1
Counseling Concerns of Gifted and Talented Adolescents:
Implications for School Counselors
Susannah Wood
University of Iowa
Counseling Concerns 2
Abstract
Gifted students may seek school counselors for help with concerns regarding various
aspects of their gifted experience. The purpose of this study was to determine which
counseling concerns are experienced by gifted students. While underachievement and
identity were not reported to be concerns encountered by 153 participants enrolled in a
summer residential program, they did report concerns tied to multipotentiality, social
acceptance, perfectionism and fear of failure and over half reported they asked for help
on some of the reported concerns they experienced. Findings from this study have
implications for school counselors working with gifted students in the academic, career
and personal/social domains.
Counseling Concerns 3
Counseling Concerns of Gifted and Talented Adolescents:
Implications for School Counselors
Recently, the school counseling profession has highlighted school counselors’
involvement with their gifted students (Milsom & Peterson, 2006; Peterson, 2006). The
American School Counselor Association position statement on gifted and talented
students asserts that the school counselor assists in “providing technical assistance and
an organized support system within the developmental comprehensive school
counseling program for gifted and talented students to meet their extensive and diverse
needs as well as the needs of all students” (American School Counselor Association
[ASCA], 2003a, p. 10). This statement also outlines several responsibilities in which the
school counselor can engage, including the identification of gifted students; the
advocacy for counseling activities which address the academic; career and
personal/social needs of the gifted through individual and group guidance; the provision
of resources and materials; raising awareness of gifted issues and engaging in
professional development activities in order to facilitate their continuing education of the
psychology ;and development of gifted students (ASCA, 2003a). Professional school
counselors who ground their work in the National Model (ASCA, 2003b) may then
extrapolate their central identity question of “how are my students different as a result of
the school counseling program?” to this particular population by asking “how are my
gifted students different as a result of the school counseling program?”
To answer this question, school counselors must first determine who the gifted in
their buildings are. Several models have offered multiple views and explanations of
giftedness (Dabrowski, 1972; Gagné, 2003; Karolyi, Ramos-Ford & Gardner, 2003;
Counseling Concerns 4
Sternberg, 2003; Tannenbaum, 2003). The Public Law 107-110 or the No Child Left
Behind Act of 2001, applies the gifted label to students who give evidence of high
achievement capability in areas similar to that of the 1972 Marland report: intellectual,
artistic, leadership, and specific academic fields. Most states base their identification
practices of gifted students on the classifications of giftedness in these domains. Gifted
students, 3 to 5% of the student population, are those identified by virtue of outstanding
abilities, performance and achievement in the above areas. For the purposes of this
article, giftedness is defined as those students demonstrating achievement in the areas
of visual and performing arts and humanities.
Counseling and the Gifted Student
Blackburn and Erickson (1986) entitled the counseling concerns gifted students
experienced “predictable crises,” because they were understood to be challenges that
most gifted students would face at some point during their development. In 1986,
challenges included developmental immaturity, underachievement, female fear of
success, multipotentiality, and experiences with “non-success” or situations in which
gifted students were not initially successful in attempted tasks (Blackburn & Erickson).
Over time, researchers and gifted educators have included other challenges, concerns
and “crises.” In their review of the gifted literature, Neihart, Reis, Robinson and Moon
(2002; Robinson, 2002a) suggested these challenges can be synthesized and grouped
into the following areas: gifted students’ asynchronous development when compared to
non-gifted peers, gifted students’ ability to manage and regulate their emotional
responses, and gifted students’ membership in groups with special needs (culturally
diverse backgrounds, rural populations, GLBTQ, and gifted students with disabilities).
Counseling Concerns 5
Gifted students also encounter concerns and challenges that their non gifted peers
experience such as moving, illness, separation, divorce and remarriages within the
family, death or loss, peer conflicts, abuse and neglect, and substance abuse
(Peterson, 2006); but gifted students’ traits and characteristics can make these
incidences harder to cope with gifted students to experience them differently than their
non-gifted peers. Robinson (2002) concludes that
there is no research evidence to suggest that gifted and talented children are
any less emotionally hardy than their age peers. There are, however, aspects of
their life experiences due to their differences from other children and the fact that
most of them demonstrate greater maturity in some domains than others that
may put them at risk for specific kinds of social and emotional difficulties if their
needs are not met (p. xiv-xv)
While there is no consensus as to whether or not gifted students have a greater
or lesser need for counseling than their non-gifted age-mates (Colangelo, 2003; Neihart,
1999), there are two different and opposing views on the matter. On the one hand,
gifted students are seen to be as well adjusted as their non gifted peers that they need
no differentiated services for their social-emotional development, or on the other, these
students by their very nature of being gifted have unique interpersonal and intrapersonal
needs from that of the general population (Colangelo, 2003; Gallagher, 2003;
Grossberg & Cornell, 1988; Gust-Brey & Cross, 1999; Neihart & Robinson, 2001). Over
the years empirical research has tried to determine the merits of each viewpoint
(Neihart) with no evidence that proposes that gifted students are any less emotionally
robust than their non-gifted chronological age peers (Robinson, 2002a). However, being
Counseling Concerns 6
gifted does not guarantee immunity from problems and gifted students are just as likely
as their non gifted peers to be susceptible to anxiety, depression and suicide
(Gallagher, 2003). Colangelo (2003) writes that while the majority of gifted students will
develop in a healthy, well-adjusted manner, there will be a “sizable minority who are
psychologically at risk and need counseling that is focused on their needs” (p. 373).
