COURSE INTRODUCTION - Blackboard Inc. · Unit Manager Graduate Attribute ... Volume 1 - Course...

“Learning never exhausts the mind.”

- Leonardo da Vinci

COURSE INTRODUCTION

Thomas N. Barnes Center for

Enlisted Education

Maxwell-Gunter AFB, Alabama

Air University

NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER

ACADEMY DISTANCE LEARNING COURSE

Course 0015 – Version 1, Edition 4

CHAPTER ONE: Student Orientation....... 5 Managing Your Course ............................... 7

Changes ...................................................... 7 Course Examinations ................................. 7 Course Time Limit ..................................... 8 AFRC and ANG Retirement Points ........... 8 In-residence Attendance at

Noncommissioned Officer Academy

(NCOA) ...................................................... 8 College Credit ............................................ 8 Records ....................................................... 8 Mandatory/Voluntary Enrollees ................. 8 Course Organization and Content .............. 8 Course Breakout ......................................... 9 Learning Aids ............................................. 9 Formative Exercises ................................. 10 References ................................................ 11 Student Responsibilities ........................... 11 Course Completion Criteria ..................... 11

CHAPTER TWO: Course Foundation..... 13 Elements of Force Development ............... 15

EPME Pillars ............................................ 15 PME Objectives ....................................... 17 NCOA Mission Statement........................ 17

NCOADLC Curriculum Graduate

Attributes .................................................... 18 Military Professional Graduate Attribute . 18 Operational Airman Graduate Attribute ... 19 Unit Manager Graduate Attribute ............ 21 Managerial Communicator Graduate

Attribute ................................................... 22

CHAPTER THREE: Successful Learning 27 Time Management’s Role in Successful

Learning ...................................................... 29 Using Your Time Wisely ......................... 29 Overcoming Procrastination ..................... 30 Benefits of Time Management ................. 31

Keys to Successful Learning ...................... 33 Learning Defined ..................................... 33 The Learning Style Profile ....................... 33 Steps of the Learning Process .................. 39

Levels of Learning ...................................... 44 Affective Domain Levels of Learning ..... 44 Cognitive Domain Levels of Learning ..... 47

Learning Outcomes, Objectives, and

Samples of Behavior .................................. 49 Student Learning Outcome ...................... 49 Affective Objectives ................................ 49 Cognitive Objectives................................ 49

Teaching Methods ...................................... 50 Asynchronous .......................................... 50 Progress Checks/Self-Reflection

Opportunities ........................................... 50 Scenarios and Case Study Analysis ......... 50 Guide to Chapter/Lessons ........................ 52

IDDP Structured Thinking Process/Critical

Thinking ..................................................... 58 Using the IDDP Structured Thinking

Process ..................................................... 59 Critical Thinking ...................................... 64

Air Force Institutional Competencies ...... 70 Organizational (broad category) .............. 71 People & Teams (broad category) ........... 73 Personal (broad category) ........................ 74

CHAPTER FOUR: Strategic Thinking .... 86 Cognitive Techniques and Skills of

Strategic Thinking ..................................... 88 Critical Thinking ...................................... 88 Creative Thinking .................................... 88 Innovative Thinking ................................. 89 Adaptive Thinking ................................... 90 Reflective Thinking ................................. 91 Analytical Thinking ................................. 91 Future Thinking ....................................... 92 Systems Thinking .................................... 92 Synthesis .................................................. 92

Critical Thinking: A Closer Look ........... 95 The Critical Thinking Sub-Skills ............. 97

Investigate ................................................ 97 Create and Develop .................................. 97 Communicate ........................................... 97 Evaluate ................................................... 98

Characteristics of the Critical Thinker .... 98 Critical Thinking Hindrances ................. 102 Approaches for Evaluating Information 111

Consider the Source ............................... 111 Fascione’s Scoring Rubric ..................... 113

Thinking Deeply About Leadership ....... 119 Impact on NCO Effectiveness ................. 121

CHAPTER FIVE: Four Lenses .............. 137

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction: The Four Lenses .............. 139 The Four Temperaments ......................... 140

Green ...................................................... 140 Blue ........................................................ 142 Gold ........................................................ 143 Orange .................................................... 145 Progress Check ....................................... 146

Blind Spots ................................................ 147 Progress Check ....................................... 149

Communicating Through the Lenses ..... 150 Maturity .................................................... 156 Real-life Guidelines and Strategies of

Colors ........................................................ 157

CHAPTER SIX: Adaption-Innovation (A-I)

Theory ..................................................... 168 Preferred Cognitive (Thinking) Approach

.................................................................... 170 A-I Theory’s Basic Principles ................. 170

A-I Theory Emphasizes Three Key Issues:

................................................................ 170 Adaption-Innovation Theory .................. 170 Proper Terms and Perception ................. 172 Implications for Use of A-I Theory......... 177

Cognitive Gap: ....................................... 177 Bridgers .................................................. 178 Coping Behavior .................................... 180

CHAPTER SEVEN: Full Range Leadership

Development ........................................... 190 The Evolution of Leadership Theory ..... 192

Trait Theory ........................................... 193 Psychodynamic Theory .......................... 193 Skills Theory .......................................... 193 Style Theory ........................................... 194 Situational Leadership Theory ............... 194 Situational Leadership Model ................ 194 Contingency Theory ............................... 195 Path-Goal Theory ................................... 196 Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX)

Theory .................................................... 196 Authentic Leadership Theory ................. 196 Through increased self-awareness and self-

regulated behavior, one becomes an

authentic leader. ..................................... 197 Why Full Range Leadership Development

