Course Design for Teaching Course Design for Teaching EnglishEnglish

Yueh-chiu WangYueh-chiu WangNational Penghu UniversityNational Penghu University

LanguageLanguage

What is a language? Language is a What is a language? Language is a tool we use to communicate with tool we use to communicate with other people. We encode what we other people. We encode what we want to say using language which is want to say using language which is made u p of a range of components. made u p of a range of components.

Teachers need to be aware of their Teachers need to be aware of their learners’ weak areas and give them learners’ weak areas and give them practice in recognizing and producing practice in recognizing and producing these sounds correctly.these sounds correctly.The meaning of a word can change with The meaning of a word can change with the stress, for example, ‘contract’ (noun, a the stress, for example, ‘contract’ (noun, a document), ‘contract’ (verb, to get document), ‘contract’ (verb, to get smaller). Quite often nouns have the first smaller). Quite often nouns have the first syllable stress and verbs have the second syllable stress and verbs have the second syllable. However, there are no syllable. However, there are no straightforward rules for word stress in straightforward rules for word stress in English. English.

An important feature of English An important feature of English pronunciation is the way I which pronunciation is the way I which individual words often flow into each individual words often flow into each other without a clear break. This is other without a clear break. This is particularly true when a consonant at particularly true when a consonant at the end of a word meets a vowel at the end of a word meets a vowel at the beginning of the next.the beginning of the next.

Sentence stress can also change the Sentence stress can also change the meaning of a sentence. Often when meaning of a sentence. Often when we are speaking we want to focus on we are speaking we want to focus on one piece of key information. one piece of key information.

Intonation helps the listener to know Intonation helps the listener to know if the speaker has finished (a fall) or if the speaker has finished (a fall) or not (a rise).not (a rise).

A speaker’s use of stress and A speaker’s use of stress and intonation, and also volume and intonation, and also volume and pitch, can also tell us how they feel—pitch, can also tell us how they feel—excited, angry, positive, tired, etc.excited, angry, positive, tired, etc.

Using language to interactUsing language to interactWe interact with different people for We interact with different people for different reasons in different situations in different reasons in different situations in different situations.different situations.

There is a wide range of expressions that There is a wide range of expressions that perform certain ‘functions’, i.e. the things perform certain ‘functions’, i.e. the things we do with language, for example, there we do with language, for example, there are general functions such as thanking, are general functions such as thanking, asking for information, inviting, asking for information, inviting, suggesting, greeting, agreeing, and so on. suggesting, greeting, agreeing, and so on.

Language users need to make Language users need to make choices about the language they choices about the language they choose to communicate with. This choose to communicate with. This choice is very limited in the early choice is very limited in the early stages of learning a language. stages of learning a language.

In some languages, the relationship In some languages, the relationship between the speaker and listener is between the speaker and listener is reflected in the grammar. reflected in the grammar.

Language in the classroomLanguage in the classroom

We can divide language activities in We can divide language activities in the classroom into two categories—the classroom into two categories—introducing language and using introducing language and using language that has already been language that has already been encountered. As learners progress, encountered. As learners progress, they will constantly meet language they will constantly meet language for the first time, sometimes inside for the first time, sometimes inside the classroom, sometimes outside. the classroom, sometimes outside.

At this point they need to know what At this point they need to know what this language means or refers to. this language means or refers to. They also need to know how to form They also need to know how to form it—how to spell it, pronounce it, its it—how to spell it, pronounce it, its relationship to other words, the word relationship to other words, the word endings, and so on. Finally, they endings, and so on. Finally, they need to be able to use it to need to be able to use it to communicate, either in spoken or communicate, either in spoken or written form, and to understand it written form, and to understand it when it is used by other people. when it is used by other people.

MeaningMeaningThere are many ways of helping learners There are many ways of helping learners understand the meaning of a word or understand the meaning of a word or phrase. For example, with a word like ‘job’ phrase. For example, with a word like ‘job’ we can:we can:

--translate the word from English into the --translate the word from English into the L1L1

--give the learners examples of types of --give the learners examples of types of jobs, for example, by providing pictures of jobs, for example, by providing pictures of people doing different jobs.people doing different jobs.

--tell the learners to look up the word --tell the learners to look up the word either in a monolingual or bilingual either in a monolingual or bilingual dictionarydictionary

--give them example sentences using --give them example sentences using ‘job’‘job’

It is important to check that the learners It is important to check that the learners understand the meaning of the language understand the meaning of the language they are studying. This can often be done they are studying. This can often be done by monitoring the learners’ use of the by monitoring the learners’ use of the language in spoken or written activities. language in spoken or written activities. Another way is to use concept questions. Another way is to use concept questions. For example, to check the use of the For example, to check the use of the present simple to talk about a scheduled present simple to talk about a scheduled event in the future we need to check that event in the future we need to check that the learners understand whether the the learners understand whether the sentences refer to the past, present, or sentences refer to the past, present, or future and what sort of events are being future and what sort of events are being referred to:referred to:

Another way of helping learners to Another way of helping learners to understand the meaning of a understand the meaning of a structure is to provide a background structure is to provide a background situation. The situation can be situation. The situation can be introduced in a variety of ways introduced in a variety of ways including using pictures, a dialogue, including using pictures, a dialogue, a short text, and real objects. a short text, and real objects.

SummarySummaryIt is important for the language It is important for the language teacher to know as much as possible teacher to know as much as possible about the language that they are about the language that they are teaching. The language system is teaching. The language system is complex and learners need to be complex and learners need to be guided through it. They will often guided through it. They will often come across language for the first come across language for the first time which they will need to time which they will need to incorporate into their own language incorporate into their own language system.system.

To help them with this process To help them with this process teachers need to choose the most teachers need to choose the most appropriate texts and activities and appropriate texts and activities and give learners the opportunities they give learners the opportunities they need to input language, use it, and need to input language, use it, and modify their understanding of the modify their understanding of the language until they are able to recall language until they are able to recall and use it automatically.and use it automatically.

Teaching Methods and IdeasTeaching Methods and Ideas

The Grammar-Translation MethodThe Grammar-Translation Method

Background: The method itself came Background: The method itself came from the way individual learners from the way individual learners studied classical languages such as studied classical languages such as Greek and Latin. This was done Greek and Latin. This was done mainly by studying the grammar in mainly by studying the grammar in detail and translating texts from the detail and translating texts from the original into the learners’ language. original into the learners’ language.

FeaturesFeatures

Sentences and longer texts are Sentences and longer texts are translated both to and from the translated both to and from the learners’ first language. Little or no learners’ first language. Little or no attention is paid to the ability to attention is paid to the ability to speak or communicate. Grammar speak or communicate. Grammar rules are given a lot of attention, rules are given a lot of attention, especially word endings and especially word endings and sentence formation. sentence formation.

Learners learn about the language, rathLearners learn about the language, rather than how to use the language.er than how to use the language.Learners do not get much opportunity tLearners do not get much opportunity to develop listening and speaking skills.o develop listening and speaking skills.The attention given to grammatical accuThe attention given to grammatical accuracy and translation may be demotivatinracy and translation may be demotivating for some learners. g for some learners.

One advantage of the method does One advantage of the method does have is that teachers develop an have is that teachers develop an awareness of grammar rules.awareness of grammar rules.