While there is a recognized need for counseling services, especially for gifted
adolescents (Moon, Kelly & Feldhusen, 1997; Yoo & Moon, 2006), there is a lack of
empirical research exploring the counseling concerns and challenges as experienced by
gifted and talented students as well as what theories, techniques and activities school
counselors can employ in their service to this population (Moon, 2002; Peterson, 2006).
School counselors who review the ASCA position statement discussed above may
notice that part of their responsibility in providing assistance and a support system for
their gifted students is to advocate for counseling activities that address the academic,
careers and personal/social needs of these students (ASCA 2003a, p. 10). To provide
the best possible support for gifted students, it is important for school counselors to
recognize the nature of those needs.
Hence, the purpose of this study was to determine which of the counseling
concerns or “predictable crises” described in the literature were reported by gifted and
talented adolescents and whether they sought their school counselors for help
regarding those concerns. For the purposes of this article, counseling concerns refer to
the challenges of underachievement, multipotentiality, social acceptance, identity
development, perfectionism, and fear of failure which are experienced by gifted
students. These broad topics categorize synthesize some of the most frequently cited
Counseling Concerns 7
concerns noted in the literature and in empirical research in gifted education with a
variety of stakeholder groups including students (Yoo & Moon, 2006), parents (Moon
Kelly & Feldhusen, 1997), and educators (Colangelo, 2003). Further attention in order to
facilitate the school counselor’s awareness of how these concerns may manifest
themselves in the classroom, office, and in homes and communities.
Counseling Concerns
Underachievement
Currently, one of the greatest concerns in gifted education is the loss of gifted
students who underachieve (Colangelo, 2003; Rimm, 2003). Exactly who are gifted and
underachieving students is difficult to determine and definitions of underachievement
vary (Colangelo, 2003), yet reports place 10 to 20% of high school drop-outs as testing
in the gifted range (Davis & Rimm, 1997; Rimm, 2003; Seeley, 2003). Understanding
the experience of these students should be a priority of school counselors. Among the
many interrelated factors attributed to underachievement among the gifted is the lack of
challenge in curricula, the slow pace of teaching and delivery, and the repetition of skills
and content already mastered (Gallagher, Harradine & Coleman, 1997; Reis &
McCoach, 2000; Ries & Purcell, 1993; Whitmore, 1986). When they are not challenged,
gifted students experience boredom, frustration and question their purpose and
commitment to academic pursuits (Rimm, 2003; Rogers, 2002). Other students,
especially gifted females and gifted students from minority backgrounds, are confronted
with the uncomfortable dilemma of achieving academically at the risk of losing social
standing and popularity among peers who do not consider academic achievement as
socially acceptable (Brown & Sternberg, 1990; Rimm, Rimm-Kauffman & Rimm, 1999).
Counseling Concerns 8
Multipotentiality and Career Concerns
Due to their advanced abilities, gifted students are often perceived as having the
necessary capabilities and skills to make appropriate decisions as to “what to do with
the rest of [their] lives,” even though these students need just as much, if not more
guidance and support when wrestling with these issues (Frederickson, 1986; Greene
2002). In the discussion of gifted students’ career choices, the concept of
multipotentiality usually arises. While several definitions of multipotentiality have been
linked to talent areas, abilities, interests, or a combination of these concepts (Achter,
Lubinski & Benbow, 1996; Colangelo, 2003); traditionally these definitions refer to gifted
students who have an “embarrassment of riches” (Gowan, 1980, p. 67) or who are
experiencing the “overchoice syndrome” when interest, ability, motivation and
opportunity are all plentiful (Rysiew et al., 1999, p. 424). For the purposes of this article,
mulitpotentiality is defined by Greene (2006) as “the ability to do many things at very
high level so competence and enjoyment” (p. 36).
Regardless of the definition used, gifted students encounter difficulties in
narrowing a single career from several feasible options, in the pressure of expectations
of others, and in making commitments in the face of doubts about choices made
(Rysiew et al., 1999). Fear of making the “wrong” decision, not finding the “right”
college, fear of disappointing others, or failure to find the “perfect” career may create
procrastination of the college and career search or the choice of a “safe” college major
(Greene, 2002; Greene, 2006; Kerr, 1991; Rysiew, et al., 1999). Gifted students may
also encounter heavy pressure from family and educators to “fulfill” their potential and
choose a career that others believe will provide them with challenge, esteem and
Counseling Concerns 9
success, to the extent that some may sacrifice personal satisfaction in order to meet
these expectations, and to gain approval or love (Greene, 2006). Concerns such as
societal expectations for future contribution, prestige, family expectations, status, high
earning power, and conflicting values as relayed to them by different people in their
environment can be troublesome when careers and higher education are being
discussed (Delisle, 1986; Silverman, 1993d).
Identity
Adolescence comes with great upheavals as well as opportunities for students to
determine a sense of how their individual gifts will contribute to the future (Schultz &
Delisle, 2003). One of the primary tasks of adolescence is to resolve the dilemma
between identity and role confusion (Erickson, 1968). Concerns pertaining to the
exploration of both gender and cultural identity arise during this period. In essence,
gifted students must make sense and meaning of who they are as individuals.
A gifted adolescent’s quest for identity is further complicated by conflicting
societal messages regarding gender and sex roles. Differences regarding life
aspirations begin to manifest between young men and women during adolescence
(Delisle, 1992). Parental influences, issues relating to teachers, and grades in school
become external barriers for gifted girls, while loss of belief in their abilities, social
problems and isolation, concerns about future education, multipotentiality,
perfectionism, and issues of achievement become internal obstacles that must be
confronted (Reis, 2002). Gifted boys, on the other hand, must contend with defining
their identity, transitioning to manhood with a lack of initiation rites, and receiving
Counseling Concerns 10
conflicting messages regarding masculinity, leadership, engagement, and intimacy (Kerr
& Cohn, 2001; Kerr & Foley Nicpon, 2003).