(FRLD)? .................................................... 199 FRLD Leadership Behaviors .................. 202

Motivational Theories .............................. 204 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory 207 McClelland’s Need Theory .................... 208 Contemporary Motivation ...................... 209

Transformational Leadership ................. 210 Right to Lead Model ................................ 215

Authority: What you are allowed to do. 216 Obligations and Requirements: What you

must do ................................................... 216 Competence: What you are capable of

doing ...................................................... 216 Character: What you will do? ............... 217 Personality: How you do what you do .. 217 Relevance: The difference that you make

............................................................... 218 Trust: The strength of the bond between

you and those you lead ........................... 219

CHAPTER ONE: Student Orientation

Inside this chapter:

Managing Your Course

Shipping List

Changes

Course Examinations

Course Time Limit

AFRES and ANG Retirement Points

In-Residence Attendance at Noncommissioned Officer Academy (NCOA)

College Credit

Records

Mandatory/ Voluntary Enrollees

Course Organization and Content

Course Breakout

Learning Aids

o Definition Boxes

o Reference Boxes

o Self-Reflection Opportunities

o Progress Checks

o Case Studies

o Scenarios

o Exercises

Formative Exercises

References

Student Responsibilities

Course Completion Criteria

If your commander told you were ready for another

promotion, would you be ready? Do you fully understand

your role as a Non-Commissioned Officer and leader in

today’s expeditionary environment? This course will give

you the foundation and educational experience that will

help you improve upon the skills you have already learned

to be an even more effective leader.

“Learning is like rowing upstream: not to advance is to drop back”

- Chinese Proverb

Henry Ford

6 Chapter One: Student Orientation

On behalf of the Thomas N. Barnes Center for Enlisted

Education, welcome to the Noncommissioned Officer

Academy Distance Learning Course (NCOADLC) of

enlisted Professional Military Education (EPME)! One

of the goals of this course is to help you develop

leadership skills.

You’re about to begin an intense and rigorous journey.

The use of time management is crucial to success in

this course. Not only will you find it challenging to

complete the reading assignments and activities, you will need to carve out time to think about

how this course relates to you and to your subordinates.

This chapter begins with tools to help you

manage this course such as course time limits

and information about course examinations. We

have included a brief orientation on the course

organization to help you to navigate each

volume. Next, we cover your responsibilities as

they relate to completing this course. Upon

completion of this chapter, you should know the

expectations of completing the NCOADLC.

“Learning without thought is labor lost.”

- Confucius

Upon completion of this chapter you

should be able to:

ACTIVITY STATEMENT:

Read and become familiar with all

aspects of the NCOADLC.

Chapter One: Student Orientation 7

Managing Your Course

What follows is information to help you effectively manage this educational experience.

You’re taking the online version and all the volumes of this course are available to you at any

time. However, you must follow the predetermined order of the volumes! When you access this

course, the material available to you will be the most up to date material. There is no need to

worry about making changes.

Changes

Occasionally there are version or edition updates to the NCOADLC. The version and edition

number can be found on the second page of each volume.

A version update occurs when there has been a change to lesson concepts or principles

that will affect how you comprehend the material.

An edition update occurs when a minor change that does not affect lesson concepts or

principles such as grammar or picture edits have been added.

Before you begin, or pay to print, each volume ensure you have the current version and edition at

the following website:

http://www.aueducationsupport.com/link/portal/8027/8405/Article/5997/How-do-I-get-my-

Course-15-course-materials.

Course Examinations

In order to receive credit for NCOADLC, you must pass two course exams. The first exam

covers material from the Course Introduction, Military Professional and Operational Airman

volumes (Set A). The second exam covers material from the Unit Manager and Managerial

Communicator volumes (Set B).

Please note that whether you are a mandatory and voluntary enrollee, you MUST pass both

course examinations before your enrollment time in the course expires. Additionally, you must

pass the Set A examination before you can receive Set B. If you fail either exam, you only have

one more chance before we automatically remove you from the course.

Here are a few tips for course examinations:

Review the E-Exam Student Guide at:

http://www.aueducationsupport.com/link/portal/8027/8405/Article/6152/Where-can-I-

find-the-E-exam-Student-Guide.

Schedule each exam with your Test Control Facility (do not just show up and expect to

test)

Bring your military ID card with you

Arrive early on test day


Course Time Limit

You have 12 months to complete this course. If you experience extenuating circumstances; you

may request up to a 4-month initial extension. You must make this request BEFORE the course

expiration date.

AFRC and ANG Retirement Points

You must pass both course examinations to receive credit for retirement points. See the Preface

of each volume for credit amounts. Each time you complete a volume, we notify Air Reserve

Personnel Center (ARPC). If you have any questions on standards or credits awarded, refer to

the A4L Course Catalog at http://www.au.af.mil/au/afiadl/ (choose Catalogs) or contact ARPC.

In-residence Attendance at Noncommissioned Officer Academy (NCOA)

This course is a pre-requisite for Active, AFRC, and ANG students to attend the

Noncommissioned Officer Academy (NCOA) in-residence. You must pass both course

examinations.

College Credit

To determine whether credit can be awarded, have your “college of choice” review your Air

University transcript and consult the Guide to the Evaluation of Educational Experiences in the

Armed Services (http://militaryguides.acenet.edu/).

Records

You may request official copies of transcripts of completed courses from the Community

College of the Air Force (CCAF) Registrar’s Office.

Mandatory/Voluntary Enrollees

For mandatory enrollees who need assistance, contact your supervisor who will then work with

the military personnel flight (MPFOJT section).

For voluntary enrollees, contact your ESO.