The Direct MethodThe Direct MethodBackground: The Direct Method was devBackground: The Direct Method was developed in the early 20eloped in the early 20thth century in order t century in order to overcome the problems connected wito overcome the problems connected with grammar-translation.h grammar-translation.The meaning of words and structures wThe meaning of words and structures was communicated ‘directly’ through as communicated ‘directly’ through mime and gestures, and practised in quemime and gestures, and practised in question-and-answer exchanges between thstion-and-answer exchanges between the teacher and learners. e teacher and learners.

The use of the target language as The use of the target language as the language of instruction underpins the language of instruction underpins a lot of teaching today. This centers a lot of teaching today. This centers on oral practice of carefully graded on oral practice of carefully graded structures. The language was structures. The language was practiced using guided repetition, practiced using guided repetition, dictation, drills, and oral-based dictation, drills, and oral-based reading and writing tasks.reading and writing tasks.

AudiolingualismAudiolingualism

Background: Language was Background: Language was described in terms of the ay it was described in terms of the ay it was structured—individual sounds and structured—individual sounds and letters, words, structures, and letters, words, structures, and sentence types. Learners were sentence types. Learners were expected to learn the grammar of expected to learn the grammar of the new language not by learning the new language not by learning rules but by producing the language rules but by producing the language accurately by responding to stimuli.accurately by responding to stimuli.

FeaturesFeatures

A drill was activity where the teacher A drill was activity where the teacher provided prompts and the learners provided prompts and the learners would produce a sentence using the would produce a sentence using the appropriate grammatical structure.appropriate grammatical structure.

Lessons often begin with dialogues.Lessons often begin with dialogues.

The emphasis was on the form (or The emphasis was on the form (or the structure) of language rather the structure) of language rather than content and meaning.than content and meaning.

Correct pronunciation was strongly encCorrect pronunciation was strongly encouraged from the beginning.ouraged from the beginning.Vocabulary was severely limited in the eVocabulary was severely limited in the early stages.arly stages.The teacher made a great effort to preveThe teacher made a great effort to prevent errors.nt errors.Drills were the main way new language Drills were the main way new language was practised.was practised.

Current statusCurrent statusSome language teachers find drills usefuSome language teachers find drills useful for practising sentence patterns. They l for practising sentence patterns. They can be especially valuable in getting elecan be especially valuable in getting elementary learners to build the confidencmentary learners to build the confidence in speaking. However, the usefulness e in speaking. However, the usefulness of drills is regarded as limited in that theof drills is regarded as limited in that they do not give the learners an opportunity do not give the learners an opportunity to interact naturally with other speakey to interact naturally with other speakers.rs.

Communicative Language Communicative Language TeachingTeaching

CLT started in the late 1960s and CLT started in the late 1960s and continues to evolve. It is not actually continues to evolve. It is not actually a method but an approach to a method but an approach to teaching based on the view that teaching based on the view that learning a language means learning learning a language means learning how to communicate effectively in how to communicate effectively in the world outside the classroom.the world outside the classroom.

FeaturesFeatures

The goal is to learn to communicate The goal is to learn to communicate in the target language.in the target language.

There is an emphasis on meaning There is an emphasis on meaning and using the language rather than and using the language rather than the structure and form of the the structure and form of the language.language.

Oral and written activities may be used fOral and written activities may be used from the start, for example, role plays, dirom the start, for example, role plays, dialogues, games, and problem-solving.alogues, games, and problem-solving.One role for the teacher is that of a ‘facOne role for the teacher is that of a ‘facilitator’ who helps learners to communilitator’ who helps learners to communicate in English and motivates them to wicate in English and motivates them to work with the langauage.ork with the langauage.

Learners often interact with each Learners often interact with each other through pair or group work.other through pair or group work.

The four skills are developed The four skills are developed simultaneously.simultaneously.

Current statusCurrent statusCLT is very widely used in language CLT is very widely used in language teaching all over the world. It has teaching all over the world. It has shifted the focus in language shifted the focus in language teaching from learning about the teaching from learning about the language to learning to communicate language to learning to communicate in the language. in the language. The emphasis on pair and group The emphasis on pair and group work can create problems in some work can create problems in some classes. classes.

The approach can lead to too much emphasis The approach can lead to too much emphasis on speaking and listening.on speaking and listening.Learners do not necessarily learn what they arLearners do not necessarily learn what they are taught, i.e., the discrete language items, in the taught, i.e., the discrete language items, in the order that they are taught.e order that they are taught.One reaction to this has been to change the leOne reaction to this has been to change the learning focus from the content, i.e. the structurarning focus from the content, i.e. the structures, functions, and vocabulary, to the process, tes, functions, and vocabulary, to the process, that is ‘to use English to learn it’ rather thanhat is ‘to use English to learn it’ rather than’to learn to use English’.’to learn to use English’.

Task-based LearningTask-based Learning

TBL focuses on the ‘process’ of TBL focuses on the ‘process’ of communicating by setting learners communicating by setting learners tasks to complete using the target tasks to complete using the target language. During this period, the language. During this period, the learners acquire language as they try learners acquire language as they try to express themselves and to express themselves and understand others. The tasks can understand others. The tasks can range from information gap to range from information gap to problem-solving tasks.problem-solving tasks.

One advantage of TBL is that One advantage of TBL is that learners are given the opportunities learners are given the opportunities to use the full range of skills and to use the full range of skills and language they have at the same, language they have at the same, rather than in discrete units. rather than in discrete units.

sequencesequencePre-tasks: these are activities which Pre-tasks: these are activities which prepare learners to complete a task, for prepare learners to complete a task, for example, by guiding learners through an example, by guiding learners through an example of the task they will have to do.example of the task they will have to do.

Tasks: these form the main body of the Tasks: these form the main body of the lesson and can involve a number of steps. lesson and can involve a number of steps. For example, learners working in pairs or For example, learners working in pairs or groups may first complete the task, then groups may first complete the task, then prepare a report on the task, and finally prepare a report on the task, and finally present the report to the class.present the report to the class.

Post-tasks: these move away from Post-tasks: these move away from activities designed to promote activities designed to promote fluency to those designed to promote fluency to those designed to promote accuracy. accuracy.

Learners may also feel that they not Learners may also feel that they not ‘learning’ or ‘being taught’ as there ‘learning’ or ‘being taught’ as there is no formal input or practice stageis no formal input or practice stage

summarysummaryTeaching has been influenced by a wide Teaching has been influenced by a wide variety of methods and trends. New variety of methods and trends. New methods have been introduced as part of methods have been introduced as part of the ongoing search for the ‘best’ way to the ongoing search for the ‘best’ way to teach.teach.We are now at the point where there is We are now at the point where there is more emphasis on teachers and learners more emphasis on teachers and learners making their own choices about how to making their own choices about how to teach and learn. Teachers can use the teach and learn. Teachers can use the back-catalogue of methods as a starting back-catalogue of methods as a starting point to make decisions about this process. point to make decisions about this process.

Chapter 4: ListeningChapter 4: Listening

We listen for a purpose, but this We listen for a purpose, but this purpose can be very different purpose can be very different depending on the situation:depending on the situation:

-listening for specific details-listening for specific details

Listening for general meaningListening for general meaning

Listening for the general idea or gist.Listening for the general idea or gist.