Culturally diverse students may encounter challenges to their academic and
social self-concepts. Interpersonal challenges that culturally diverse gifted students face
can include underachievement as impacted by academic self- concept and social self-
concept, social injustices and discrimination, psychological issues, and the navigation of
cultures and values (Ford, 2002; Ford & Harris, 1999; Patton & Townsend, 1997). Gifted
students from culturally diverse backgrounds are continually confronted with
externalized discrimination, racism, and bias inside the educational institution (Evans,
1993; Ford, 2003). With their advanced cognitive abilities and perception, these
students learn about these injustices at an early age through experience and acutely
feel the pain related to them (Lindstrom & VanSant, 1986). Culturally diverse gifted
students in adolescence must develop a sense of racial identity as part of the
developmental process. However, this identity formation is challenged by several
factors. These students must also attempt to fit in among different and competing
cultures and values including mainstream culture, the students’ culture of origin, and the
gifted culture (Patton & Townsend).
Social Acceptance
The degree to which gifted children have positive social experiences seems to
vary based on age, educational environments, and their gifts (Rimm, 2002). In
adolescence, the perceptions of others are important for both social and academic
success. Generally, young gifted students seem to be socially accepted, but this
acceptance changes upon adolescence (Rimm) in which giftedness is considered
Counseling Concerns 11
positive when it pertains to academic benefits, but negative in terms of peer
relationships (Kerr, Colangelo, & Gaeth, 1988). Students may view themselves
positively but also believe that they are treated differently by their classmates
(Manaster, Chan, Watt, & Weihe, 1994). Manaster et al. (1994) found that positive
attitudes were displayed towards gifted students by those who knew them, but that the
attitudes became more negative towards the gift as the degree of familiarity with the
student decreased (Manaster et.al.).
A choice many gifted adolescents must face is which they would choose if faced
with either being smart or being popular. While gifted students may not mind being
known as academically oriented, they may not want to have that orientation
underscored to the point where it sets them apart from their peers or in a way that would
identify them as a “geek” or “nerd” (Brown & Sternberg, 1990; Cross, Coleman &
Terhaar-Yonkers, 1991). Gifted students are aware that they are different, or at the very
least, they assume peers perceive them as such and will treat them differently if the
giftedness is made known (Coleman, 1985; Cross, 2004; Rimm, 2002).
Hence, an additional concern is the small pool of peers with whom gifted
students can find affiliation and belonging. In comparison studies between gifted and
non-gifted students, social acceptance is a greater concern for gifted students and
gifted students have a more difficult time finding peers with equivalent talents and
intelligence (Austin & Draper, 1981). Some gifted students cannot or do not choose to
make the same age friends, or choose students who are older and share either abilities
or interests (Schultz & Delisle, 2003). Gifted students may worry about how they will be
perceived if they opt for a few significant friends.
Counseling Concerns 12
Perfectionism and Fear of Failure
Perfectionism continues to be a highly discussed and researched topic in both
gifted education and in psychology. Over time there have been different beliefs
regarding perfectionism including viewing the trait as either one dimensional or
multidimensional, positive or negative, or as a continuum of behaviors and feelings
(Schuler, 2002). On the one hand, perfectionism has been seen as a neurotic,
debilitating, unhealthy, and destructive trait; while on the other, it is seen as an adaptive
behavior indicating high standards, and a striving towards excellence and personal
potential (Hamachek, 1978; LoCicero & Ashby, 2000; Pacht, 1984; Parker & Adkins,
1995; Parker & Mills, 1996; Schuler, 2002).
Reviews of the empirical literature are mixed; some suggest that gifted students
are more perfectionistic than their non-gifted age mates and others disagree (Parker,
2000; Schuler, 2002). Voices contributing to the literature on giftedness and
perfectionism also disagree on whether or not perfectionism is healthy and on how it
should be measured (Greenspon, Parker & Schuler, 2000). Eating disorders,
depression, substance abuse, suicide and underachievement have been suggested as
negative manifestations of perfectionism in the gifted (Keiley, 2002). However, analyses
on the lives of eminent people point to the fact that perfectionism is a consistent theme
described both as the dedication and desire to work, stressing the importance of high
levels of aspiration, holding high personal standards, and the dissatisfaction with
accomplishments (Parker & Adkins, 1995). Some authors contend that perfectionism in
gifted students is adaptive and a force behind positive achievement, but their behaviors
Counseling Concerns 13
can be misconstrued by adults or school professionals (LoCicero & Ashby, 2000; Parker
& Mills, 1996).
Clark (1997) writes that at the heart of perfectionism is fear, typically the fear of
failure. Some gifted students may not be able to cope with fear of failure well. Roberts
and Lovett (1994) found that when gifted students were exposed to failure, they
demonstrated more negative reactions and irrational beliefs about that failure than their
non-gifted peers. For some students, being less than perfect is equated to not being
good enough and many students will choose to shut down, withdraw, or experience
panic if they do not know an answer and will avoid any situation in which failure could
be an option (Silverman, 1993c).
School Counselors and Gifted Counseling Concerns
School counselors are in a unique position to deliver needed services to gifted
students revolving around the counseling challenges described above. Professional
school counselors working within the framework of the ASCA model have the necessary
skills to advocate for gifted needs, and the potential for leadership to acquire additional
services to benefit gifted youth.