For additional course policies, please take a moment to visit the Barnes Center for Enlisted

Education EPME Policy Branch SharePoint at:

https://cs3.eis.af.mil/sites/25113/default.aspx.

Course Organization and Content

This course, where possible, mirrors the in-resident NCOA course.


Course Breakout

The NCOADLC comes in two sets, consisting of five volumes total.

Set A:

Volume 1 - Course Introduction

Volume 2 - Military Professional

Volume 3 - Operational Airman

Set B:

Volume 1 - Unit Manager

Volume 2 - Managerial Communicator

As stated previously, you must pass the examination for the first set before you can move on to

the second set.

Learning Aids

To help you better understand the material, each chapter

contains the following learning aids:

Definition Boxes

These boxes contain key terms and definitions not defined

anywhere else. Study the content of these boxes to gain a

better understanding lesson concepts and principles.

Reference Boxes

These boxes contain additional information from core

documents such as: AFI 36-2618, Enlisted Force Structure,

AF Core Values Booklet, and ANNEX 1-1, Leadership and

Force Development. Other AFIs and regulations are also

included that are pertinent to the specific chapter material.

These reference boxes, located throughout the chapters, are

vital to understanding and valuing lesson concepts and

principles.

Change sponsors are the people responsible for initiating change within an organization.

The core value, Service Before Self, states that Professionals can’t indulge themselves in self-pity,

discouragement, anger, frustration, or defeatism. They

have a fundamental moral obligation to the people they lead to strike a tone of confidence and

forward-looking optimism.


Self-Reflection Opportunities

These boxes provide opportunities to think about how the material directly affects you and your

Airmen. When you come across these boxes, it is important to pause and reflect. As stated

earlier, this course will help you become a more effective Airman, supervisor, and leader.

However, just reading the material and answering questions is not enough; you must internalize

(assign value) the information.

Progress Checks

You will find Progress Checks at the end of each major section of the course. Use these

opportunities to evaluate your understanding of material covered up to that point. Answers to all

Progress Checks are located at the end of each chapter; however, to get the most value from this

course, try to answer progress check questions before peeking at the answers.

Case Studies

Case studies provide opportunities to apply what you have learned to simulated situations. In all

cases, you will use the EPME Structured Thinking Process to solve leadership and management

problems presented in the case studies. The Structured Thinking Process is a vital problem-

solving skill that all NCOs should master. You will learn all about it in the Successful Learning

lesson. You will find answers to case study problems in the back of the volumes.

Scenarios

Just like case studies, scenarios provide opportunities to apply what you have learned to

simulated situations. The difference between in case studies and scenarios is difficulty.

Scenarios typically contain only one problem; cases studies contain many problems.

Exercises

Scattered throughout the course, these exercises require higher order thinking skills and they

provide opportunities to practice and hone your decision-making skills.

Formative Exercises

Formative exercises mirror the course examinations. The difference of course is we give you the

answers to the formative exercises. In order to give yourself an accurate assessment of your

understanding of the material, try not to peek at the answers until after you’ve read the chapter,

completed all activities associated with that chapter, and completed the formative exercise.

For missed questions, go back, review associated material to determine why you missed the

questions, re-read the chapter to gain a better grasp of the concepts, try the test question(s) again.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: Have you ever had to implement a change you didn’t agree

with? How did you handle it? Did you support it with a positive attitude? If not, why not…what caused you to

resist the change.


References

We provided references used to write content after each chapter. You may find them useful in

gaining a deeper understanding of the material. Most are available online or through your local

library.

Student Responsibilities

Adhere to all enrollment guidelines

Establish a schedule to finish the course on time

Engage in the learning process complete all progress checks, reflective opportunities,

scenarios, case studies, and formative exercises.

Ensure you understand the lesson and course objectives.

Gain deeper understanding by discussing lesson concepts and principles with peers,

supervisors and others in your chain of command.

Adhere to the highest standards of academic integrity. Do NOT engaging in plagiarism,

cheating, misrepresentation, or any other act constituting a lack of academic or military

integrity. Violating this directive subjects you to adverse administrative and/or punitive

actions.

Stay attuned to current and future issues by familiarizing yourself with readings from

senior Air Force leaders that outline their goals, visions, and directions. This not only

helps you with this course, it also helps you fulfill your responsibilities according to AFI

36-2618, The Enlisted Force Structure. Access reading materials at:

www.af.mil/information/viewpoints/

Secretary of the Air Force

Chief of Staff of the Air Force

Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force

Course Completion Criteria

You must achieve at least 70% on both course examinations to demonstrate an acceptable level

of mastery of course material.


Summarize and Reflect

This chapter covered information about how this course is organized, how to manage your time

effectively in order to complete the course on time, and expectations of you as a student.

Put forth your best effort and this course will help you become a more effective NCO.

13


Elements of Force Development

EPME Pillars

PME Objectives

NCOA Mission Statement

NCOADLC Curriculum Graduate Attributes

Operational Airmen

Military Professional

Unit Manager

Managerial Communicator

CHAPTER TWO: Course Foundation

Today’s Air Force requires leaders who can take warfare

to the highest possible level of success in support of

national security objectives. Those leaders can only be

created through a process of development involving

education, training, and expeditionary operations

seasoned with experience and guidance from more

experienced leaders.

“Leadership is intangible, and therefore no weapon ever designed

can replace it.”

- Omar N. Bradley

14 Chapter Two: Course Foundation

The Noncommissioned Officer Academy Distance Learning

Course (NCOADLC) builds upon the foundation gained

through the Airman Leadership School (in-residence or

distance learning). The NCOADLC plays a critical role in

supporting your professional development. Course contents

support all Air Force institutional competencies.