DifferenceDifference

There is also a different listening:There is also a different listening:

For informationFor information

For enjoyment or social reasonsFor enjoyment or social reasons

To learn new languageTo learn new language

For listeners, listening is how spoken For listeners, listening is how spoken language becomes input, i.e. it is the language becomes input, i.e. it is the first stage of learning new language. first stage of learning new language. In the classroom this happens In the classroom this happens through listening to the teacher, through listening to the teacher, listening to a CD or tape or watching listening to a CD or tape or watching a video, and listening to other a video, and listening to other learners.learners.

Listening is a receptive skill, i.e. we Listening is a receptive skill, i.e. we receive language rather than receive language rather than produce it. Listening is the process produce it. Listening is the process of interpreting messages—what of interpreting messages—what people say. We saw in Chapter 3 people say. We saw in Chapter 3 language involves putting messages language involves putting messages into a form that other people can into a form that other people can understand using these elements.understand using these elements.

--individual sounds--individual sounds

SyllablesSyllables

Words which may be linked together Words which may be linked together with some sounds being dropped or with some sounds being dropped or changed.changed.

PhrasesPhrases

ClausesClauses

Grammatical structuresGrammatical structures

SentencesSentences

Longer stretches of spoken English.Longer stretches of spoken English.

Intonation, and word and sentence Intonation, and word and sentence stress, also add meaning. Listeners stress, also add meaning. Listeners also have to deal with speakers also have to deal with speakers repeating themselves, making false repeating themselves, making false stars, pauses, and noises (‘ums and stars, pauses, and noises (‘ums and ahs’. The listener has to be able to ahs’. The listener has to be able to decode all of this as quickly as the decode all of this as quickly as the speaker produces it. This obviously speaker produces it. This obviously take a huge amount of practice.take a huge amount of practice.

Listening skillsListening skills

Learners need to develop the Learners need to develop the following skills:following skills:

Learning to listen in various waysLearning to listen in various ways

Adapting the way they listen Adapting the way they listen according to the test and the reason according to the test and the reason for listeningfor listening

Recognizing the features of spoken Recognizing the features of spoken EnglishEnglish

Using visual and textual clues to help Using visual and textual clues to help themthem

Listen actively—asking for repetition, Listen actively—asking for repetition, clarification, etc.clarification, etc.

Developing their background Developing their background knowledgeknowledge

Learners need to develop the Learners need to develop the confidence to control a confidence to control a conversational by asking the person conversational by asking the person speaking to speak more slowly, speaking to speak more slowly, explain what they have said, repeat explain what they have said, repeat something, and son on. something, and son on.

Paralinguistic features (gestures, Paralinguistic features (gestures, hand movements, and facial hand movements, and facial expressions) can often be different expressions) can often be different from one country to another. from one country to another. Learners should learn as much as Learners should learn as much as possible about the culture of the possible about the culture of the country and people they are going to country and people they are going to communicate with.communicate with.

Listening in the classroomListening in the classroom

When we are practising listening in the cWhen we are practising listening in the classroom it is helpful to think about how lassroom it is helpful to think about how we listen in real life. We should try to:we listen in real life. We should try to:Ask learners to do things in class which tAsk learners to do things in class which they would be likely to do outside about they would be likely to do outside about the contexthe context

Give them the opportunity to listen activGive them the opportunity to listen activelyelyGive them the opportunity to listen in difGive them the opportunity to listen in different waysferent waysGive learners the opportunity to listen to Give learners the opportunity to listen to a range of situations, accents, and topica range of situations, accents, and topics.cs.c

Listening activities can be planned Listening activities can be planned in three stages.in three stages.

Pre-listening: activities which help Pre-listening: activities which help your learners prepare for what they your learners prepare for what they will hearwill hear

Listening: activities which are usually Listening: activities which are usually a type of task, for example, filling in a type of task, for example, filling in a chart, answering questions, a chart, answering questions, following a route on a map, making following a route on a map, making notes, etc.notes, etc.

Post-listening: activities which are a Post-listening: activities which are a chance learners’ understanding of chance learners’ understanding of what they have been listening to, what they have been listening to, give feedback, and consolidate what give feedback, and consolidate what they have learnt.they have learnt.

Listening stageListening stage

While pre-listening activities are While pre-listening activities are about preparing for the questions or about preparing for the questions or a task, listening activities are about a task, listening activities are about the learners finding the answer or the learners finding the answer or doing the task.doing the task.

Post-listening stage: The first thing you Post-listening stage: The first thing you need to do after the learners have carrieneed to do after the learners have carried out the listening activity is to check thd out the listening activity is to check the answer. Learners can compare their ae answer. Learners can compare their answers with each other first. You can thnswers with each other first. You can then check the answers with the whole claen check the answers with the whole clas.s.

Checking answers can help you Checking answers can help you analyze the particular difficulties that analyze the particular difficulties that the learners have had with the the learners have had with the listening activity. You might need to listening activity. You might need to give some feedback if can see that give some feedback if can see that learners are having problems with a learners are having problems with a particular sound, structure, or particular sound, structure, or vocabulary item.vocabulary item.

There are various types of activities:There are various types of activities:Answering questions—comprehension, Answering questions—comprehension, multiple choices, tur or falsemultiple choices, tur or falseCompleting something– a form, grid, chCompleting something– a form, grid, chart, picture, etc. using information that lart, picture, etc. using information that learners hearearners hear

Following directions on a mapFollowing directions on a map

Matching what is being said with a Matching what is being said with a set of picturesset of pictures

Doing something in response to what Doing something in response to what learners hear, for example, draw learners hear, for example, draw something, move in a certain way something, move in a certain way (stand up, sit down)(stand up, sit down)

Some listening activities require learnerSome listening activities require learners to listen to a text and answer questions to listen to a text and answer questions, while other activities require more ints, while other activities require more interaction, i.e. learners listen then responeraction, i.e. learners listen then respond or reactd or reactlistenlisten→respond/react→listen→respond/react→listen

SpeakingSpeaking

The speaking process:The speaking process:

We speak in many different types of We speak in many different types of situation. For example:situation. For example:

--talking to someone face to face--talking to someone face to face

--talking to someone on the phone--talking to someone on the phone

a learner answering a question in a learner answering a question in classclass

--taking part in a meeting--taking part in a meeting

--an exchange between a customer --an exchange between a customer and an assistant in a shopand an assistant in a shop

Asking a stranger for directionsAsking a stranger for directions

Chatting to friendsChatting to friends

We speak for many reasons—to be We speak for many reasons—to be sociable, because we want sociable, because we want something, because we want other something, because we want other people to do something, to do people to do something, to do something for someone else, to something for someone else, to respond to someone else, to express respond to someone else, to express our feelings or opinion about our feelings or opinion about something, to exchange information, something, to exchange information, to refer to an action or event in the to refer to an action or event in the past, present, or future.past, present, or future.

Speaking is a productive skill. It Speaking is a productive skill. It involves putting a message together, involves putting a message together, communicating the message, and communicating the message, and interacting with other people. interacting with other people.

InteractionInteraction

Spoken interaction involves two or Spoken interaction involves two or more people talking to each other, more people talking to each other, for example, one person makes a for example, one person makes a request and the other person request and the other person responds. We call this an exchange.responds. We call this an exchange.

Spoken and written language: Spoken and written language: some differencessome differences

In written English people usually In written English people usually write complete sentences. Written write complete sentences. Written English is organized into paragraphs, English is organized into paragraphs, pages, chapters, and complete texts, pages, chapters, and complete texts, for example, a book or an article in a for example, a book or an article in a magazine. Spoken English comes in magazine. Spoken English comes in the forms of turns—one person’s part the forms of turns—one person’s part in an exchange between two or more in an exchange between two or more people.people.