However, to provide those services, there is a need for further study about how
gifted students experience these counseling concerns and to whom they go for support
when they encounter them. There have been few investigations into outcomes of the
counseling process involving adolescents or what students encounter in their
experiences in counseling (Smith-Jobski, 2003). What anecdotal evidence does exist
supports the idea that gifted teens believe school counselors are available and
appropriate for others, but not for them as a gifted students (Peterson, 2003). Hence, it
Counseling Concerns 14
is unknown which counseling concerns gifted students in the visual and performing arts
and humanities experience and if they seek school counselors for help coping with any
or all of them.
Thus, the field of school counseling is lacking a unique voice, perhaps the most
important voice of all, if it wishes to determine, via data-driven programs, how their
services successfully impact gifted and talented students. Therefore, the purpose of
this study, as part of a larger exploratory study investigating gifted and talented
adolescents’ experiences in school counseling, was to begin to fill this gap in the
literature base, by providing information on what counseling concerns
(underachievement, multipotentiality, identity concerns, social acceptance concerns,
perfectionism and fear of failure) gifted and talented adolescents encounter according to
their own opinion and experience, and how frequently they utilize their school
counselors for help on these concerns.
Method
Participants
Participants were 153 gifted and talented adolescents in a southeastern state
identified as gifted in visual and performing arts and humanities. This state
conceptualized giftedness per the Marland (1972) report, and designated students as
gifted whose abilities and potential for accomplishment in areas (intellectual aptitude,
specific academic aptitude, technical and practical arts aptitude, visual and performing
arts aptitude) are so outstanding that they require special programs to meet their
educational needs (Stephens & Karnes, 2003). Participants were identified as gifted in
this state by demonstrating outstanding abilities or potential for accomplishments
Counseling Concerns 15
through the screening of multiple criteria including assessments of appropriate student
products, performance, and/or portfolios, and additional valid and reliable measures or
procedures (Stephens & Karnes, 2003). Participants were enrolled in a summer
residential program specifically for aptitudes in the visual and performing arts and
humanities during the summer of their sophomore or junior year of high school.
Participants’ entrance into the program was based on multiple criteria including an
adjudicated performance or portfolio, grade point average requirements, nominations
and recommendations, and essays. Age was not used as a demographic variable;
however, the majority of students in the summer program were juniors in high school
with the average age of 16. Participants were part of a single-stage convenience
sample.
Demographics
Of the 153 participant cases analyzed, 38 males (24.8%) and 114 females
(74.5%) were represented, with one participant choosing not to identify his/her sex
(.7%). One hundred fifteen (75.2%) participants who completed the instrument identified
themselves as White/Caucasian, 9 (5.9%) as Hispanic/Latino, 3 (2.0%) as African
American, 12 (7.8%) as Asian/Pacific Islander, 2 (1.3%) as American Indian/Alaskan
Native, 0 indicated they were Native Hawaiian, and 7 (4.6%) identified their
race/ethnicity as “Other”. Five (3.3%) did not identify their race or ethnicity. The majority
of participants were identified as gifted in the southeastern state in which the program
was held (86.9%), identified in the 1st to 3rd grades (55.6%), and attended public school
(90.2%).
Counseling Concerns 16
Instrument
The Gifted and Talented Adolescent’s Experiences in School Counseling II (GT-
ASC II) survey was a sixty-seven item questionnaire designed to measure gifted
adolescents’ experiences in school counseling. Survey items were developed from a
thematic analysis of current gifted counseling best practices for counseling the gifted
student found in the both the conceptual literature and empirical research in gifted
education; specifically, the most frequently cited counseling concerns of gifted students,
counselor-student relationship, activities and areas of exploration, as well as suggested
resources, activities and skills. Best practices for counseling gifted students which
appeared the most frequently in the literature as suggestions for all counselors in
working with gifted youth (ex: discussion of the meaning of giftedness) were added as
items in the form of phrases or prompts. Items asked respondents to rank the degree to
which a counseling strategy, technique, or programming aspect happened to them.
Subsections in the GT-ACC II include the following: demographics, the
Counseling Relationship, Counseling Concerns, Personal and Interpersonal Skills, Self-
knowledge and Awareness, the Pursuit of Excellence, and school counseling program
offerings. While it is beyond the scope of this article to provide details of each item and
participant response, a sample of items is provided in Table 1.