This chapter of the NCOADLC provides important

information to help you have a successful learning

experience. It begins with the four pillars of Enlisted

Professional Military Education. Then it covers

EPME objectives, the Noncommissioned Officer

Academy mission statement, and wraps up with

NCOADLC Graduate Attributes.

Absolute identity with one's cause is the first and great condition of successful leadership.

- Woodrow Wilson

Upon completion of this

chapter you should be able to:

ACTIVITY STATEMENT:

Read information on the

elements of force development

and NCOADLC graduate

attributes.

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE:

Receive information on the

course foundation for the

NCOADLC.

Affective Samples of Behavior:

1. Accept the course

foundation information.

Chapter Two: Course Foundation 15

Elements of Force Development

In May 2010, USAF Chief of Staff General Schwartz stated at the Senior Enlisted Leader

Summit:

“The bottom line is, deliberate development must occur from basic training through the

full term of rich and rewarding career experiences for the Airman, their families, and the

Air Force; and, it must be relevant from all perspectives—technological, operational,

and cultural.”1

The NCOADLC curriculum supports deliberate development via the EPME pillars.

EPME Pillars

The Thomas N. Barnes Center for Enlisted Education is responsible for developing enlisted

education programs for the Airman Leadership School (ALS), Noncommissioned Officer

Academy (NCOA), Senior Noncommissioned Officer Academy (SNCOA), and Chief Master

Sergeant Leadership Course (CLC). The following source documents, also called the EPME

pillars, contain standards of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors for Airmen as well as

desirable levels of expertise in different areas of the Profession of Arms (POA).

The United States Air Force Core Values

The core values booklet explains the ethical and moral obligations of Air Force employees,

provides the foundation for professional character, and guides Airmen’s personal and

professional conduct. You can use the core values to evaluate your own behavior and actions of

those around you. There will be many opportunities during this course to cover the core values.

Available for viewing/download at: http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/

http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/


AFI 36-2618, The Enlisted Force Structure

This document details the responsibilities of all enlisted Airmen. It provides great insight into

both the standards and methods used to accomplish individual duties. The purpose of this pillar

is to ensure that all enlisted Airmen understand what the Air Force expects from them at each

rank.

Available for viewing/download at:

http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/shared/media/epubs/AFI36-2618.pdf

US Air Force Doctrine ANNEX 1-1, Force Development

This document discusses leadership and force development principles and tenets that are

experienced-based and rooted in all levels of the Air Force. It includes the Air Force Core

Values and the Institutional Competencies that the NCOA the NCOADLC lessons support.

Airmen should use it as guidance for fulfilling their assigned duties and leadership

responsibilities. This document is the Air Force statement of leadership principles and force

development, enabled by education and training, providing a framework for action ensuring

Airmen can become effective leaders.

Available for viewing/download at: https://www.doctrine.af.mil/DTM/dtmforcedevelopment.htm

CJCS 1805.01A, Enlisted Professional Military Education

This document defines Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) objectives and policies

regarding the educational and training institutions that comprise the Enlisted Professional

Military Education (EPME) and Enlisted Joint Professional Military Education (EJPME)

programs. The Enlisted Professional Military Education Program (EPMEP) provides guidance

to military education and training institutions regarding Joint Learning Areas (JLAs) and Joint

Learning Objectives (JLOs) that should be included into EPME curricula in order to achieve the

goal of expanding “jointness” to all appropriate levels of the U.S. Armed Forces.

Available for viewing/download at: www.dtic.mil/cjcs_directives/cdata/unlimit/1805_01.pdf

The four EPME pillars form the foundation of the course; however, there are addition influences

on the curriculum:

Air Force Learning Council Headquarters Air Force Air Force Instructions Chief of Staff of the Air Force Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force Air Force Learning Council

The Air Force Learning Council (AFLC) meets twice a year to discuss emerging leadership

issues and to decide which issues should be covered in EPME.

http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/shared/media/epubs/AFI36-2618.pdf

https://www.doctrine.af.mil/DTM/dtmforcedevelopment.htm

http://www.dtic.mil/cjcs_directives/cdata/unlimit/1805_01.pdf


Headquarters Air Force

At times, headquarters will insert a priority leadership issues into PME. Two recent examples

are resiliency and sexual assault prevention and response.

Air Force Instructions

Various AFIs direct EPME to cover specific subjects. Current topics include the Alcohol

Prevention Program, Suicide and Violence Prevention, Sexual Assault Prevention and Response

Program, OPSEC, and Military Equal Opportunity for Military and Civilian.

Now that you have a basic understanding for what drives the curriculum, it’s time to look at the

PME objectives.

PME Objectives

The PME objectives identify the specific skills that will be developed at all officer and enlisted

PME schools. According to AFI 36-2301, Developmental Education, Professional military

education (PME) is that portion of military education that:

Provides the nation with personnel skilled in the employment of air, space, and cyberspace

power in the conduct of war and small-scale contingencies (peacekeeping, humanitarian

assistance, crisis response, and so forth)

Provides Air Force personnel with the skills and knowledge to make strategic decisions in

progressively more demanding leadership positions within the national security environment

Develops strategic thinkers, planners, and warfighters

Strengthens the ability and skill of Air Force personnel to lead, manage, and supervise

These objectives promote the development of officer and enlisted leaders who are proficient in

their jobs; who understand air, space, and cyberspace power and Air Force doctrine; and who can

apply critical thinking skills to solve complex problems.

NCOA Mission Statement

“Prepare technical sergeants to be professional, warfighting Airmen who can

lead and manage Air Force units in employment of air, space, and cyberspace

power.”