Another difference is the way in Another difference is the way in which written language can be which written language can be planned whereas spoken language is planned whereas spoken language is often unplanned, unless you’re giving often unplanned, unless you’re giving a prepared speech or presentation.a prepared speech or presentation.

When you speak you give clues through When you speak you give clues through the use of stress, pauses, intonation, or the use of stress, pauses, intonation, or gestures. gestures.

Spoken English is messy—when people Spoken English is messy—when people speak they often repeat themselves, speak speak they often repeat themselves, speak in incomplete sentences, hesitate and in incomplete sentences, hesitate and pause between words, and use fillers—pause between words, and use fillers—short sounds or words that give us more short sounds or words that give us more time to think and put a message together.time to think and put a message together.

You speak differently depending on You speak differently depending on whom you are speaking to and why.whom you are speaking to and why.

Speaking skills: Learners need to Speaking skills: Learners need to develop the following skills:develop the following skills:

Producing connected speechProducing connected speech

The ability to interactThe ability to interact

Talking round gaps in their Talking round gaps in their knowledgeknowledge

Speaking in a range of contextsSpeaking in a range of contexts

Balancing accuracy and fluency.Balancing accuracy and fluency.

Speaking in the classroomSpeaking in the classroom

In the classroom we need to get our In the classroom we need to get our learners to practice both production learners to practice both production and interaction. At other times, we and interaction. At other times, we want our learners to concentrate want our learners to concentrate more on interaction and on becoming more on interaction and on becoming more fluent.more fluent.

Pair work and group work: It is a good Pair work and group work: It is a good idea to put learners into groups or idea to put learners into groups or pairs so that they can get more pairs so that they can get more speaking practice—if learners only speaking practice—if learners only speak to the teacher, their speak to the teacher, their opportunities for practice are limited.opportunities for practice are limited.

Types of interactive activitiesTypes of interactive activities

Information gap activities: We often Information gap activities: We often interact with other people to give or interact with other people to give or ask for information. Classroom ask for information. Classroom activities that stimulate this type of activities that stimulate this type of situation are called information gap situation are called information gap activities. activities.

Describe and drawDescribe and draw

Describe and arrangeDescribe and arrange

Describe and identifyDescribe and identify

Find the differencesFind the differences

Discussion activitiesDiscussion activitiesWe also speak to give our opinions or We also speak to give our opinions or to hear other people’s opinions. to hear other people’s opinions. Discussion activities give learners Discussion activities give learners the chance to speak more freely and the chance to speak more freely and express themselves. It is helpful to express themselves. It is helpful to structure a discussion activity by structure a discussion activity by giving learners enough information giving learners enough information about what they will be talking about what they will be talking about, and giving them enough time about, and giving them enough time to think about what they want to say.to think about what they want to say.

Role playsRole plays

These can be like mini-dramas. Each These can be like mini-dramas. Each learner is given a character and a learner is given a character and a card with some information on it card with some information on it which can include information about which can include information about their role and the situation. their role and the situation.

GamesGamesGames are often useful to liven up a Games are often useful to liven up a lesson. Some examples of games lesson. Some examples of games giving speaking practice include:giving speaking practice include:The teacher choose something from The teacher choose something from the classroom, for example, the the classroom, for example, the blackboard, and says to the learners.blackboard, and says to the learners.The learners have to guess what it is. The learners have to guess what it is. Learners can also play this game in Learners can also play this game in groups.groups.

Informal interactionInformal interaction

The teacher and class can interact The teacher and class can interact informally, asking each other what informally, asking each other what they are going to do at the weekend, they are going to do at the weekend, talking about recent new stories, talking about recent new stories, telling jokes or personal stories. telling jokes or personal stories.

Feedback and correctionFeedback and correctionLearners need encouragement and Learners need encouragement and they need to know when they are they need to know when they are making mistakes that might cause making mistakes that might cause other people not to understand or other people not to understand or misunderstand them. Teachers misunderstand them. Teachers should also use the opportunity to should also use the opportunity to praise learners for getting something praise learners for getting something right, doing something well, trying right, doing something well, trying hard, and showing a positive attitude hard, and showing a positive attitude towards learning.towards learning.

Speaking is a complex process which Speaking is a complex process which involves constructing a message in a involves constructing a message in a form that other people can form that other people can understand, and delivering the understand, and delivering the message using the correct message using the correct pronunciation, stress, and intonation. pronunciation, stress, and intonation.

Speaking also involves interaction—Speaking also involves interaction—communicating with other people. communicating with other people. To do this, learners need to be able To do this, learners need to be able to respond to what other people say, to respond to what other people say, and use the language appropriate and use the language appropriate time they need to be accurate and time they need to be accurate and fluent enough for the other person to fluent enough for the other person to understand and to fit into the flow of understand and to fit into the flow of conversation.conversation.

ReadingReadingThere are two basic types of texts-There are two basic types of texts-authentic and non-authentic. authentic and non-authentic. Examples of authentic texts are Examples of authentic texts are newspaper articles, website pages, newspaper articles, website pages, emails, packaging and labels, and so emails, packaging and labels, and so on. Non-authentic texts are written on. Non-authentic texts are written especially for learners using especially for learners using imaginary contexts and simplified imaginary contexts and simplified vocabulary and sentence vocabulary and sentence construction.construction.

Texts vary in length –from street Texts vary in length –from street signs, text messages, emails, signs, text messages, emails, newspaper articles, short stories, to newspaper articles, short stories, to novels. The way we read will depend novels. The way we read will depend partly on how long the text is.partly on how long the text is.

Reading skillsReading skills

Learners need to develop the Learners need to develop the following skill:following skill:

Learning to read in various ways, for Learning to read in various ways, for example, skimming and scanningexample, skimming and scanning

Adapting the way they read Adapting the way they read according to the text and their according to the text and their reason for readingreason for reading

Reading ‘actively’-using a dictionary, Reading ‘actively’-using a dictionary, guessing or asking about unknown wordsguessing or asking about unknown words

Understanding the relationship between Understanding the relationship between sentencessentences

Helping understanding by using textual Helping understanding by using textual and visual clues ,i.e. headings, the way the and visual clues ,i.e. headings, the way the text is organized into paragraphs, text is organized into paragraphs, punctuation, signal words, pictures, punctuation, signal words, pictures, typography, and so on.typography, and so on.

Using contextual clues-where the Using contextual clues-where the learners are, what they and other learners are, what they and other people are doing at the timepeople are doing at the time

Inferring meaningInferring meaning

Guessing meaningGuessing meaning

Background knowledge of the culture Background knowledge of the culture about which they are reading.about which they are reading.

When we read the eye usually moves from When we read the eye usually moves from top to bottom and left to right across the top to bottom and left to right across the page or screen. Our brain holds short page or screen. Our brain holds short sections of the text long enough in its sections of the text long enough in its working memory to decode it and relate it working memory to decode it and relate it to the previous part and anticipate the to the previous part and anticipate the next part of the text. The reader also uses next part of the text. The reader also uses their knowledge of the world and the their knowledge of the world and the language in their long-term memory to language in their long-term memory to help them understand the text. help them understand the text.