Of interest here is the Counseling Relationship subsection which included six
items developed by careful analysis of both conceptual gifted literature as well as
empirical studies concerning what challenges and concerns gifted students might
encounter during their talent development that might bring them to or e addressed by
counseling. These items illustrated in Table 2, entailed four descriptors of possible
Counseling Concerns 17
Table 1
Sample items from GTASC-II
When you last left the school counselor’s office, to what extent did you feel that:
Not at all / did not apply A bit Mostly Completely
Your concerns were dismissed 1 2 3 4
Your time was well spent 1 2 3 4
You were supported and encouraged 1 2 3 4
How frequently did the following topics come up when you met with your high school counselor? Never A bit Frequently
Almost Always
Problem-solving skills 1 2 3 4
Setting appropriate interpersonal boundaries between myself and others
1 2 3 4
Communicating with others 1 2 3 4
How inner conflict is sometimes a part of growth
1 2 3 4
My school’s definition of “gifted” and/or “talented” 1 2 3 4
What it is like to be a person with a gift or a talent
1 2 3 4
Counseling Concerns 18
Table 2
Items Describing Counseling Concerns and Participant Reponses (N=153)
Counseling Concerns n %
Underachievement Concerns
None of these 79 51.6
Wanting to drop out of school 4 2.6
Not wanting to appear “too smart” 29 19.0
Questioning my commitment to my studies 39 25.5
Not reported 2 1.3
Multipotentiality Concerns
None of these 6 3.9
Choosing the “right” college or career path 72 47.1
Having too many options or interests 49 32.0
Not knowing how to fit my talents with a career
path or college
26 17.0
Identity Concerns
None of these 80 52.3
Making sense of being a talented male/female 10 6.5
Making sense of being a talented person of color 3 2.0
Balancing my talent with typical concerns of a teen 59 38.6
Not reported 1 .7
Counseling Concerns 19
Counseling Concerns n %
Social Acceptance Concerns
None of these 57 37.3
Fitting in 18 11.8
How people perceive me 57 37.3
Feeling different 17 11.1
Not reported 4 2.7
Perfectionism Concerns
None of these 16 10.5
Trying to be perfect at everything I do 45 29.4
Pressure to achieve 32 20.9
Managing expectations of self/others 60 39.2
Fear of Failure Concerns
None of these 38 24.8
Fear of failing at what I do 103 67.3
Fear of doing too well 3 2.0
Fear that more will be asked of me 6 3.9
Not reported 3 2.0
Counseling Concerns 20
experiences pertaining to each of the six categories of developmental concerns or
“predictable crises” (Blackburn & Erickson, 1986).
Items in the Counseling Concerns subsection were constructed in following
areas: Underachievement Concerns, Multipotentiality Concerns, Identity Concerns,
Social Acceptance Concerns, Perfectionism Concerns, and Fear of Failure Concerns.
Each item had four choices illustrating possible ways this concern could have been
experienced from which participants could chose in addition to a “none of these” choice,
indicating that the participant did not experience the concern in any of the ways listed
For example, participants responding to having concerns related to underachievement
could respond by indicating whether or not they had experienced wanting to drop out of
school, not wanting to appear “too smart” or questioning their commitment to their
studies. . Each choice was directly tied to the literature pertaining to the specific
concern. Table 2 illustrates each item in this area along with participant responses.
A seventh item, “asking for help,” was intended to capture if and when
participants sought their school counselors for help for any of the concerns they chose
in previous items. Participants were given the following choices to indicate whether they
sought help on any of the concerns listed in the item above: 1. not having any concerns,
2. never asking for help on any of their concerns, 3. asking for some help, or 4. asking
for help on all of the concerns to which they reported they experienced. Table 3
illustrates this item with participant responses.
The GT-ASC II completed by the participants was the second version based on
feedback from a piloting of an initial instrument at a small southeastern college. The 73
participants in the pilot were 18-22 year olds who reported themselves as having been
Counseling Concerns 21
Table 3
Participant Responses to “Ask for help”
To what extent have you asked for help from
your high school counselor on any of the issues
you chose above:
n
%
I didn’t have any of the concerns above. 5 3.3
I have never asked them for help on any of my concerns. 64 41.8
I did ask for help on some of my concerns. 80 52.3
I asked for help on all of my concerns. 4 2.6
identified gifted and talented. Of these 56 (76.7%) were female and 17 (23.3%) were
male. The majority 48 (65.8%) were identified gifted in the state in which the college
was located; however, several participants were identified in other states.
Procedure
Parents and guardians of 400 participating students at a southeastern residential
summer program for individuals who were gifted in visual and performing arts and
humanities received a consent form for their gifted adolescent to take part in the study
approximately two weeks before the opening of the program. Parents completed this
form and returned it via US mail or to a staff member on the opening day of the
program. Upon receipt of parent permission forms, formal invitation forms were sent to
those members of the sample with parental permission the first weekend of the
program. Invitations described the nature of the study, outlined the procedures for
Counseling Concerns 22
completing the instrument online, and contained a randomized digit at the upper right
hand corner, which served to identify the participant responses when they were
submitted online across multiple web “pages”. This digit did not serve to identify the
participant in any way. No master list of random digits was kept that could link
participant responses to participant identity. Participants with parent permission were
sent reminders at the end of the second week of the program and again at the end of
week three. Participants were able to complete the survey at any time online during the
program. Paper copies of the survey were made available the last week of the program
to students with parent permission who did not have either time or computer access to
complete the survey on-line. Students were emailed with an additional request to
complete the survey online within a one-week window if they did not already do so
during the program.
The total number students enrolled for the summer 2005 program was 400. Of
the four hundred parent permission forms that were sent, 178 were returned,
constituting a 45% return rate. Of those, approximately 86 participants completed the
instrument online, while another 71 completed the instrument on paper for a total of 157
participants. Paper responses were merged with online responses in SPSS as if they
were captured electronically. Although this was seen as a viable way to aggregate the
data, it did pose a limitation that is subsequently addressed. Of the 157 participants,
153 (97%) completed all sections of the GT-ASC II, with four participants not completing
at least two parts of the survey. The data provided by these four participants was not
used the following data analyses. The 153 participants represented 38% of the original
400 eligible students.
Counseling Concerns 23
Results
Participants reporting of their experiences with various counseling concerns
varied. The majority of respondents indicated that neither underachievement nor identity
issues were of concern to them. However, participants did report experiences with
multipotentiality, social acceptance, perfectionism and fear of failure (Table 2).
