Plants:Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52404Clinton, Iowa 52732Columbus, Nebraska 68601Decatur, Illinois 62525Marshall, Minnesota 56258-2744
Plants:Blair, Nebraska 68008-2649Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52406-2638Dayton, Ohio 45413-8001Decatur, Alabama 35601Eddyville, Iowa 52553-5000Hammond, Indiana 46320-1094Memphis, Tennessee 38113-0368Wahpeton, North Dakota 58075
Plants:Bedford Park, Illinois 60501-1933Stockton, California 95206-0129Winton-Salem, North Carolina 27107
Plants:Indianapolis, Indiana 46221North Kansas City, Missouri 64116
Plant:Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52404-2175
Plant:Keokuk, Iowa 52632-6647
Plants:Decatur, Illinois 62521Lafayette, Indiana 47902Lafayette, Indiana 47905Loudon, Tennessee 37774
PLANT LOCATIONS
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FOREWORD
Corn is the basic food plant of modern America and by far its mostversatile grain. The end products in which it is found are often farremoved from the farmer's field. Corn refining plays a major rolein the change from the golden ears of autumn to the beef, chicken,eggs, fish and other foodstuffs that grace our dining room tables.
From the corn refining (wet milling) process comes protein, fiber,minerals and vitamins to feed the cattle, fish, hogs and poultry thatenrich our diets. Corn wet milling feed products are an abundantsource of protein and energy. About 14 million tons, roughly 25 to30 percent of the corn used by the corn refining industry goes intofeed products.
The remarkable growth of the corn refining industry has madeincreasing quantities of high quality animal feed ingredients avail-able to U.S. and world markets. Along with this growth has comethe need for updated information about the use of corn wet milledfeed ingredients in animal rations. Members of the Corn RefinersAssociation, government agencies, universities and private institu-tions all contribute to the vast resources of nutritional informationnecessary to develop the most nutritionally efficient and economi-cally beneficial rations.
The Corn Refiners Association hopes that all those concerned withfeed formulation and animal nutrition will find this booklet informa-tive and useful in their day to day work. It describes briefly the pro-cess yielding the important ingredients coming from corn refining,reviews their special properties, presents compositional data neces-sary for using them in ration formulation and discusses use of theproducts in feeding various classes of animals. While we hope thatthe information provided is valuable, readers should understand thatthe feed industry is constantly changing. Researchers are continuallydiscovering new uses for corn derived products, furthering theknowledge of animal feeding requirements and applying their dis-coveries to the nutritional needs of the world's population.
Audrae EricksonPresidentCorn Refiners Association
Readers are advised that the information and suggestions containedherein are general in nature and that specific technical questionsshould be referred to the Association or member companies. Ques-tions concerning the price and/or availability of products describedshould be directed to individual Association members.
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THE CORN CROP
Corn (Zea mays) is grown inevery state: It is truly anAmerican crop. The UnitedStates has had an averageannual corn production of10.3 billion bushels for theyears 2001 through 2005. Tocomprehend this amount ofcorn, imagine that all thecorn was loaded onto railcars linked end to end. Asingle train loaded with theaverage corn crop wouldmore than encircle theglobe. Another way to envi-sion this quantity of corn isto realize that if the averagecorn crop was dividedequally among all Ameri-cans, every man, woman andchild would receive over 34bushels—a bushel equals 56pounds.
Corn is a very versatile grainthat benefits mankind inmany ways. Each year, 6billion bushels of corn areused as feed for cattle, hogsand poultry in the UnitedStates. Another 2 billionbushels are exported, whichis an integral part of thiscountry's balance of trade.
Approximately 2.9 billionbushels are converted tosweeteners, starch, flour,cereal, liquor, animal feeds,vegetable oils, alcohol forfuel and hundreds of otherproducts.
This portion of the crop isprocessed by three majorindustries: corn refiners,who produce starches, sweet-eners, ethanol, feed ingredi-ents, corn oil, organic acids,amino acids and polyols; drymillers, who produce flakinggrits, snack grits, corn mealsand corn flours; and distill-ers, who produce beverageand industrial alcohol. Thelargest of these industries,corn refiners, uses approxi-mately 15 percent of annualcorn production. Each ofthese industries also suppliesfeed ingredients. These cornderived feed ingredientsconsist primarily of the por-tions of corn remaining afterextraction of primary prod-ucts such as starch, flour andgrits. Different manufactur-ing processes are used byeach of these industries.
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THE CORNKERNEL
Corn kernels have threemain parts, the seed coat orpericarp, the starchy en-dosperm, and the embryo,commonly called the germ(Figure 1).
The pericarp is the outerskin or hull of the kernelwhich serves to protect theseed. The endosperm, themain energy reserve, makesup about 80 percent of thetotal weight of the kernel. Itis about 90 percent starchand 7 percent gluten (pro-tein), with the remainderconsisting of small amountsof oil, minerals and sometrace constituents.