Skimming and scanningSkimming and scanning

The ability to read something quickly The ability to read something quickly and efficiently is an important skill and efficiently is an important skill for learners to acquire.for learners to acquire.

Reding for gist/skimming:Reding for gist/skimming: When we read for gist or skim a text we do When we read for gist or skim a text we do

not try to understand everything in it—not try to understand everything in it—we read through it fairly quickly to get a we read through it fairly quickly to get a general idea of what it is about.general idea of what it is about.

Scanning: This is the kind of reading Scanning: This is the kind of reading we do when you want to find out we do when you want to find out about something specific, for about something specific, for example, get a particular piece of example, get a particular piece of information from a text. We also scan information from a text. We also scan when we are looking something up in when we are looking something up in a telephone dictionary, or in an index a telephone dictionary, or in an index to find references to specific topics.to find references to specific topics.

Reading for detailReading for detail

Skimming and scanning are done Skimming and scanning are done fairly rapidly, but if we want to follow fairly rapidly, but if we want to follow a text in detail we read more slowly. a text in detail we read more slowly. If we are reading a book in order to If we are reading a book in order to get information for our studies, we get information for our studies, we will also tend to read more carefully will also tend to read more carefully and may make notes as we read.and may make notes as we read.

Reading for pleasureReading for pleasure

If we are reading a novel, a If we are reading a novel, a magazine, or a letter from a friend magazine, or a letter from a friend we are reading for enjoyment or to we are reading for enjoyment or to relax. We will often read some parts relax. We will often read some parts of the text carefully and others of the text carefully and others quickly depending on personal quickly depending on personal interest.interest.

Reading for general meaningReading for general meaning

We often read at a steady pace, We often read at a steady pace, occasionally skipping parts, occasionally skipping parts, rereading some parts, taking note of rereading some parts, taking note of some details, and ignoring others.some details, and ignoring others.

Inferring meaningInferring meaning

Sometimes part of meaning of a text Sometimes part of meaning of a text is not explicitly stated—we have to is not explicitly stated—we have to infer it by using reading and the text infer it by using reading and the text to make our own conclusions. to make our own conclusions.

Reading in the classroomReading in the classroomReading activities aim to:Reading activities aim to:

Introduce and develop reading skills which Introduce and develop reading skills which are useful outside the classroom.are useful outside the classroom.

-introduce or practice language.-introduce or practice language.

Learners should read as widely and as Learners should read as widely and as independently in English as they can. independently in English as they can. Extensive reading of materials such as Extensive reading of materials such as readers is an excellent way of developing readers is an excellent way of developing reading skills and increasing vocabulary.reading skills and increasing vocabulary.

Learners should be encouraged to Learners should be encouraged to choose what they read and give help choose what they read and give help finding reading materials.finding reading materials.

Planning a lessonPlanning a lessonFirst of all you must decide what the First of all you must decide what the aim of the lesson is. To do this you aim of the lesson is. To do this you need to consider your learners’ need to consider your learners’ needs—which skills do they need to needs—which skills do they need to develop? How can you help them develop? How can you help them develop their skills?develop their skills?Choosing the right text for your class Choosing the right text for your class is one of the most important decision is one of the most important decision you have to make.you have to make.

Consider the topic: what they are Consider the topic: what they are interested in, what do they know interested in, what do they know about the topic? Will you need to about the topic? Will you need to give some background information give some background information first?first?

Level: what levels are your class? Level: what levels are your class? How much of the vocabulary in the How much of the vocabulary in the text do they know?text do they know?

Length: How long is the text? How Length: How long is the text? How long will it take to read? Reading long will it take to read? Reading takes time and is seen by some takes time and is seen by some learners as a waste of classroom learners as a waste of classroom time.time.

Our alternative is to tell the learners Our alternative is to tell the learners to read a text before coming to class.to read a text before coming to class.

Pre-reading activitiesPre-reading activities

Set a task for the learnersSet a task for the learners

Help the learners prepare for the Help the learners prepare for the tasktask

Motivate the learners to read.Motivate the learners to read.

Answering questionsAnswering questions

Teachers use questions to check Teachers use questions to check whether the learners have whether the learners have understood a text. The questions understood a text. The questions should reflect the type of reading should reflect the type of reading skill being practiced:skill being practiced:

Gist questionsGist questions

Detailed comprehension questionsDetailed comprehension questions

Scanning questionsScanning questions

Questions can also focus on the language.Questions can also focus on the language.

Pre-reading activities should help the Pre-reading activities should help the learners achieve the aims of the activity.learners achieve the aims of the activity.

Stimulate what they already know about Stimulate what they already know about the topic.the topic.

Help them with words and phrases they Help them with words and phrases they will need to know.will need to know.

Reading activitiesReading activities

Here are three types of reading Here are three types of reading activities:activities:

Teacher-learner interaction activitiesTeacher-learner interaction activities

Learner-learner interaction activitiesLearner-learner interaction activities

Text-only activities: the learners read Text-only activities: the learners read the text all the way through the text all the way through answering questions or doing the answering questions or doing the activities set.activities set.

Teacher-learner interaction activiteTeacher-learner interaction activites s

You can stop learners during their You can stop learners during their reading to ask them questions. reading to ask them questions. These questions can be written after These questions can be written after certain paragraphs in the text if you certain paragraphs in the text if you are making a worksheet.are making a worksheet.

Learner-learner interaction Learner-learner interaction activitiesactivities

Jigsaw reading: Each learner has one Jigsaw reading: Each learner has one half of a text. They have to ask half of a text. They have to ask questions to find out what is in the questions to find out what is in the other learner’s text.other learner’s text.

Problem-solving: Problem-solving:

Reading raceReading race

Post reading activitiesPost reading activities

You can use some of the words in the You can use some of the words in the text as a springboard for language text as a springboard for language focus/vocabulary activities after the focus/vocabulary activities after the reading text has been used for reading text has been used for reading comprehension and reading reading comprehension and reading skills development.skills development.

Creating a reading environmentCreating a reading environment

Try to collect real examples of Try to collect real examples of English words in print.English words in print.

Advertisements that have English Advertisements that have English words in them can be a useful source words in them can be a useful source for younger learners you can find for younger learners you can find examples of advertisements for examples of advertisements for children’s toys or other children’s children’s toys or other children’s products.products.

Using real examples is important Using real examples is important because these short texts will convey because these short texts will convey a message. They will help learners a message. They will help learners to understand that reading involves to understand that reading involves understanding a message. understanding a message.

In order to motive learners to read it In order to motive learners to read it is important to create a positive is important to create a positive reading environment. This is reading environment. This is particularly true for younger learners particularly true for younger learners but some of the following ideas also but some of the following ideas also apply to older learners.apply to older learners.

Reading for younger learnersReading for younger learners

An excellent way to motivate An excellent way to motivate younger learners to read is to read to younger learners to read is to read to them. Not only do stories expose them. Not only do stories expose them to the patterns of English but them to the patterns of English but they can also create a positive they can also create a positive attitude to books and the printed attitude to books and the printed word.word.

Interactive reading for younger Interactive reading for younger learnerslearners

Teachers of English to younger Teachers of English to younger learners are primarily concerned with learners are primarily concerned with getting children listening and getting children listening and speaking.speaking.

WritingWriting

When we are writing we have to do When we are writing we have to do something similar except that we do something similar except that we do it with letters rather than sounds. it with letters rather than sounds. We put these together to forms We put these together to forms words, phrases, clauses, and words, phrases, clauses, and sentences, and put sentences sentences, and put sentences together to make a coherent text.together to make a coherent text.