The majority of participants (96%) indicated that they experienced a counseling
concern pertaining to multipotentiality, such as being concerned about choosing the
“right” college or career path, having too many options or interests, or not knowing how
to fit their talents with a career path or college. Participants responding to social
acceptance concerns had various experiences. Sixty percent of participants indicated
they had experienced some concern pertaining to this issue, such as how they were
perceived, or fitting in and feeling different. In addition, while the concerns varied,
almost all participants (90%) reported having experienced concerns tied to
perfectionism including trying to be perfect, feeling pressure to achieve and managing
the expectations of self and others. Seventy-three percent of participants also reported
having experienced some sort of concern tied to the fear of failure, especially fear of
failing at what they did.
Meetings with the School Counselor
Participants were asked to indicate how frequently they utilized their school
counselors for help on the concerns described above. Of the 153 responses, 5 (3.3%)
participants reported that they did not have any of the concerns above; 64 (41.8%)
participants reported that they never asked for any help on any of their concerns; 80
(52.3%) participants cited that they did ask for help on some of their concerns; and, 4
Counseling Concerns 24
(2.6%) participants reported that they asked their school counselor for help on all of the
concerns they cited above. Table 3 illustrates participant responses to the “Asking for
Help” item, and Table 4 by type of counseling concern reported and talent area. Talent
domain areas were then recoded into two variables with 1 representing visual and
performing arts areas (music, dance, theater, and visual art) and 2 representing the
humanities. Table 5 illustrates how participants responded to “asking for help” by
condensed talent area (visual and performing arts vs. humanities).
Participants originally chose from a series of statements describing their
experiences with the counseling concerns listed (Table 2). For further analyses, these
choices were recoded to 0 (participant did not report any of the statements as
describing their experiences) and 1 (participants did report one of the statements as
describing their experience with the counseling concern). Additionally, responses for
asking for help were recorded into a dichotomous variable (0 = did not report asking for
help on any of the concerns, and 1 = did report asking for help on any of the concerns).
Independent T-tests were performed to determine differences in reported concerns and
asking for help by talent area. No significant differences were found.
Counseling Concerns 25
Table 4
Participant Responses to “Asking for Help” by Counseling Concern and Talent Area
Under-
achievement Multipotentiality
Career Identity Social
Acceptance Perfectionism Fear of Failure
n n n n n n
Music Ask For Help:
No 6 11 7 8 10 8
Ask For Help: Yes 7 12 7 5 10 8
Theater Ask For Help:
No 5 7 5 4 5 6
Ask For Help: Yes 5 7 4 5 7 7
Dance Ask For Help:
No 5 7 3 6 8 7
Ask For Help: Yes 1 7 4 3 5 4
Counseling Concerns 26
Table 4 cont.
Participant Responses to “Asking for Help” by Counseling Concern and Talent Area
Under-
achievement Multipotentiality
Career Identity Social
Acceptance Perfectionism Fear of Failure
Visual Art Ask For Help:
No 3 4 3 3 4 3
Ask For Help: Yes 2 9 3 5 9 7
Humanities Ask For Help:
No 16 36 15 28 35 30
Ask For Help: Yes 22 47 21 35 44 32
Counseling Concerns 27
Table 5
Participant responses to “Ask for help” by Condensed Talent Area
Talent Area
Asked for Help: No n
Ask for Help: Yes
n
Visual and Performing Arts 32 35
Humanities 37 48
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore whether or not gifted students
experienced the counseling concerns or “predictable crises” described in the literature
and to what extent they utilized their school counselor for help on these concerns
(Blackburn & Erickson, 1986). Findings indicated that the majority of participants did not
have concerns regarding underachievement or identity while the majority of participants
indicated that they had experienced concerns related to multipotentiality, social
acceptance, perfectionism, and fear of failing. School counselors who ground their
comprehensive, developmental counseling programs in the ASCA National Model, can
better serve their gifted students through service delivery designed to address these
concerns.
The majority of participant responses indicated that they experienced concerns
related to the area of multipotentiality and career planning which were consistent with
the literature (Blackburn & Erickson, 1986; Colangelo, 2003; Greene, 2002; Rysiew,
Shore & Leeb, 1999; Silverman, 1993d). Forty-nine participants cited having too many
Counseling Concerns 28
options or interests as a primary concern; however, others indicated that choosing the
right college or career path or fitting their talents with that path were of concern. While
72 participants’ definition of “right” was unknown, literature has suggested gifted
students typically consider self-expectations and obligations, parental expectations and
values, societal expectations based on future production, and considerations of success
as defined by potential earnings and social status when making decisions about careers
and colleges (Colangelo; Greene; Silverman). Gifted students may feel pressure to
choose the appropriate career to fulfill these implicit expectations in order to not
disappoint others (Greene), and make commitments in terms of future time, money and
training to a path about which they may have “serious reservations” (Colangelo, 2003,
p.377; Rysiew, Shore, & Leeb). These findings also underscore the need for gifted
adolescents to receive appropriate career planning (Yoo & Moon, 2006).
Social acceptance has been cited in the literature frequently as a developmental
challenge faced by gifted students who, due to their gifts and talents, may encounter
difficulties finding like-minded peers or supportive peer groups (Silverman, 1993b;
Greene, 2002). Ninety-two (60%) participants indicated that they had experienced some
concern related to social acceptance such as fitting in, feeling different, or how people
perceive them. These findings support previous reports that gifted students often feel
different, assume others perceive them as different, experience paying the prices of
social acceptance for academic success, and may chose different coping strategies to
minimize the difference the gifted label or “stigma” may heighten (Brown & Steinberg,
1990; Cross, Coleman & Tehaar-Yonkers, 1991; Manaster et al., 1994; Rimm, Rimm-
Kaufman & Rimm, 1999; Swiatek, 2001).