Typical composition of corngrain is shown in Table 1.The embryo contains a min-
Characteristic Range AverageMoisture (% wet basis) 7 – 23 16.0Starch (% dry basis) 61 – 78 71.7Protein (% dry basis) 6 – 12 9.5Fat (% dry basis) 3.1 – 5.7 4.3Ash (oxide) (% dry basis) 1.1 – 3.9 1.4Pentosans (as xylose) (% dry basis) 5.8 – 6.6 6.2Fiber (neutral detergent residue) (% dry basis) 8.3 – 11.9 9.5Cellulose + Lignin 3.3 – 4.3 3.3 (acid detergent residue) (% dry basis)Sugars, Total (as glucose) (% dry basis) 1.0 – 3.0 2.6Total Carotenoids (mg/kg) 12 – 36 26.0
Reprinted with permission form White, P.J., and Johnson, L.A., eds., 2003, CornChemistry and Technology, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Table 1.Proximate Analysis ofYellow Dent CornGrain
iature plant made up of aroot like portion and five orsix embryonic leaves. Inaddition, there are presentlarge quantities of high en-ergy oil to feed the tiny plantwhen it starts to grow, aswell as many substancesrequired during germinationand early development.
Figure 1.A Kernel of Corn.
Endo
sper
m
Germ
Starchand
Gluten
Hull andFiber
Starch
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In the corn wet milling pro-cess, (Figure 2), the kernel isseparated into its componentparts, and those parts arethen further subdivided andrefined.
The wet miller buys shelledcorn which is delivered tohis plant by truck, barge orrail car. Normally #2 gradecorn is purchased, based onU.S. Department of Agricul-ture standards. The first stepin the process is to clean thegrain to remove extraneousmaterial such as pieces ofcob, foreign seeds, straymetal, fine dirt, or light un-wanted material. It then isconveyed to storage silos,holding up to 350,000 bush-els, until ready to go to therefinery.
The cleaned corn is trans-ported to large tanks calledsteeps. Warm water (125o
130oF) containing smallquantities of dissolved sulfurdioxide is circulated throughthe steeps for approximately40 hours. Soaking softensthe kernel and the dilutesulfurous acid formed byinteraction of the sulfur di-oxide and water (SO2 + H2O= H2SO3), controls fermen-tation and assists in separa-tion of the starch and pro-tein. During steeping, thesoluble components are ex-tracted from the intact ker-nel. At the conclusion of
steeping, the water is drainedfrom the kernels and concen-trated in multiple effectevaporators to yield concen-trated steepwater. This pro-tein rich extract may be usedas a nutrient for microorgan-isms in the production ofenzymes, antibiotics andother fermentation products.The major portion, however,is combined with fiber andgluten in the production ofanimal feed ingredients.
The softened corn kernelsnext pass through attritionmills to break them up,loosen the hull and free thegerm from the endo-sperm.Water is added to theattrition mills and a thickslurry of macerated kernelsand whole germ results. Be-cause the germ at this stagecontains 40-50 percent oil itis lighter than the en-dosperm and hull. Centrifu-gal force is used to isolatethe germ.
The clean, separated germ isthen dried and the crude oilis removed by mechanicalpresses and/or solvent ex-traction. The crude oil maybe refined to yield a finequality salad and cooking oilor a raw material for thepreparation of corn oil mar-garines. The extracted germmeal is used in animal feed.Further information on pro-duction and use of corn oil
THE CORN WETMILLING PROCESS
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Shelled Corn
CornOil
NutritiveSweeteners
StarchProducts
Feed Products
Corn Cleaners
Steep Tanks
Steepwater
GermSeparators
Germ
Grinding Mills Screens CentrifugalSeparators
Fiber Gluten
Germ Washingand Drying
Clean, DryGerm
GermExtractors
Corn SteepLiquor
Corn GlutenFeed
Corn GermMeal
HydrocloneStarch Washing
Refinery
Figure 2The Corn Wet Milling Process
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Fermentationand Other Chemicals
may be found in the bookletCorn Oil available from theCorn Refiners Associationwebsite, www.corn.org.
The remaining mixture ofhull and endosperm thenpasses through a series ofgrinding and screening opera-tions. The hull particles areremoved on screens, whilethe finer particles of proteinand starch pass through. Thehull is used as a constituentin animal feed or for produc-tion of refined corn fiber(bran) for food use.
Next, the water slurry ofstarch and gluten is sepa-
rated in centrifuges. Becausestarch and gluten differ indensity, almost completeseparation is obtained. Typi-cal operations yield a glutenstream containing over 60percent protein, while thestarch stream is over 99 per-cent starch. The gluten isdried and sold as glutenmeal (60 percent protein) orit may be used as an ingredi-ent in corn gluten feed (21percent protein).
The white, nearly purestarch slurry is furtherwashed to remove smallquantities of solubles. Atthis stage the starch slurry
SteepwaterEvaporators
Corn GlutenMeal
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may be diverted to makesweeteners or further pro-cessed to make any common(unmodified) corn starch.Various modified orderivatized starches may beproduced by treating theslurry of washed starch withchemicals or enzymes. Aftertreatment, the products arerecovered by filtration orcentrifugation and the starchis dried. Information on thestarch and sweetener prod-ucts of the corn wet millingindustry may be found in thebooklets Corn Starch andNutritive Sweeteners fromCorn available from theCorn Refiners Associationwebsite, www.corn.org.
COMPOSITIONOF WET MILLEDFEED PRODUCTS
The four major feed prod-ucts derived from corn wetmilling are described as fol-lows by the Corn RefinersAssociation:
Corn gluten feed is thatpart of commercial shelledcorn and process residualsthat remain after the extrac-tion of the larger portion ofthe starch, gluten and germby the process employed inthe wet milling manufactureof corn starch and cornstarch derivatives. It may ormay not be pelletized, andmay or may not containcorn steep liquor and/orcorn germ meal. It may con-
tain up to 0.5 percent byweight of a nutritive or non-nutritive, inert, non-toxicconditioning agent to im-prove flowability. It may notcontain other products thatare blended or admixed afterits initial manufacture, orafter pelleting.