We write for many reasons—to pass We write for many reasons—to pass on information and opinions, to ask on information and opinions, to ask questions, request or offer questions, request or offer something, to entertain, to keep a something, to entertain, to keep a record, to organize our thoughts, as record, to organize our thoughts, as part of the assessment process.part of the assessment process.

When we write we should think about When we write we should think about the readers. Who are they? What is the readers. Who are they? What is our relationship with them? Why are our relationship with them? Why are they going to read what we write? they going to read what we write? We then need to adjust the content We then need to adjust the content and style accordingly by using formal and style accordingly by using formal or informal language and the or informal language and the appropriate layout and conventions.appropriate layout and conventions.

We can break down the writing process We can break down the writing process into three stages: preparation: think about into three stages: preparation: think about the reader; consider why we are writing; the reader; consider why we are writing; think about the content; decide the think about the content; decide the appropriate layout and style.appropriate layout and style.

Draft: put our ideas together in a draft Draft: put our ideas together in a draft form. This is probably all we need for form. This is probably all we need for things like shopping lists and memos. things like shopping lists and memos.

Editing and rewriting: We will Editing and rewriting: We will probably need to rewrite several probably need to rewrite several times so that the text is coherent, times so that the text is coherent, clear, and has few or no mistakes.clear, and has few or no mistakes.

Please refer to p. 86, Figure 7.Please refer to p. 86, Figure 7.

Writing is also part of the language Writing is also part of the language learning process. We write: learning process. We write:

To practice the languageTo practice the language

To reinforce the language we have To reinforce the language we have learntlearnt

To help memorizationTo help memorization

As a way of recoding languageAs a way of recoding language

As a part of being assessed. As a part of being assessed.

Writing skillsWriting skills

Learners need to develop the Learners need to develop the following skills:following skills:

Handwriting: forming letters, Handwriting: forming letters, connected script, upper and lower connected script, upper and lower case, starting from top left and case, starting from top left and writing across the pagewriting across the page

SpellingSpelling

Use of punctuationUse of punctuation

Forming sentences; word order, Forming sentences; word order, endings, relationships.endings, relationships.Writing longer texts: coherence and Writing longer texts: coherence and cohesioncohesionUsing the appropriate layoutUsing the appropriate layoutUsing the appropriate level of Using the appropriate level of formalityformalityStudy skills: making notes, keeping Study skills: making notes, keeping records, etc.records, etc.

HandwritingHandwritingLearners may need to work on their Learners may need to work on their handwriting skills if: handwriting skills if: Their L1 is not based on the Roman script, Their L1 is not based on the Roman script, for example, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, for example, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, ArabicArabicThey are not used to writing with a pen, They are not used to writing with a pen, for example, they are more used to using for example, they are more used to using a keyboarda keyboardThey haven’t had the opportunity to They haven’t had the opportunity to develop their writing skills in their L1develop their writing skills in their L1They are young learners.They are young learners.

SpellingSpelling

Spelling causes problems for lots of learSpelling causes problems for lots of learners because there is no one-to-one relaners because there is no one-to-one relationship between sounds and spelling in tionship between sounds and spelling in Engllish.Engllish.

PunctuationPunctuationLearners need to know the basic elements Learners need to know the basic elements of punctuation:of punctuation:Capital letters: for the beginning of a Capital letters: for the beginning of a sentence, place names, and so on.sentence, place names, and so on.Full stops: for the end of a sentenceFull stops: for the end of a sentenceCommas: to mark the ends of phrases and Commas: to mark the ends of phrases and clausesclausesQuestion marks: to signal a questionQuestion marks: to signal a questionApostrophe: to show an abbreviation or Apostrophe: to show an abbreviation or possessive.possessive.

Forming sentencesForming sentences

English sentence formation is English sentence formation is complicated and there are many complicated and there are many possible patterns.possible patterns.

Using appropriate layoutUsing appropriate layout

The layouts of a letter, email, memo The layouts of a letter, email, memo are very different. Learners need to are very different. Learners need to be aware of the various elements be aware of the various elements that make up these types of texts. that make up these types of texts.

Using the appropriate level of Using the appropriate level of formalityformality

Levels of formality depend on Levels of formality depend on people’s relationship to each other-people’s relationship to each other-whether they are friends or don’t whether they are friends or don’t know each other, whether someone know each other, whether someone is senior or junior, and so on.is senior or junior, and so on.

Study skillsStudy skillsLearners need to develop the skills of note Learners need to develop the skills of note taking and record keeping. Note taking is taking and record keeping. Note taking is an essential skill in the classroom an essential skill in the classroom particularly if learners are going to be particularly if learners are going to be studying academically at some stage. studying academically at some stage. During a lesson the teacher should always During a lesson the teacher should always give learners time to make notes, make give learners time to make notes, make sure that whatever they themselves write sure that whatever they themselves write on the board is clear and relevant, and on the board is clear and relevant, and monitor learners’ note taking and give monitor learners’ note taking and give advice if necessary.advice if necessary.

Learners should also be encouraged Learners should also be encouraged to keep a record of new language. to keep a record of new language. This could be a new word, phrase, or This could be a new word, phrase, or grammatical item.grammatical item.

Writing in the classroomWriting in the classroom

Writing activities in the classroom Writing activities in the classroom are used: to develop writing skills are used: to develop writing skills and as part of the process of and as part of the process of language learning.language learning.

Writing stepsWriting stepsIn order to prepare for a writing activity In order to prepare for a writing activity the learners can: the learners can:

Think about the audience or readerThink about the audience or reader

Brainstorm—for example, if learners are Brainstorm—for example, if learners are preparing to write about globalization, preparing to write about globalization, they should note the arguments for and they should note the arguments for and against. If they are going to write a against. If they are going to write a description, they can brainstorm some description, they can brainstorm some relevant vocabulary.relevant vocabulary.

Practice specific writing skills, for Practice specific writing skills, for example, using punctuation, using example, using punctuation, using linking words, and so on.linking words, and so on.

Practice specific writing skillsPractice specific writing skills

Practice particular language formsPractice particular language forms

Decide on the content-what to Decide on the content-what to include and not includeinclude and not include

Look at a model text—for example, the Look at a model text—for example, the puntuation, use of paragraphs, cohesive puntuation, use of paragraphs, cohesive devices, layout, etc. devices, layout, etc.

Writing stageWriting stage

Learners write a draft, and rewrite Learners write a draft, and rewrite until they complete the final version. until they complete the final version. They should refer back to decisions They should refer back to decisions made in prewriting stage regarding made in prewriting stage regarding audience, content, aims, and outline. audience, content, aims, and outline. They should also check for use of any They should also check for use of any language they practiced and make language they practiced and make sure that their text is both cohesive sure that their text is both cohesive and coherent. and coherent.

The learners can work in groups and The learners can work in groups and give advice and feedback to each give advice and feedback to each other. As the learners go through other. As the learners go through this process the teacher should this process the teacher should monitor and also give advice and monitor and also give advice and feedback. At the same time teachers feedback. At the same time teachers should let the learners work as should let the learners work as independently as possible.independently as possible.