Counseling Concerns 29
While the debate over whether or not perfectionism is more typical of gifted
students and whether or not it is healthy or maladaptive, the concept permeates the
literature pertaining to gifted students (Schuler, 2002). Participants’ responses in this
study do not suggest that their sole concern was trying to be perfect at everything they
did. Some participants (60) reported being mainly concerned with managing
expectations they had of themselves and others. Parental and educational expectations
have been documented in the empirical studies as factors in perfectionism, self-concept
and underachievement (Dixon, Lapsley, & Hanchon, 2004; Parker, 1997; Siegle &
Schuler, 2000). The finding that 32 participants reported they had experienced the
pressure to achieve underscores that this is a common phenomenon with gifted
students (Rimm, 2003). One unknown is how the participants experienced this concern
since the item did not distinguish whether the participants’ experiences with
perfectionism were negative or positive.
Over 100 participants reported that they had experienced the fear of possibly
failing at what they tried to do. Hence, findings in this study indicate that gifted
adolescents do, in fact, experience this concern (Blackburn & Erickson, 1986) and
emphasize that the idea that the concepts of perfectionism and fear of failure are
complex constructs involving several different concepts which may be difficult to
measure (LoCicero & Ashby, 2000; Parker & Adkins, 1995; Schuler, 2002).
Nature of Counseling Sessions
A total of 69 participants (45%) reported never having any of the concerns
reported or not going to their high school counselor for help on them, while 84 (55%)
reported that they did go to their counselor for all or some of these concerns. However,
Counseling Concerns 30
these findings raise additional questions. While the results demonstrate participants
who experienced counseling concerns sought their school counselor for help, what is
not known, due to limitations with the items, is for which of the concerns participants did
request help from their school counselors.
Limitations
There were several limitations to this study including the nature of the study, the
sample of participants and the extent of their knowledge and experiences, and issues
surrounding the use of an on-line survey.
First, the sample was limited in generalizability to gifted adolescents talented in
the performing arts and humanities in one southeastern state. There was no
comparison sample of non-gifted peers nor were students considered talented in other
domains such as math and science included. The diversity of the sample, including race
and gender while representative of the summer program’s population at the time, was
limited. In addition, there were only 153 participants. While the total pool of accessible
students was approximately 400, parental consent and student voluntary assent
decreased the amount of participant response.
Second, the instrument used to capture participant experiences, while based on
established research, and piloted, had not been normed for use on large samples of
students, gifted or non-gifted. Initial items were constructed from an analysis of
frequency in the literature regarding best practices in counseling services to the gifted.
Items were revised after the pilot study. Items for the pilot and subsequent versions
were also reviewed by one expert in the field of gifted education with over thirty years of
experience.
Counseling Concerns 31
Third, the instrument was given in two ways. First, participants had the
opportunity to complete the survey in an online format. While several studies have
determined that the use of online surveys is a viable way of capturing data, this format
also may be limited in several ways including response rates, social desirability,
familiarity with online survey formats and time (Granello & Wheaton, 2004; Kraut, Olson,
Banaji, Bruckman, Cohen, & Couper, 2004; Richman, Kiesler, Weisband & Drasgow,
1999; Schonlau, Fricker & Elliott, 2002). If computer access or time was a constraint for
them, participants could also complete the survey by paper in the last week of the
program or online one week subsequent to the completion of the program. Both
electronic and paper-based responses were merged to facilitate data aggregation, but it
is possible differences in responses to items based on which venue participants chose.
Last, what was under investigation here was the student participants’
experiences with documented counseling concerns and the frequency with which they
utilized their school counselors for help on those concerns. This study did not
investigate what actually happened to the participants as if they were observed by a
neutral third party. Participants’ views of school counseling may have changed in light of
their involvement with the summer program or as a response to the items in the survey
itself.
Conclusions and Implications
Professional school counselors play a significant role in the lives of the gifted
adolescents whom they serve. The American School Counselor Association’s National
Model (2003b) extends the school counselors’ roles and functions to include how their
daily activities make a difference to their gifted students including services provided
Counseling Concerns 32
through the three domain areas of academic, career, and personal/social development.
Findings from this study have several implications for each domain area and the way in
which high school counselors provide services in each.
Academic Domain
While perfectionistic tendencies and fear of failing can extend through multiple
domains, perhaps they are most likely to be demonstrated in academics. School
counselors need to be aware of healthy characteristics gifted students exhibit which
lead to success, achievement and internal motivation as well as those thoughts, feelings
and behaviors that for some gifted students, are destructive and maladaptive (Speirs
Neumeister, 2004a, 2004b; Schuler, 2000). School counselors can identify, encourage
and cultivate students perfectionistic “strengths” (Schuler, 2000) as well as be the
actively listen students’ frustration with situations of perceived failure. When students do
not perform to their self-desired level, school counselors can teach positive coping
strategies, and encourage students to see these situations as learning experiences and
not as failure (Speirs Neumeister, 2004b; Silverman, 1993c). School counselors can
help students discover and aim for “works in progress,” rough drafts, and help the
student practice patience, successive approximations, and continued effort over time
(Silverman, 1993b). These counseling practices can also be supplemented by teaching
skills such as time-management, priority and goal setting, and editing (Silverman,
1993b; VanTassel-Baska, 1998a). An additional suggestion is to teach these skills in a
venue where learning is not evaluated and students can explore their thoughts and
feelings without fear of being assessed or appraised (Speirs Neumeister, 2004b).