In support of this mission, the NCOA curriculum, in-resident and distance learning, is developed

to address challenges NCOs face as expeditionary Airmen and to present knowledge that helps

NCOs perform as effectively as possible as a leader at the tactical level.

Now, it is time to explore the graduate attributes.


NCOADLC Curriculum Graduate Attributes

There are four graduate attributes: Operational Airman, Military Professional, Unit Manager,

and Managerial Communicator. Each attribute has its own volume.

Military Professional Graduate Attribute

The objective of the Military Professional Graduate Attribute is to develop Military Professionals

who:

are models of discipline, integrity, and courage with a

strong understanding of and commitment to the profession

of arms.

are fit, confident members who display professional

characteristics and adhere to their responsibilities outlined

in 36-2618.

are resilient warriors who have healthy physical,

emotional, spiritual, and social states.

understand the high expectations of members in the

profession of arms.

seek further understanding of military art and science and unselfishly uphold traditional

customs and courtesies.

demonstrate support for the Air Force’s distinct subculture and strive to adhere to and

internalize Air force core values.

have zero tolerance for unlawful discrimination, sexual harassment, and sexual assault

and are dedicated to maintaining a professional environment in the work place.

The Military Professional volume contains the following chapters:

1. Airmanship—it requires a unique and courageous mentality and spirit to accept and fulfill

all the responsibilities associated with membership into this demanding profession. This

chapter focuses on the American Airman, aspects of the Air Force culture, and Warrior

Ethos, and you will examine the “Airman Nation Oration” to see how you and your

subordinates contribute to the global military mission.

2. Human Performance— The purpose of this chapter is for you to see your body as a human

machine that if not fueled and exercised appropriately will not be able to perform at peak

efficiency. The information you gain from this chapter has short and long-term impact.

First, it helps you understand how to eat and exercise correctly thus there are immediate

benefits. It also helps you live a healthier lifestyle.


3. Air Force Culture & Heritage— This chapter supports the Airmanship chapter

competencies of Air Force military culture, i.e., dress and appearance, flag ceremonies, and

reveille and retreat. Additionally, you will explore what you have learned regarding how

Air Force culture and heritage impacts military professionalism. Included in this chapter

are also “Self-Reflection Opportunities” that will challenge you to think about how the

concepts may impact you personally.

4. Diversity—The intent of this chapter is to expand your existing knowledge of diversity and

consider other less-obvious elements that contribute to overall organizational performance.

You’ll learn to identify how similarities and differences help define you as an individual

and you as a valuable member of the Air Force team. Then you’ll learn about the six

Socio-Behavioral Tendencies (SBTs) and how they can lead to discrimination. After that,

you’ll focus on how policies and leadership decisions play an important role in enabling

you to provide what’s called a “diversity-supportive environment” for your Airmen.

5. Ethical Leadership—The purpose of this chapter is to help you understand why ethical

leadership is important for all military professionals, and how ethics can influence the

military professional. You will examine the issue of ethics and the military professional.

Operational Airman Graduate Attribute

The objective of the Operational Airman Graduate Attribute is to develop Airmen who:

are fit, confident professionals who understand and are committed to the profession of

arms.

apply their understanding of leadership concepts in all situations: in garrison, in country,

and in combat.

properly apply direction, discipline, and recognition (DDR) to develop the Operational

Airmanship skills of subordinates.

display behaviors, adhere to the Air Force

core values, and carry out their

responsibilities as outlined in AFI 36-2618

with vigor and enthusiasm.

display solid written, spoken, and

interpersonal communication skills to

facilitate mission accomplishment.

understand the national security strategy

and joint war fighting structure and can

articulate Air Force mission and doctrine.


have an understanding of the global environment and an awareness of cross-cultural

competence.

are prepared to deploy to support combatant commanders by sustaining operations in

austere conditions.

The Operation Airman volume contains the following chapters:

1. Joint Organization—As a leader, you need to understand the joint environment and be able

to explain how it is organized to accomplish missions. This chapter focuses on the roles,

relationships, functions, and areas of responsibility of the national military command

structure. It also examines how combatant commands are organized, the roles and

functions of sister services, and the fundamentals of Joint Task Force organizations.

2. Joint Warfighter—As an expeditionary Airman, you are deploying more and more and

engaging in a host of conflicts and contingencies worldwide. In this chapter, you will learn

about military theory and shift to the principles of war. It examines doctrine and how air,

space, and cyberspace are used to meet National Security objectives. Finally, it addresses

the many strategies employed by the United States and concludes with a look at the range

of military operations (ROMO) to include those related to non-conflict crisis response.

3. Cross-Cultural Awareness—The Air Force discovered that although the enlisted force

always gets the job done, NCOs find it very challenging and frustrating when it involves

cross-cultural situations. This chapter begins

with a discussion about cross-cultural

competence and the Air Force’s 3C model. It

then covers the 12 domains of culture,

followed by cultural scenarios to generate

some conversation about culture.

4. Nuclear Enterprise— Airmen play an

extremely important part in today’s nuclear

enterprise. The purpose of this chapter is to

expand your knowledge, awareness,

understanding, and appreciation of the nuclear

enterprise and its role in U.S. national security strategy. It also stresses the importance of

personal responsibility, accountability, compliance, and discipline regardless of rank when

engaged or indirectly supporting the U.S. nuclear weapons program.