Corn gluten feed is a me-dium protein, medium en-ergy ingredient. It is widelyused in complete feeds orconcentrate for dairy andbeef cattle, poultry (layerand turkey breeders), swine,and as a carrier for addedmicronutrients. It is com-monly provided at around 20percent protein at 10 percentmoisture.
A number of facilities alsooffer wet corn gluten feed.Wet corn gluten feed ismade by screening and press-ing wet corn fiber to reducethe water content. It can besold as is, or combined withsteep liquor, corn germ mealor fermentation residues toproduce a product with ap-proximately 40 to 60 percentdry matter. Wet corn glutenfeed is commonly used indiets for feedlot cattle anddairy cattle.
Corn gluten feed is a majorproduct in internationaltrade in feed ingredients andlarge volumes of U.S. corngluten feed are exported to
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the European Union. A bi-lateral agreement betweenthe U.S. and the EU providesadditional requirements forcorn gluten feed exported tothe European Union that arecontained in the EuropeanUnion Harmonized TariffSchedules. That definitionstates that the applicabletariff number for corn glutenfeed "includes only residuesfrom the manufacture ofstarch from maize, and doesnot cover blends of suchresidues with products de-rived from other plants orproducts derived from maizeotherwise than in the courseof the production of starchby the wet process, contain-ing: screenings from maizeused in the wet process in aproportion not exceeding 15percent by weight, and/or;residues of maize steep-wa-ter, from the wet process,including residues of steep-water used for the manufac-ture of alcohol or otherstarch derived products;
These products may alsocontain residues from theextraction of maize germ oilby the wet milling process."European Union customs*regulations also specify lim-its for starch, fat and proteincontent for imported corngluten feed. The Corn Refin-ers Association makes avail-able a program for U.S. pro-ducers to certify that theirexports meet these defini-tions and analytical require-ments. This certificate, alongwith a certificate of analysisfrom the USDA FederalGrain Inspection Service, isrequired by the EU as a con-dition of normal customstreatment.
Corn gluten meal is a highprotein, high energy ingredi-ent consisting of protein(gluten) separated in thecorn wet milling process incombination with minimalquantities of starch and fi-brous fraction not recoveredin the primary separation.
* The combined customs nomenclature of the EU places corngluten feed in tariff classification 2309.90.20 with the followingadditional requirements: “Their starch content may not exceed28% by weight on the dry product in accordance with the methodcontained in Annex I(I) to Commission Directive 72/199/EEC,their fat content may not exceed 4.5% by weight on the dry prod-uct determined in accordance with method A contained in AnnexI to Commission Directive 84/4/EEC and their protein contentmay not exceed 40% on the dry product determined in accordancewith the method contained in Annex I(2) to Commission Direc-tive 72/199/EEC.” (See http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/customs/customs_duties/tariff_aspects/combined_nomenclature/index_en.htm)
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This high energy proteinconcentrate is commonlyprovided at 60 percent pro-tein. Corn gluten meal is avaluable source of methion-ine to complement othercommonly used proteinsources. The high xantho-phyll content of corn glutenmeal makes this productparticularly valuable as anefficient pigmenting ingredi-ent in poultry feeds. Corngluten meal is also an excel-lent feed ingredient forcattle, providing a high levelof rumen-protected protein.
Corn germ meal is a me-dium protein, medium en-ergy ingredient obtainedfrom the corn germ fractionafter the corn oil has beenremoved.
Since germ represents only asmall portion of the kernel,only a limited quantity ofcorn germ meal is available.It is generally used as aningredient in corn glutenfeed. It is useful as a carrierfor liquid nutrients and iscommonly provided at 20percent protein.
Corn steep liquor (alsoknown as condensed fer-
mented corn extractives) is,on a dry matter basis, a highprotein, high energy liquidingredient consisting of thesoluble portions of the cornkernel removed by the steep-ing process and concentratedto high solids.
Corn steep liquor is some-times combined with otheringredients in corn glutenfeed or may be sold sepa-rately as a liquid proteinsource for beef and dairyfeeding, or as a nutritionalpellet binder. It is a valuablesource of B-vitamins, miner-als and unidentified growthfactors.
Amino acids produced bycorn wet millers throughfermentation of dextroseprovide a vital link in animalnutrition systems. Mostgrain feeds do not have theamount of lysine requiredby swine and poultry foroptimal nutrition. Economi-cal corn based lysine is nowavailable worldwide to helpsupplement animal feeds.Threonine and tryptophanfor feed supplements pro-duced from corn are alsoavailable.
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Optimum nutrition of eachclass of livestock and poultryis of primary concern to thefeed manufacturer. Each of thecorn wet milled feed productscontributes different nutri-tional characteristics to thefinished feed in which they areused. In general, the four ma-jor ingredients supplied byrefiners are classified as “pro-tein supplements” accordingto the National ResearchCouncil. In addition to therange of total protein content,the four feedstuffs each havedifferent levels of various es-sential amino acids, vitaminsand minerals.
With numerous ingredients tochoose from, feed formulatorsgenerally use computer solu-tions for feed compoundingquestions. Information is en-tered concerning the nutri-tional characteristics of eachavailable ingredient, its priceand availability. Then thenutritional needs of the animalbeing fed are entered. Thecomputer program recom-mends a complete feed for theanimal, meeting all its nutri-tional requirements fromavailable ingredients. With theuse of computer modeling topredict nutrient requirements,nutrient management is im-proved through less overfeed-ing, increased efficiency ofnutrient utilization, maxi-mized performance and en-hanced economic benefit.