Counseling Concerns 33
Service delivery can take a variety of forms including small groups focusing on
academic planning and organizational skills (Colangelo, 2003; Colangelo & Peterson,
1993), individual counseling with an emphasis on the student’s specific experiences
with perfectionism in academics and other settings (VanTassel-Baska, 1993), and
classroom guidance activities in conjunction with classroom teachers on writing and
editing. Working with parents and students both, school counselors can explore how, if
at all, perfectionism is modeled, discussed or experienced in the home (Speirs
Neumiester, 2004a). Partnerships are also encouraged with local tutoring or educational
agencies, and counseling or clinical practitioners with expertise in stress reduction
(Genshaft & Broyles, 1991), perfectionism and anxiety.
Career Domain
School counselors are already active in facilitating college searches and
application and career exploration. However, findings from this study support prior
literature indicating that gifted adolescents have specific concerns about how their talent
fits with a future career and how they make decisions in light of their many abilities and
the diverse options and choices open to them (Colangelo, 2003; Greene, 2002). A first
priority for school counselors is to help gifted students understand that career planning
is a life-long process and is an extension of their individual identities, encompassing not
only academics, but also an interaction of values, talent, personality, social trends, and
lifestyle (Greene, 2003). School counselors can facilitate this process by providing gifted
students with information through multiple written and online sources, and the
application of that information through the use of decision-making models, cost-benefit
Counseling Concerns 34
analyses, self-reflection, and value and career inventories (Frederickson, 1986; Greene,
2003; Ryseiw et al., 1998; Silverman, 1993d)
Students may also need help in narrowing down their interests and desires into
feasible proportions through flexible career planning and goal setting. Academic
blueprints (VanTassel-Baska, 1998a) which emphasize flexibility and fluidity may help
students accept that they do not have to be presently certain about what to do “for the
rest of their lives,” and can help students plan their high school experience through the
lens of a workable plan with multiple manageable steps. Small groups and individual
counseling are logical venues for career counseling and exploration (Silverman, 1993d),
but school counselors should also consider meeting with parents who are vital parts of
the decision-making process (Greene, 2002), providing panels and speakers (Peterson,
2003) as well as partnerships with local business and community resources who can
provide apprenticeships, internships, shadowing opportunities and mentors (Casey &
Shore, 2000; Clasen & Clasen, 2003; Greene)
Personal/Social Domain
Participant responses regarding fear of failure and perfectionism may point to the
need for school counselors to explore how gifted students conceptualize issues of
failure, success and perfection and the role of expectations in their lives. Perceived
expectations cut across multiple arenas, including student expectation about grade
point average, individual assignments, future jobs, leadership roles, and social
situations among others. Through role-play, small group interaction (Colangelo &
Peterson, 1993; Peterson, 2003), the use of books and film (Hébert & Kent, 2000;
Hébert & Speirs Neumeister, 2002), and journaling and visualization of best and worse
Counseling Concerns 35
case scenarios (Silverman, 2003b), school counselors can help gifted students discover
the impact of expectations on their personal beliefs and perceived beliefs about others,
including teachers, parents and other peers.
Because participants indicated that they had experienced some concern related
to social acceptance such as fitting in, feeling different or wondering how people
perceive them, school counselors may wish to work with students on how they perceive
the label of giftedness with regard to how their peers view them, and current social
coping skills (Cross, Coleman & Tehaar-Yonkers, 2001; Peterson, 2003; Swaitek, 1995;
Swaitek, 2001). Through small groups (Colangelo, 2003; Colangelo & Peterson, 1993;
Peterson, 2003; Peterson, 2006), school counselors can facilitate a thorough
exploration of a variety of coping skills gifted students are already employing to
successfully cope with peer interactions, build on those, and help students discover new
strategies if the ones currently being used are either unhelpful or negatively impacting
the students’ social lives. School counselors may also choose to model and teach pro-
social skills such as “small talk” or through social skills training via small group or after
school clubs. Individually, school counselors may wish to utilize role-plays to help
students identify certain skills and to anticipate peer reaction. School counselors may
also wish to pursue partnerships with clubs and activities already in place in their
building that facilitate social interaction and which may already be serving gifted
students such as math clubs, MENSA, or Odyssey of the Mind.
Lastly, although there were no significant differences between those participant
who asked for help from their counselor based on the type of gifted student talent area
and the type of counseling concerns reported, anecdotal evidence (Peterson, 2003. p.
Counseling Concerns 36
64) suggests that many gifted students feel school counselors are there to serve
students “with problems,” not necessarily themselves. School counselors should
consider using data to determine if their gifted students are seeking their services, for
what issue, and if they feel they are being served appropriately.
Future Research
Because of the noticeable gap in the research base on school counseling and
the gifted student, more studies are needed. What is currently needed is both sound
quantitative studies which document the degree to which the type of counseling concern
impacts the gifted student’s decision to seek school counseling, and which orientation
and techniques used by counselors of gifted students are found to be the most
beneficial in meeting their needs and concerns. Qualitative studies are also greatly
needed; first to capture the voice of the gifted and talented student as he or she
experiences school counseling and second, to better understand how school counselors
perceive and serve these students in light of the ASCA National Model.
In conclusion, findings from this study highlight the unique developmental
challenges pertaining to choosing careers and colleges, social acceptance, fear of
failing and perfectionism experienced by the gifted student. The professional school
counselor can serve as essential person in the gifted student’s life as they cope with
these challenges and consistently provide the needed services in the academic, career,
and personal/social domains.
Counseling Concerns 37
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