Unit Manager Graduate Attribute

The objective of this attribute is to develop unit managers who:

are professionals who understand and are committed to the profession of arms.

apply their understanding of management concepts in all situations: in garrison, in

country, and in combat.

provide ethical guidance while managing human and physical resources.

while adhering to the core values and applying an understanding of human behavior,

they mold their Airmen into a cohesive team capable of meeting any challenge.

oversee numerous programs, ensuring their sections or flights can adapt to an ever-

changing expeditionary environment.

require strong communication skills – written, spoken, and interpersonal.

The Unit Manager volume contains the following chapters:

1. Building Teams—This chapter examines six fundamental principles of team building

(definitions, team mission, team roles, team dynamics, stages of team development, and

successful teams) and the NCO’s role and responsibilities as a team leader.

2. Leader Influence— Directly or indirectly, you have some influence on Airmen in your unit

or organization. In this chapter, you will learn about followership, including providing

feedback and advice to leadership, the five essential qualities of effective followership, and

the leadership compass.

3. Negotiating— Whether for personal reasons or organizational goals, you negotiate all the

time. Granted, some are better at it than others. There is no denying it; negotiating is a part

of everyday life. This chapter examines the fundamentals of negotiation, active listening,

and conflict management. The goal of this chapter is for you to comprehend the impact

negotiation skills have on NCO effectiveness in garrison, deployed environments, and in

cross-cultural situations. Active listening and conflict management are included in this

chapter as they directly support your ability to effectively negotiate.

4. Resource Stewardship—What can you do to assist your leadership make sure the people,

materials, and funds are available to keep the Air Force mission moving forward? In this

chapter, you will learn the definition of Resource Stewardship and the six types of

resources you rely on to meet mission requirements (personnel, material, energy,

information and technology, warfare, and financial). It also covers aspects of the Air Force

financial management program and the four competencies of the manpower program.


You will learn what your responsibility is in following the rules, regulations, laws, and

policies when managing and consuming the six resource types. The chapter concludes with a

discussion on developing future resource stewards.

5. Discipline—As a supervisor, one of your primary goals is to maintain a high degree of

effective discipline within the work center. This chapter will convey useful information for

you, as a supervisor, to understand how to create an environment that minimizes or

eliminates the necessity for imposed discipline. You will look at a few discipline

definitions, examine the Discipline Model and Progressive Discipline Process, and look at

some roles and responsibilities an NCO may have to fulfill when it comes to discipline.

You will also have the opportunity to apply what you have learned to simulated situations.

In addition, example documents and statements are attached that you may find useful as a

supervisor.

6. Emergent Leadership Issues—This chapter contains Air Force high interest items and

covers many of the NCO responsibilities as prescribed in AFI 36-2618. Topics covered

include the Wingman Concept/Philosophy including the four dimensions of wellness,

substance abuse intervention, stress management, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),

equal opportunity/human relations, sexual assault response and prevention, workplace

violence intervention and prevention, and suicide awareness and prevention.

7. Change Management— As a manager and leader in today’s Air Force, you must

understand that change is inevitable. Dealing with and managing change effectively in

your unit becomes increasingly important to accomplishing the mission. In this chapter,

you will learn about adaptability and change management.

8. Continuous Improvement—This is the last chapter in this volume. The purpose of this

chapter is to introduce you to continuous improvement concepts. In this chapter, you will

explore the process of continuous improvement and how the Air Force pursues it through

the flagship program of AFSO21. Understanding AFSO21 requires understanding problem

solving and decision analysis so you will look at both concepts.

Managerial Communicator Graduate Attribute

The objective of this attribute is to develop managerial communicators who:

are professionals who understand and are

committed to the profession of arms.

lead by example and demonstrate strong

writing skills to accomplish the numerous

personnel and program requirements they

are responsible for.


act ethically and demonstrate the core values by interpersonally communicating with

Airmen.

should be effective public speakers, tell the Air Force story, properly engage the media,

and understand the new media.

understand the critical role communication plays in accomplishing the mission, realize

the importance of experience opportunities, and seek continuous improvement.

The Managerial Communicator volume contains the following chapters:

1. Managerial Communication—As an NCO, you must have excellent communication skills

in order to successfully accomplish your unit’s mission. During this chapter you will learn

how to communicate effectively as an NCO. It covers the basics of effective speaking and

writing. You will learn techniques to help you as an NCO, the unit, and the mission on

upcoming assignments and will have the chance to review basic grammar skills that help

you become more proficient at communicating. Finally, before ending this chapter, you’ll

have the chance to learn how to apply effective communication.

2. Culture of Engagement—You must remember that you have a responsibility to be a

worldwide ambassador for the Air Force and particularly the American public by actively

engaging in communication. During this chapter, you will come to understand culture of

engagement and its impact. You will learn what strategic communication is and what your

role is in it. This chapter also covers media engagement and the new media.

3. Interpersonal Communication— This chapter focuses on interpersonal communication and

how interpersonal skills work together. It explores how to apply interpersonal

communication to different managerial situations and how the use of effective interpersonal

skills can enhance working relationships, improve work center climates, and positively

affect overall mission accomplishment.

As you can see, you have a long road ahead of you. If you feel overwhelmed right now, don’t

panic. The course is designed to present you this information in a logical manner, and your

supervisors are here to guide you through the entire process. Although you’ll be evaluated on

your comprehension of the material, keep in mind that your willingness to engage in this learning

process will help you retain and apply everything presented during the course.



You covered a great deal of information in this chapter. You were introduced to the EPME

pillars, influences on the curriculum, the PME objectives, and the NCOA mission statement,

which are the driving forces behind the curriculum content. Finally, you were introduced to the

NCOADLC graduate attributes and their associated chapters.