Post-writing stagePost-writing stage

The learners can share or display The learners can share or display their finished work and give overall their finished work and give overall comments on how successful their comments on how successful their work has been. The teacher can do work has been. The teacher can do follow-up work on any area of the follow-up work on any area of the language that still needs work.language that still needs work.

PlanningPlanning

Before we teach a lesson, we need to deBefore we teach a lesson, we need to decide:cide:What the goals or aims of the lesson areWhat the goals or aims of the lesson areWhat resources to use: a coursebook or tWhat resources to use: a coursebook or textbook, handouts or worksheets, posteextbook, handouts or worksheets, posters, recorded material, etc.rs, recorded material, etc.

Whether to adapt the coursebook, if we are usiWhether to adapt the coursebook, if we are using one-to supplement, leave out, or replace acng one-to supplement, leave out, or replace activities, and materials to make them ore approtivities, and materials to make them ore appropriate for our learners and our teaching methopriate for our learners and our teaching methodsdsWhich types of activities the learners will doWhich types of activities the learners will doHow the learners will interact with you andHow the learners will interact with you and

each othereach other

--the sequence of activities--the sequence of activities

the timing and pacingthe timing and pacing

How best to use the classroomHow best to use the classroom

AimsAims

The aim of a lesson will depend on a The aim of a lesson will depend on a number of factors:number of factors:

The learners’ level: are they The learners’ level: are they elementary, lower intermediate, etc.?elementary, lower intermediate, etc.?

The class profile: are the learners The class profile: are the learners generally homogeneous or are they a generally homogeneous or are they a mixed ability class?mixed ability class?

Their needs: what new language do they Their needs: what new language do they need? What language do they need to prneed? What language do they need to practise? Needs can be described in terms actise? Needs can be described in terms of individual needs (what learners need iof individual needs (what learners need in terms of their own personal developmn terms of their own personal development), and institutional needs (what they ent), and institutional needs (what they need to cover in terms of a school or natineed to cover in terms of a school or national curriculum and to pass exams, etc.)onal curriculum and to pass exams, etc.)

What type of learners are they, for examWhat type of learners are they, for example, visual, kinaesthetic, auditory, and sple, visual, kinaesthetic, auditory, and so on)?o on)?Their interests: what sort of topics intereTheir interests: what sort of topics interest them?st them?Their motivation: what sort of activities, Their motivation: what sort of activities, topics, or materials motivate them?topics, or materials motivate them?

The number of learners: Is it a big or small The number of learners: Is it a big or small class? How will this affect the types of class? How will this affect the types of activities and preparation of materials?activities and preparation of materials?

Attendance: Do the learners attend Attendance: Do the learners attend regularly?regularly?

Assumed knowledge: what have the Assumed knowledge: what have the learners already studied? How well can learners already studied? How well can they recall and use language they have they recall and use language they have studied?studied?

Anticipated problems: for example, Anticipated problems: for example, are the learners’ abilities mixed? Are are the learners’ abilities mixed? Are there any discipline problems?there any discipline problems?

CoursebooksCoursebooks

There are various ways in which you migThere are various ways in which you might need to change things in a coursebooht need to change things in a coursebook. It is helpful to let your learners know ik. It is helpful to let your learners know if you are going to omit things or change f you are going to omit things or change the order of activities or chapters and exthe order of activities or chapters and explain why you are doing so.plain why you are doing so.

ActivitiesActivitiesThese can be divided into activities These can be divided into activities that require the learners to read, that require the learners to read, write, speak or listen or a write, speak or listen or a combination of some or all of these.combination of some or all of these.Skills are often combined in an Skills are often combined in an activity. For example, the learners activity. For example, the learners read a text, answer questions about read a text, answer questions about it, discuss it, then write their own it, discuss it, then write their own text. text.

InteractionInteraction

The teacher and learners can The teacher and learners can interact with each other in a wide interact with each other in a wide variety of ways. Here are some variety of ways. Here are some examples of interaction patterns:examples of interaction patterns:

Teacher to whole classTeacher to whole class

Teacher to individual learner in open Teacher to individual learner in open classclass

Teacher to individual learnerTeacher to individual learner

Pair work, i.e. two learners working Pair work, i.e. two learners working togethertogether

Group work, for example, the class Group work, for example, the class divided into halves or small groups of divided into halves or small groups of three or fourthree or four

Melee: learners move around the Melee: learners move around the class and interact at random.class and interact at random.

Teacher’s positionTeacher’s position

Stay at the front of the classroom in Stay at the front of the classroom in front of the boardfront of the board

Walk around the class at randomWalk around the class at random

If the class in a semi-circle, walk If the class in a semi-circle, walk round from left to right or right to leftround from left to right or right to left

Stand at the back of the classStand at the back of the class

Types of questionsTypes of questions

You need to plan the kind of You need to plan the kind of questions you are going to ask and questions you are going to ask and who you’re going to ask. who you’re going to ask.

Open questions vs. closed questionsOpen questions vs. closed questions

Teachers should think about the type Teachers should think about the type of questions and the way they ask of questions and the way they ask them as they affect the learning them as they affect the learning process in important ways.process in important ways.

Sequence of activitiesSequence of activities

Lessons with a particular aim are Lessons with a particular aim are made up of a sequence of activities made up of a sequence of activities which relate to each other. which relate to each other.

Timing and pacingTiming and pacing

This is determined by how long each This is determined by how long each lesson is and how much time you lesson is and how much time you have over a term or course. Decide have over a term or course. Decide how long each activity will take. A how long each activity will take. A lesson needs to have lots of variety lesson needs to have lots of variety and the pace should be relatively and the pace should be relatively quick for young learners—each quick for young learners—each activity should be relatively short.activity should be relatively short.

ClassroomClassroomThe size and shape of the classroom The size and shape of the classroom will also affect your lesson plan. Can will also affect your lesson plan. Can the learners move around? Is there the learners move around? Is there space for the learners to do physical space for the learners to do physical activities, get into groups, walk activities, get into groups, walk around, etc.? How is the furniture around, etc.? How is the furniture arranged? Can it be moved? Some arranged? Can it be moved? Some ways of arranging desks in a ways of arranging desks in a classroom are shown below. Please classroom are shown below. Please refer to p. 108.refer to p. 108.

A lesson in three stagesA lesson in three stages

Opening: In the first part of a lesson the tOpening: In the first part of a lesson the teacher should explain to the learners: weacher should explain to the learners: what the aims of the lesson are, how the lhat the aims of the lesson are, how the lesson links to previous one(s), what actiesson links to previous one(s), what activities they are going to do.vities they are going to do.

Before you start work on a new area Before you start work on a new area it is a good idea to review work that it is a good idea to review work that was covered in a previous lesson.was covered in a previous lesson.

You can use a warm-up activity to You can use a warm-up activity to get the learners’ attention and get the learners’ attention and interest. This can be something that interest. This can be something that is unrelated to the main part of the is unrelated to the main part of the lesson.lesson.

MiddleMiddle

This is where you focus on the main This is where you focus on the main aim of the lesson. aim of the lesson.

For the four skills the main part of a For the four skills the main part of a lesson usually focuses on an activity lesson usually focuses on an activity or series of activities that practice or series of activities that practice one of the skills or sub-skills.one of the skills or sub-skills.