APPLICATIONSOF WET MILLED
FEEDPRODUCTS
While much of today’sfeed formulation involveseconomic considerations,specific properties of sev-eral wet milled feed prod-ucts, aside from price, con-tribute much to theirusage.
Beef CattleRuminants, such as beefand dairy cattle and sheep,are unique as food produc-ers in that they can com-bine carbon skeletons,obtained from fermenta-tion of cellulosicfeedstuffs, and nitrogenfrom other sources to pro-duce meat, milk and wool.However, to maximizeefficiency of production,high producing dairy cowsand rapidly growing calvesrequire supplemental pro-tein which escapes ruminaldegradation and is digestedand absorbed in the smallintestine.
Corn gluten meal wasfound to be an effectiveprotein source for beefcattle as early as 19331.Corn gluten meal plusurea was equal to soybeanmeal in supporting growthof calves and lambs2. Corngluten meal was an effec-tive substitute for soybeanmeal when alternating dayprotein supplementationof cattle grazing corn-stalks3. Corn gluten meal is
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an excellent source of slowlydegraded protein4-6 withapproximately 60 percent ofthe protein escaping the ru-men7, 8 and passing into thesmall intestine where it isreadily absorbed 9. For ex-ample, the quantity of lysineabsorbed from the smallintestine was similar whenan equal amount of corngluten meal and soybeanmeal protein was fed. Thehigh rumen escape of lysinein corn gluten meal relativeto soybean meal, and highbioavailability of the corngluten meal protein, madethis possible.
The potential for corn glutenmeal to improve efficiencyof protein utilization hasbeen demonstrated in thegrowing calf6 and high pro-ducing dairy cow10, 11. Corngluten meal in combinationwith other nitrogen sourcesoffers the opportunity toformulate supplementswhich are nutritionallyequal to many natural pro-tein supplements, but with aconsiderable cost savings.Corn germ meal has beenshown to be an excellentsource of supplemental fat inbeef finishing diets12.
Corn steep liquor has beendemonstrated to be a usefulingredient in beef cattle feed-ing. Up to 15 percent wassuccessfully fed in concen-
trate mixtures for growingcrossbred calves13. Adding 5percent steep liquor concen-trate to corn forage atensiling significantly in-creased digestibility of drymatter, crude protein, crudefiber and nitrogen-free ex-tract (NFE) with growingcattle14. Corn steep liquorwas an effective proteinsource for wintering dry,pregnant cows on nativerange15, 16.
Dry corn gluten feed pelletsare an excellent source ofprotein, energy and mineralsin beef cattle diets. Corngluten feed, either as dry,wet or ensiled, could be sub-stituted for up to 50 percentof the dry matter in high-concentrate diets for cattleand sheep, comparing favor-ably with corn + urea orcorn + soybean meal diets17.High dietary levels (up to 80percent of the diet) sup-ported cattle gains that werenearly equal to those ofcattle fed corn silage18.Growing steers fed cornsilage-based diets supple-mented with dry corn glutenfeed pellets grew faster andrequired less feed per unit ofgain than did those fed asimilar diet supplementedwith soybean meal19. Thevery low acid detergent in-soluble nitrogen values ofcorn gluten feed suggest thatthe crude protein is nearly
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100 percent available20. Indiets for growing-finishingcattle, corn gluten feed pel-lets were found to have 86-90percent of the energy ofcorn21, 22. When supplement-ing high-forage growing di-ets, the corn gluten feed wasfound to be equal to corn inenergy due to the comple-mentary effects on ruminalfiber digestion18, 23, 24. Thiscomplementary effect occursbecause the fiber-digestingmicrobial population in therumen is maintained withcorn gluten feed; whereas ashift towards a starch digest-ing microbial populationoccurs when high-starchcereal grains are fed. This isespecially important whensupplementing beef cows fedhay-based diets25, 26. The highphosphorus content of corngluten feed is also an asset inphosphorus deficient high-forage diets. Corn glutenfeed is an effective supple-ment for beef cattle grazingnative range27-29 or fed nativegrass or prairie hay26, 30.
Wet corn gluten feed ismade by screening and press-ing wet corn fiber to reducethe water content so thatwhen combined with steepliquor, the final productcontains approximately 40percent dry matter. Wetcorn gluten feed is very pal-atable and tends to increasedry matter intake when
added to feedlot diets. Be-cause of its high digestibil-ity, wet corn gluten feed isan excellent source of pro-tein, energy and roughage inmedium to high energy dietsfor feedlot cattle17. Wet corngluten feed has an energyvalue as high as 95 percent ofcorn on an equal dry matterbasis when fed in typicalfeedlot diets. This value maybe even higher if part of theroughage is replaced withwet gluten feed or if the dietsare fed at restricted intake.The need for additionalroughage is greatly reducedor eliminated when 50 to 70percent wet corn gluten feedis fed in a finishing diet22.