This course will give you the foundation to reach beyond your current capability in order to

better serve this nation, the Air Force, and those who serve with you. Understanding the “why”

of the material in this course will help you reach a deeper understanding of the material and,

hopefully, an appreciation of it. Use the tools you will learn about in this course to increase your

body of knowledge to support the POA.

As a professional Airman, you play key roles in taking the fight to the enemy. This course is an

important piece of the puzzle in your professional development. It will be intense. Stay focused

so you can broaden your arsenal of leadership tools as you continue to face new challenges.

Fly—Fight—Win in Air, Space and Cyberspace! The Air Force expects nothing less of you


Key Terms

EPME pillars, 15

Graduate attributes, 18

NCOA mission statement, 17

PME objectives, 17

26

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Chapter Three: Successful Learning 27


Time Management’s Role in Successful Learning

Using Your Time Wisely

Overcoming Procrastination

Benefits of Time Management

Keys to Successful Learning

Learning Defined

The Learning Style Profile

Steps of the Learning Process

Levels of Learning

Affective Domain Levels of Learning

Cognitive Domain Levels of Learning

Learning Outcomes, Objectives and Samples of Behavior

Student Learning Outcome

Affective Objectives

Cognitive Objective

Teaching Methods

Asynchronous

Progress Checks/Self-Reflection Opportunities

Scenarios and Case Study Analysis

Guide to Chapters/Lessons

IDDP Structured Thinking Process/ Critical Thinking

Using the IDDP Structured Thinking Process

Critical Thinking

Air Force Institutional Competencies

Organizational

People & Teams

Personal

CHAPTER THREE: Successful Learning

It's a month before your end of course examination, and

you feel awful. You're tense and worried. While

wondering if you will pass the test, you start to sweat. Of

course, since you don't know how to prepare, you are

concerned, and with good reason. You've barely touched

your course materials since they arrived five months ago.

What can you do? How can you make the most of the time

you have left and successfully complete the course?

“Learning is not attained by chance. It must be sought for with

ardor and attended to with diligence.”

- Abigail Adams (1744-1818), First Lady of the United States

28 Chapter Three: Successful Learning

One of the NCOADLC’s most important responsibilities

is to deliver course material in a manner that facilitates

learning. One of your most important responsibilities is

to learn all that you can in order to become a more

effective leader. Your success in this course will

increase with your effort, and the following information

is designed to help you have a positive and rewarding

learning experience.

This Successful Learning chapter explains the

educational process used to achieve desired levels of

learning. It begins by explaining the importance of time

management, along with the keys to successful learning,

which includes effective study tips. Next, you will be

introduced to the levels of learning, and the chapter will

explain how to use objectives and samples of behavior to

help you prepare for exercises and exams. You will

examine various teaching methods and review how and

why the course is designed in this format. Next, you will

be introduced to EPME’s structured thinking process

called IDDP, which stands for Identify, Differentiate,

Determine, and Predict. Finally, you will identify the

institutional competencies used to build the curriculum.

By the end of this chapter, you should comprehend the

concepts of successful learning and are better prepared to

accomplish all NCOA distance learning coursework.

“By learning you will teach, by teaching you will learn.”

- Latin Proverb


should be able to:

TERMINAL COGNITIVE

OBJECTIVE:

Comprehend successful learning

concepts.

Terminal Cognitive Samples of

Behavior:

1. Explain the impact of how

applying knowledge of

successful learning concepts

contribute to individual success

throughout the NCOADL

experience.

2. Give examples of how applying

knowledge of successful learning

concepts contribute to individual

success throughout the NCOADL

experience.

3. Predict how applying knowledge

of successful learning concepts

contribute to individual success

throughout the NCOADL

experience.


Value successful learning and how it

enhances on NCO, unit, and team

effectiveness.


1. Actively participate in

successful learning opportunities

associated with team building

and its impact on NCO, unit,

and team effectiveness.

2. Willingly accept that successful

learning is important to NCO,

unit, and team effectiveness.

3. Willingly develop a preference

for using successful learning to

enhance NCO, unit, and team

effectiveness.

4. Commit to using successful

learning to enhance NCO, unit,

and team effectiveness.


Time Management’s Role in Successful Learning

In this topic, you will see how time management impacts

the learning process. As a student, your focus should be

on understanding the demands of time during this course

and your ability to apply proper time management

techniques in an academic environment. Most students

find the course emotionally and mentally rigorous,

quickly discovering that time is their most precious

resource. The pace is very demanding due to the myriad

of exercises and required reading. Students can

experience moderate to severe stress throughout the

course and they say that it takes good time management to

cope with the stress.

Using Your Time Wisely

As the saying goes, “those who fail to plan, plan to fail,” so in order to be successful at learning

you need to prepare to manage your time. Keys to successfully using your time wisely include:

Scheduling – Probably the first and foremost prerequisite to successful learning is your ability to

manage your time properly. One of the great things about distance learning is the fact that you

can study when it is convenient for you.

However, this freedom also means that you’ll have to be adept at managing your time if you

want to successfully complete your course work. One way you can use your time wisely and

promote successful learning is by setting and scheduling goals for yourself.


To do this, you’ll need to familiarize yourself with everything that is expected of you to

complete the course and come up with a realistic amount of time necessary to complete each

task. Then you can create a schedule of goals, breaking them down into weekly or daily tasks as

necessary.

Self Discipline – To complete a course successfully, you’ll need to draw upon your power of self

discipline. The independence you have with distance learning means that you’ll not have face-

to-face meetings with an instructor or fellow classmates and therefore no constant reminders of

assignments or deadlines. This means that you’ll need to have the self discipline to complete

required course readings, exercises, and examinations.

“In reading the lives of great men, I found that the first victory they won was over

themselves...self-discipline with all of them came first.”