EndEnd

The final part of a lesson aims to The final part of a lesson aims to bring it to a close or conclusion. bring it to a close or conclusion. There are a number of things you There are a number of things you can do in this stage: can do in this stage:

recap the main points of the lessonrecap the main points of the lesson

Relate the lesson to the goals or Relate the lesson to the goals or aims you stated at the beginningaims you stated at the beginning

Go over any homework instructions Go over any homework instructions or preparation learners must do for or preparation learners must do for the next lesson.the next lesson.

Praise learners for what they have Praise learners for what they have achieved in the lesson.achieved in the lesson.

Get learners for what they have Get learners for what they have achieved in the lesson.achieved in the lesson.

Get learners to evaluate the lesson.Get learners to evaluate the lesson.

Evaluating a lessonEvaluating a lesson

After you have taught a lesson, it is a After you have taught a lesson, it is a good idea to evaluate it. Here are good idea to evaluate it. Here are some questions you can use. Please some questions you can use. Please refer to p. 112.refer to p. 112.

Planning a coursePlanning a course

In planning a whole course we detail all In planning a whole course we detail all the things a learner should learn in that the things a learner should learn in that period of time. This list is often decided period of time. This list is often decided by the institution, depends upon which by the institution, depends upon which coursebook is being used, or is determincoursebook is being used, or is determined by the examination the learners are ped by the examination the learners are preparing for.reparing for.

It is a good idea to carry out a needs It is a good idea to carry out a needs analysis before writing a course analysis before writing a course outline if possible. outline if possible.

Once we have found out what the Once we have found out what the learners’ needs are, we can consider learners’ needs are, we can consider what language to include in the what language to include in the syllabus and in what order it should syllabus and in what order it should come.come.

Course projects for childrenCourse projects for children

Children in particular like to have Children in particular like to have something concrete they can work something concrete they can work towards for the end of a course. towards for the end of a course. Please refer to p. 118.Please refer to p. 118.

Assessment and EvaluationAssessment and Evaluation

Ways of assessing learners: Ways of assessing learners: Assessment is the process of Assessment is the process of analyzing and measuring knowledge analyzing and measuring knowledge and ability, in this case, the learner’s and ability, in this case, the learner’s knowledge of the language and knowledge of the language and ability to communicate. Assessment ability to communicate. Assessment can be done either formally or can be done either formally or informally.informally.

Diagnostic testsDiagnostic tests

Diagnostic tests are designed to Diagnostic tests are designed to provide information about individual provide information about individual learners’ strengths and weaknesses learners’ strengths and weaknesses in specific areas of the language in specific areas of the language system, for example, a test could tell system, for example, a test could tell us about which phonemes a learner us about which phonemes a learner is or isn’t able to produce accurately is or isn’t able to produce accurately in connected speech.in connected speech.

Placement testsPlacement tests

Diagnostic tests are given to learners Diagnostic tests are given to learners at the beginning of a new course. at the beginning of a new course. The aim is to determine the range of The aim is to determine the range of language learners know and can use language learners know and can use so that teachers can place them in so that teachers can place them in the most suitable classes or groups.the most suitable classes or groups.

Progress testsProgress tests

Progress tests are given to learners Progress tests are given to learners during a course to see how far their during a course to see how far their language ability has developed, for language ability has developed, for example, what vocabulary they can example, what vocabulary they can use that they couldn’t at the use that they couldn’t at the beginning of a course. beginning of a course.

Achievement testsAchievement tests

Achievement tests are given to Achievement tests are given to learners at the end of the course and learners at the end of the course and are based on what they have studied are based on what they have studied during the course. They aim to show during the course. They aim to show what learners are able to do at the what learners are able to do at the end of the course that they couldn’t end of the course that they couldn’t do at the beginning of the course.do at the beginning of the course.

External proficiency examsExternal proficiency exams

External proficiency exams may be External proficiency exams may be produced by the Ministry of produced by the Ministry of Education in a particular country, or Education in a particular country, or by an organization which sets by an organization which sets language exams internationally. language exams internationally.

The effects of using testsThe effects of using tests

Testing and evaluation can have a Testing and evaluation can have a significant influence on how a significant influence on how a teacher works with their learners, teacher works with their learners, and also influences how learners and also influences how learners learn. Some of the good and bad learn. Some of the good and bad effects of testing can include: p. 123effects of testing can include: p. 123

Preparing tests for your learnersPreparing tests for your learners

The following guidelines should help The following guidelines should help to make progress and achievement to make progress and achievement tests a positive experience for your tests a positive experience for your learners.learners.

Test what you have taught.Test what you have taught.

Test what is useful.Test what is useful.

Test all four skills.Test all four skills.

Tell your learners ‘when’ and ’what’. Tell your learners ‘when’ and ’what’.

Make sure the instructions are clear.Make sure the instructions are clear.

See p. 124.See p. 124.

Make use of materials that are Make use of materials that are already available.already available.

Types of testsTypes of tests

The following types of test involve a The following types of test involve a number of different aspects of number of different aspects of language use. Testing experts agree language use. Testing experts agree that they are all good ways of testing that they are all good ways of testing learners’ language knowledge. They learners’ language knowledge. They are all simple to prepare and it is are all simple to prepare and it is easy to base them on work your easy to base them on work your learners have been doing.learners have been doing.

It is important that you are familiar with It is important that you are familiar with them in order to prepare your learners for them in order to prepare your learners for exams which might contain them.exams which might contain them.

Dictation: Dictation is very good way of Dictation: Dictation is very good way of testing listening and writing skills. You can testing listening and writing skills. You can easily make a short dictation by using part easily make a short dictation by using part of a text that your learners have already of a text that your learners have already read and listened to.read and listened to.

Gap filling testsGap filling tests

A gap-filling test is a text in which A gap-filling test is a text in which individual words are missing. individual words are missing. Learners have to fill in the missing Learners have to fill in the missing words.words.

You can make these tests from You can make these tests from reading or listening texts in materials reading or listening texts in materials you use with your learners. you use with your learners.

C-testsC-testsIn a C-test the second half of every In a C-test the second half of every word is missing. Learners have to word is missing. Learners have to complete the words. complete the words. C-tests often involve several short C-tests often involve several short texts so that a wider variety of texts so that a wider variety of language is tested. They typically language is tested. They typically require learners to complete 40-50 require learners to complete 40-50 words. Notice that both gap-fill tests words. Notice that both gap-fill tests and C-tests give learners a complete and C-tests give learners a complete

first sentence so that they know what first sentence so that they know what the test is about.the test is about.

Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions are a common type choice questions are a common type of test and can be used to test both of test and can be used to test both individual language items, such as individual language items, such as vocabulary or grammar, or listening vocabulary or grammar, or listening or reading comprehension. or reading comprehension.

A multiple-choice question usually A multiple-choice question usually gives the learner a choice of one gives the learner a choice of one correct answer and two or three correct answer and two or three incorrect ones.incorrect ones.

Word orderWord order

Putting the words into a random Putting the words into a random order makes the learners think about order makes the learners think about sentence construction and the sentence construction and the relationship between words, phrases, relationship between words, phrases, and clauses. Obviously, the longer and clauses. Obviously, the longer and more complex the sentence the and more complex the sentence the more difficult the test.more difficult the test.

Sentence completionSentence completion

Many tests require learners to Many tests require learners to complete sentence with an complete sentence with an appropriate word or phrase. appropriate word or phrase. Learners can be given a choice of Learners can be given a choice of answers or a prompt.answers or a prompt.

Sentence transformationSentence transformation

This is the name given to tests where the This is the name given to tests where the learnerlearner