Dairy CattleDairy cattle also benefitfrom the excellent feedingvalue of corn gluten feed.Dry corn gluten feed canincrease feed intake andmilk production when addedto typical corn-corn silagelactation diets. Diets contain-ing as much as 60 percentdry corn gluten feed havebeen fed successfully to lac-tating cattle31. Changingrations of lactating cows toinclude 20 percent dry corngluten feed and 20 percentconcentrate in place of 40percent concentrate did notaffect feed intake, milkyield, milk composition,body condition or levels ofmetabolites or minerals in
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blood serum32. Up to 27percent of dietary dry matterwas successfully includedwithout loss of milk yield,percentage of milk proteinand non-fat solids33. A com-bination of 20 percent corngluten feed and 1 percentsodium bicarbonate was aneffective replacement forneutral detergent fiber(NDF) from corn silage22.Dried corn gluten feed wasfound to be a satisfactorysource of energy, proteinand fiber when it comprised15 to 20 percent of feed drymatter34.
Wet corn gluten feed is alsoan excellent source of pro-tein, energy and digestiblefiber for lactating dairycows. Fat-corrected milkproduction was maintainedwhen wet corn gluten feedreplaced corn and soybeanmeal at 25-30 percent of thediet dry matter in corn-cornsilage based diets35, 36. Milk-fat percentage increasedlinearly as dietary level ofwet corn gluten feed in-creased from approximately20 to 40 percent36, 37. Re-search suggests that wet glu-ten feed can replace at least33 percent of the neutraldetergent fiber in forage-based diets for dairy cattlewithout changing theacetate:propionate ratio38,which is necessary for main-taining high milk fat levels.
When wet corn gluten feedwas fed as 90 percent of thediet to dairy replacementheifers, daily gain and feedefficiency were significantlyimproved compared withheifers fed alfalfa haylage,oatlage or sorghum-soybeansilage based diets39.
Corn steep liquor has be-come an important source ofprotein, energy and phospho-rus in liquid feed supple-ments for beef and dairycattle. Corn steep liquor isequal to soybean meal andequal or superior to urea as acrude protein source in feed-lot diets40, 41. A liquid supple-ment containing 71 percentcorn steep liquor was equalto cottonseed meal as asupplemental protein sourcefor cows grazing dormantnative range. Supplementblocks are often used to pro-vide nutrients for rangecattle. Corn steep liquorserves as both a nutrientsource and binder in manyrange block formulations. Apelleted combination of rawsoybean hulls and con-densed corn steep liquorsuccessfully replaced a por-tion of the forage, grain andsoybean meal in diets forlactating dairy cows withoutdecreasing lactational perfor-mance42. Corn steep liquorwas fed at 10 percent levelsin concentrate mixtureswithout affecting the produc-
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tion and efficiency of lactat-ing cows with an economicadvantage43.
SheepThe nutritive value of corngluten meal for sheep hasbeen known for manyyears44, 45. Dry and wet corngluten feed are excellentsources of nutrients forgrowing lambs22, 46. Lambsfed diets containing 50 per-cent dry corn gluten feedpellets grew as fast as lambsfed corn based diets supple-mented with sunflower orsoybean meal19. Dietarycorn gluten feed levels above50 percent of the diet are notrecommended in order toavoid copper toxicity19.When finishing lambs werefed diets containing 25 or 50percent dry corn gluten feed,which was substituted on anequal dry matter basis forcorn silage, rate of gain andfeed efficiency were im-proved47. On an equal-pro-tein basis, dry corn glutenfeed was equal to corn plussoybean meal for finishinglambs17. Corn gluten mealcan be used to partially re-place corn and soybean mealin diets for lambs 48, feedlotsheep49 and lactating ewes50.
PoultryNutritional requirements ofpoultry vary greatly, depend-ing on type of bird and stageof production. Recognition
of the value of corn glutenmeal was noted in 1935 inturkey diets51 and in 1939 indiets for chicks and layinghens 52. Corn gluten meal isused frequently in broilerdiets due to its unique nutri-tional qualities. Because of itshigh protein (60 percent) andenergy content, it is ideallysuited for the nutrient-densehigh-efficiency diets soughtby the broiler industry. Feed-ing trials have demonstratedthat corn gluten meal canreplace animal protein indiets for broilers53-55. Corngluten meal is high in xantho-phylls, the carotenoid pig-ments which give egg yolksand poultry their goldenyellow pigmentation 56. Thexanthophyll from corn glutenmeal has been shown to havehigh value in pigmentingbroiler skin 57 and the yolksof eggs58. Energy content ofcorn gluten meal is secondonly to that of pure fats andoils among available ingredi-ents. The high linoleic acidcontent is also important inhelping to meet the rela-tively large essential fattyacid requirements of chick-ens59. Corn gluten meal isalso high in methionine, anessential amino acid defi-cient in many feed ingredi-ents. The methionine in corngluten meal is highly digest-ible by chicks60, being ap-proximately 98.9 percentdigestible. The lysine and
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metabolizable energy (ME)of corn gluten meal is alsohighly digestible61.
Corn gluten feed can be sub-stituted for 15 percent of thecorn and soybean meal inbalanced diets of layinghens, without decreasingfeed efficiency or egg pro-duction62, 63. Some studieshave demonstrated that ashigh as 20 percent corn glu-ten feed could be included inlayer diets without a nega-tive impact on economicproduction64. Recent re-search shows that the me-tabolizable energy value ofcorn gluten feed for broilerscan be as high as 2.8 to 3.1Kcal/g, which is muchgreater than the 1.8 Kcal/g inthe 1994 NRC requirementsfor poultry56, 65.
With the rapid expansion ofthe turkey industry, there isconsiderable opportunity tomake efficient utilization ofcorn gluten feed in turkeyproduction. Turkey poultscan effectively utilize 10-20percent corn gluten feedwhen diets are balanced tobe isocaloric andisonitrogenous to typicalcorn-soy basal diets66.
Corn germ meal is an excel-lent source of amino acidsfor poultry due to the desir-able balance of essentialamino acids and its high
energy content. Up to 22percent corn germ mealcould be successfully used inbroiler diets67 while the in-clusion of up to 50 percentcorn germ meal in layerdiets did not affect the per-formance, internal egg qual-ity or egg shell quality68.
Dried corn steep liquor con-centrate is a useful productin diets for broilers69-72, lay-ing hens73 and turkeys 73.Inclusion of corn steep li-quor concentrate in layerdiets results in an improve-ment in internal albumenquality as indicated by in-creased Haugh units73, 74 thatmay be economically benefi-cial in older hens whereinterior egg quality typicallydeclines.
SwineThe first trial evaluatingcorn wet milled feed prod-ucts for swine was con-ducted in 192075. Since thattime, our understanding ofthe pig’s nutrient require-ments and the ability of cornwet milled feed products tomeet these requirements hasbecome much more sophisti-cated. Corn germ meal hasbeen shown to be equal tosoybean meal as a proteinsource for the growing pig76.Defatted corn germ meal hasbeen demonstrated to beeffective in diets for growingand finishing pigs at levels of
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15 to 40 percent of the diet77-79.
Pelleted corn gluten feed canreplace up to 30 percent of thecorn in a corn-soybean mealdiet for the finishing pig with-out reducing performance80-84.If supplemental lysine andtryptophan are added, corngluten feed can replace bothcorn and soybean meal at lev-els up to 30 percent of the diet.Pelleting corn gluten feed im-proves nitrogen retention byincreasing tryptophan and/orenergy availability. Corn glu-ten feed contains approxi-mately 80 percent of the en-ergy of corn for the growingpig85. Corn gluten feed has anME value of 2.77 Kcal/g of drymatter86. For gestating sows, itcontains 70 percent of the en-ergy of corn, which makes itan excellent source of nutri-ents because feed intake andweight gain are deliberatelyrestricted87. Gestating dietscontaining as much as 50 per-cent corn gluten feed haveallowed adequate feed intakeand weight gain88.
Corn steep liquor with germmeal and bran has been usedas a supplemental proteinsource in corn and sorghumgrain based diets for pigs, witha nitrogen-corrected ME of3.79 Kcal/g dry matter89. Thisproduct can provide up to 30percent of the total dietarylysine without depressing per-formance of the growing pig 90.
PetsCorn wet milled feedproducts are desirablenutrient sources for thepet food industry. Pet foodmanufacturers use cornwet milled feeds to pro-vide optimum nutrientdensity for each physi-ological stage of life.
Corn gluten meal is a com-mon ingredient in manypet foods91-93. Because it is60 percent protein and highin metabolizable energy,corn gluten meal providesmuch nutrition in a nutri-ent-dense package. Thisallows manufacturersgreater flexibility in addingother products with lowernutrient densities to im-prove diet acceptability,appearance, handling prop-erties and shelf life.
The available cystine con-tent in corn gluten mealenhances the palatabilityof dry, extruded cat foods.The linoleic acid and me-thionine content of corngluten meal aids in coatcondition for all compan-ion animals 94. Corn glutenmeal was found to be com-parable to fish meal innutritive value and urineacidifying effect in dietsfor cats95.
Obesity is a factor contrib-uting to the reduced life
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span of many pets. Dietsdesigned to provide optimumnutrition for each physiologi-cal stage of life will help alle-viate this problem. Severallines of low-calorie pet foodsare available that enable thepet to receive all essentialnutrients, without excessivecalories. Corn gluten feedhas been a major ingredientin these foods because of itsmedium protein and energycontent. Corn gluten feed,containing 6 to 10 percentcrude fiber, is a good sourceof fiber and a valuable aid incontrolling obesity in adultdogs.
RabbitsRabbit production is impor-tant in many parts of theworld. Corn gluten meal hasbeen reported to be a nutri-tive feed ingredient in thediet of growing rabbits inseveral studies96-98.
FishAquaculture has become abig business in the UnitedStates and around the worldas consumers search for newand economical sources offood protein. Because of thisincrease, fish nutritionistshave intensified their searchfor the most efficient andeconomical feed sources forcatfish, rainbow trout, tila-pia and other commercialbreeds. Corn gluten meal,with its 60 percent protein
content, is well suited as aprotein source for fish. Al-though corn gluten mealmay be limiting in certainamino acids required forfish, these may be includedthrough use of various aminoacid supplements or otherfeedstuffs while maintainingthe economic advantages forthe entire formulation.
Research has shown thatcorn gluten meal and corngluten feed can be efficientand cost-effective replace-ments for fish meal. Tilapiafed balanced diets contain-ing 16 percent corn glutenmeal or corn gluten feedperformed as well as fishconsuming diets containingfish meal94. In a 75-day feed-ing study, diets containingcorn gluten meal with 32 or36 percent crude proteinyielded higher weight gain,higher protein efficiencyration, and better or equalfeed conversion ratio valuesof tilapia than a commercialfish feed containing 36 per-cent protein and fish meal 99.The intensities of flavorcharacteristics of cookedfilets of tilapia raised onpellets containing 23 and 34percent corn gluten mealwere not significantly differ-ent from fish fed commer-cial feed without corn glutenmeal100. Diets with up to 50percent corn gluten feedhave been successfully used
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NUTRIENTVALUES OF WET
MILLED FEEDPRODUCTS
in diets for pond-raised cat-fish101. Protein from corngluten meal was able to re-place one third of the fishmeal protein in diets forturbot102 and up to 60 percentof the fish meal protein indiets for gilthead sea breamjuveniles with no negativeeffects on fish perfor-mance103. Corn gluten mealcould replace up to 40 per-cent of fish meal protein indiets for Japanese flounder104
and 23 percent of fish mealprotein in diets for the Aus-tralian short-finned eel105.
Corn gluten meal is also animportant source of caro-tenoid pigments (xantho-phylls) that contribute todesirable pigmentation infarm-raised fish. Glutenmeal is a natural source ofthese pigments in contrast toseveral other pigmentationadditives that are producedthrough chemical processes.
As users of feed ingredientsfrom the corn refining indus-try know, many consider-ations go into their decisionsto use a particular ingredient.Corn refiners are, of course,only one among many reli-able ingredient suppliers forthe feed industry. Each con-tributes ingredients whichmeet individual requirementsof the manufacturer.
As the corn refining business
has expanded, more of itsproducts have been availableto feed manufacturers. Cornrefiners today ship over 11million tons of feed productsannually. In today’s businessatmosphere, where feedmanufactures need every bitof flexibility possible, cornrefiners offer valuable prod-ucts to meet their needs.
Data in Table 2 show thetypical nutrient concentra-tions in the four major cornwet milled feedstuffs. Majorconsiderations for animalfeed formulators such asenergy density for differentspecies are shown in Table3. Table 4 contains the typi-cal mineral content offeedstuffs from corn wetmilling and Table 5 showstypical vitamin and aminoacid contents of the feeds.The tables include data on“dry matter”, a commonterm in the feed industry,which equals 100 — the per-cent moisture as determinedby an appropriate analyticalmethod.
Data contained in Tables 2-5are “typical” values and donot represent guaranteedcompositions. Such factorsas changes in corn composi-tion, geographical distribu-tion, processing and storageconditions can influence
20
feedstuff composition. Con-sequently, users of thesetables are cautioned thatindividual product samplesmay vary from the valuescited in these tables. Becausecomposition of wet corngluten feed varies dependingon the manufacturing loca-tion readers are advised toobtain composition data forthis product from their sup-plier.
EnergyMetabolizable energy intakebelow the requirement is themost common cause of sub-optimum performance bylivestock and poultry. Corngluten meal has a very highlevel of metabolizable en-ergy for all classes of live-stock and poultry. Rumi-nants, such as cattle and
sheep, metabolize the great-est amount of energy fromcorn gluten feed because oftheir ability to effectivelyutilize the fiber components.This is the reason cattle de-rive almost as much energyfrom gluten feed as fromcorn gluten meal. Researchhas shown that the net en-ergy gain of wet corn glutenfeed is 0.6 mcal/lb106.
Corn gluten feed and corngerm meal are similar towheat millfeeds and otherhigh-fiber grain co-productsin metabolizable energycontent for poultry andswine. Often overlooked,corn steep liquor is an excel-lent source of energy forlivestock and poultry whenexpressed on a dry matterbasis.
Unit Corn Gluten Corn Gluten Corn Germ Corn Steep Feed Meal Meal Liquor
Dry Matter % 87-90 90 90 50Protein % 18-22 60 20.5 23Fat % 2-5 2.5 1 0Fiber % 6-10 2.5 12 0 Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) % 13 5 14 0 Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) % 35 — — 0 Ash % 6.5-7.5 1.8 3.8 8
Additional DataDensity lb/cu.ft. 25-30 33-36 24-28 10.5Xanthophylls mg/lb 16 225 0 0Linoleic Acid % 2.2 3.2 .5 0
— Data Not Available
Table 2.Composition of Corn Wet Milled Feeds
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FiberStructural carbohydrates incorn wet milled feeds are highin hemicellulose, moderate tolow in cellulose and low inlignin. Steeping corn in diluteacid increases the susceptibil-ity of hemicellulose to micro-bial attack. Corn celluloseswells during the steepingprocess and is also quite vul-nerable to cellulolytic bacte-ria, especially when fed in thewet form as with wet corngluten feed. The primary fibercomponent measured by thecrude fiber assay is cellulose.Consequently, these datashow (Table 2) that celluloseis very low in gluten meal andabsent from corn steep liquor.
FatsFats are the most concen-trated form of metabolizableenergy available to the feedindustry. Corn steep liquor
is the only wet milledfeedstuff that does not con-tain an appreciable amountof fat (Table 2). The unsatur-ated nature of these fats mayenhance utilization of satu-rated fats in other feedstuffsby poultry59. In ruminants,unsaturated fatty acids arehydrogenated by ruminalmicroflora. This tends toincrease the metabolizableenergy available to rumi-nants by removing hydrogenfrom the rumen, resulting inless methane production.The essential fatty acids,linoleic, linolenic andarachidonic are required inall diets. Corn wet milledfeeds, with the exception ofcorn steep liquor, containcorn oil which is high inlinoleic acid. This is espe-cially important to poultry,which have a high require-ment for linoleic acid.
Unit Corn Gluten Corn Gluten Corn Germ Corn Steep Feed Meal Meal Liquor
Dry Matter % 90 90 90 50Ruminants TDN % 80 75 67 40 Net Energy Gain mcal/lb .60 .60 .44 - Maintenance mcal/lb .80 .85 .70 - Lactation mcal/lb .77 .80 .69 -
Metabolizable EnergySwine kcal/lb 1130 1600 1360 920Chicks kcal/lb 830 1760 770 725Hens kcal/lb 830 1760 770 725Turkeys kcal/lb 830 1760 770 725
Table 3.Nutrient Composition of Corn Wet Milled Feeds
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Amino AcidsThe amino acid requirementsof swine and poultry havebeen well defined. Aminoacid concentrations of cornwet milled feeds are ex-pressed as a percentage of thefeed in Table 5. Corn germmeal contains the highestquality protein of the fourfeedstuffs, as it is nearly ad-equate in lysine, methionineand tryptophan. Corn glutenmeal is high in methionineand essential amino acids.This is very useful to the feedmanufacturer in that it allowsutilization of low-proteinfeedstuffs in combinationwith corn gluten meal toformulate a nutritionallybalanced diet at the lowestcost. Corn gluten feed canserve as a useful amino acidsource in swine and poultrydiets when synthetic aminoacids or natural proteinsources are added that
complement its amino acidprofile.
Dietary amino acid require-ments of ruminants are lesswell defined than are those ofswine or poultry because themicrobial population in therumen converts both feedprotein and non-protein ni-trogen to microbial protein.Optimum protein utilizationoccurs in the ruminant whenjust enough dietary protein isdegraded in the rumen tosupport maximum microbialprotein synthesis with theremainder being digested inthe small intestine. Corngluten meal is ideal for rumi-nants because 60 to 70 per-cent of the protein escapesruminal digestion and isavailable in the small intes-tine. Corn gluten meal is alsohigh in methionine which isoften times the first-limitingamino acid in microbial pro-
Unit Corn Gluten Corn Gluten Corn Germ Corn Steep Feed Meal Meal Liquor
Dry Matter % 90 90 90 50Calcium % 0.05 .07 .04 .14Phosphorus % 1.00 .48 .30 1.80Potassium % 1.50 .20 .34 2.40Magnesium % 0.50 .08 .30 0.70Sulfur % 0.30 .65 .30 0.60Sodium % 0.15 .06 .07 0.11Iron ppm 363 282 337 110Zinc ppm 250 31 92 70Manganese ppm 58 7 4 29Copper ppm 13 24 4 15
Table 4.Mineral Content of Corn Wet Milled Feeds
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tein. Consequently, feedingcorn gluten meal to highproducing ruminants in-creases the amount and qual-ity of amino acids availablefor absorption107, 108.
MineralsMinerals are essential to allanimals in that they givestructural integrity to bonesand teeth, help regulate bodypH and osmolarity and act ascofactors for a multitude ofenzymes. Corn wet milledfeedstuffs are high in phos-phorus (Table 4), which is themost costly mineral rou-tinely added to livestock andpoultry diets. Thesefeedstuffs are also excellentsources of potassium, magne-sium and sulfur. Sulfur is
especially beneficial in dietsfor ruminants containinglarge amounts of non-proteinnitrogen. Wet milledfeedstuffs are also a goodsource of trace minerals,particularly iron and zinc.These feedstuffs are low incalcium and sodium, whichare relatively inexpensive toadd to most diets.
VitaminsVitamins are essential toanimals in that they are re-quired for metabolism ofother dietary nutrients. Cornwet milled feeds are goodsources of most of the B-vita-mins and choline (Table 5).Corn gluten meal is a goodsource of carotenoids, whichhave vitamin A activity.
Unit Corn Gluten Corn Gluten Corn Germ Corn Steep Feed Meal Meal Liquor
Dry Matter % 90 90 90 50VitaminsCholine mg/lb 688 160 738 1550Niacin mg/lb 32 27 13 38Riboflavin mg/lb .9 .9 1.8 2.7Thiamin mg/lb .9 .1 2 1.3Biotin mg/lb .15 .08 .1 .15Carotene mg/lb 3 7.27 .9 0
Amino AcidsArginine % .78 2.08 1.30 1.00Histidine % .61 1.40 0.69 .70Isoleucine % .88 2.54 .69 .70Leucine % 2.20 10.23 1.79 2.0Lysine % .64 1.01 .90 .80Methionine % .37 1.78 .58 .50Threonine % .78 2.20 1.09 .90Tryptophane % .15 .30 .20 .05
Table 5.Amino Acid Content of Corn Wet Milled Feeds
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ANALYTICALEXAMINATION
OF FEEDPRODUCTS
Members of the Corn Refin-ers Association maintain thehighest quality control stan-dards on their products.However, some variation innutrient content of feedstuffsproduced at various plants isinevitable. When formulat-ing diets for economic ad-vantages, knowing the exactnutrient concentration is ofcritical importance.
Through its Technical Af-fairs Committee, the CornRefiners Association hasdeveloped a number of ana-lytical methods applicableto examination of corn wetmilled feedstuffs. Thesemethods are published inAnalytical Methods of theMember Companies, available
from the Association’swebsite, www.corn.org.
In addition to those methodsdeveloped by the Corn Refin-ers Association, the Associa-tion of Official AnalyticalChemists has developed ana-lytical methods for someproperties not included in theCorn Refiners Associationmethods (such as neutral andacid detergent fiber, aminoacids, acid detergent lignin)which may be used in theexamination of feedstuffs.Together, these methodsprovide detailed proceduresto accurately determine theconcentration of nutrientsand other important proper-ties of wet milled feed prod-ucts.
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