- Harry S Truman

Dealing with Distractions – In the same realm as self-discipline is the ability to deal with

distractions. You’ll probably be doing most of the work at your home computer, which is a

wonderful convenience. However, your home can also be a source of distraction. Whether it be

your children, spouse, household projects and chores, or the television, make sure that when you

are working on the task at hand you are focused on that and nothing else.

“By prevailing over all obstacles and distractions, one may unfailingly arrive at his

chosen goal or destination.”

Christopher Columbus

Overcoming Procrastination


Procrastination results from any number of attitudes or situations. It may be a symptom of fear

and confusion, or it could be caused by lack of proper analysis, planning, prioritizing, and

control of the situation. Some procrastinate when they are fatigued, depressed, or uncertain of

their capabilities.

If you tend to procrastinate, you must modify your behavior, or you will never be successful!

Successful learning won't happen if you keep putting things off. If you delay things for fear of

failure, you have to consider that your achievements will be delayed as well.

“The secret of getting ahead is getting started. The secret of getting started is breaking

your complex overwhelming tasks into small manageable tasks, and then starting on the

first one."

- Mark Twain

You also have to deal with any anxiety that may be causing your procrastination. Try to

determine the source of your anxiety. If it stems from a lack of preparation on your part, your

anxiety is considered a rational response. However, if you believe that you are prepared for the

lesson and exercises, but are still panicking, this may be an irrational response.

Regardless of source, it can be very helpful to know the many ways to address procrastination.

Some are easy to do, while others require intense concentration and commitment. If you suffer

from this problem, you’ve got to settle it now.

Benefits of Time Management

Some of the advantages of time management include reduced anxiety, gained time, reduced

avoidance, improved opportunities for reviews and eliminated cramming. Managing time also

helps you to stay motivated while avoiding procrastination. The secret to successful time

management is acknowledging, setting up,

and prioritizing goals that work – by doing

so, you’ll find that you can get a measure

of control over your life.

Even if you are an extremely organized

person, it is inevitable for some

unscheduled events to pop up. Once you

start practicing proper time management

skills, you’ll know how to better prioritize

and plan your day so that even these

unexpected issues get dealt with.

When you don't know how to manage your

time properly, your tasks seldom get done.

When you utilize proper time management

skills, you learn how to write down all your tasks at hand, attach time lines to each, and stay

within these time lines. This enables you to always be finishing at least some projects, instead of

drowning in an ever growing sea of unfinished ones.


There are certain tasks that need to be completed in order to achieve goals. If you want to be

able to get to any of those tasks done, you must effectively manage your time. Reaching your

goals and time management are closely connected, so if you master time management then you’ll

be able to master goal attainment. Time management benefits are powerful and extend beyond

successful learning, reaching far into various parts of your life. Now that you know the potential

to affect your life, you can start working on developing some effective time management

techniques, and building the life you've always wanted.

Progress Check

1. How do you plan to manage your time while taking the NCOADL course?

2. What are some things you can do to avoid “burnout?”

3. How can you overcome the tendency to procrastinate and minimize the impact it has on your

success as a student?

4. What are some of the benefits of good time management?


Keys to Successful Learning

Learning Defined

Though the academic world has many definitions of learning,

EPME defines learning as the process that changes the way

people think, feel, or behave. You know learning has occurred

when students miss questions on pretests but correctly answer

similar questions on final exams.

So, you know when learning occurs, but how does it happen?

The answer depends on what type of learner you are. You

receive information through sensory channels or pathways

called learning modalities. The modalities, or senses, described

below include visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic.

The Learning Style Profile

Auditory Learners

Auditory learners primarily use hearing to process information. When given a choice, strong

auditory learners will sit where they can easily hear the speaker and where outside sounds will

not interfere.

Some auditory learners will sit to one side, on

the side of their strongest ear. Many times,

these are the people who can find it easier to

understand the words from songs on the radio

and announcements on public address

systems.

Characteristics

Prefers to hear information

Has difficulty following written

directions

Has difficulty with reading and

writing

May not look speakers in the eye, instead may turn eyes away in order to focus more on

listening

Learning Tips

Use audio cassettes or CDs for reading and lectures (when available)

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http://www.virginstamps.com/images/63402325/scans/BEETLEBAILEY.jpg


Participate in discussions, ask questions, and repeat given information

Summarize or paraphrase written material and record the information

Talk to yourself—review the material

Discuss the material with someone else

Visual Learners

Visual learners need to see the big picture. They may choose a seat where they can see the

whole stage or the whole screen. They may like the back seat so everything is out in front, and

they can see it all. These are the people who survey the scene, who like to sightsee, and who see

the forest despite the trees.

Characteristics

Needs to see it to learn it—must have mental picture

Has strong sense of color

Has artistic ability


Has difficulty with spoken directions

Overreacts to sounds

Has trouble following lectures

May misinterpret words

Learning Tips

Use visuals (graphics, films, slides, illustrations, doodles, charts, notes, and flashcards)

to reinforce learning

Use multicolored highlighters to organize notes

Write directions down

Visualize words, phrases, sentences to be memorized

Write everything down; review often


Tactile Learners

Tactile/kinesthetic learners have the need to touch and feel things. That is, they want to feel or

experience the lesson themselves. Given a choice, strong kinesthetic learners will be right in the

middle of the action. These are the people who tear things apart to see how they work and then

put them back together without the directions. Tactile learners are the ones who immediately

adjust the seat, mirror, radio, and temperature in the car.

Characteristics

Prefers hands-on learning/training

Can put a bicycle together without the directions

Has difficulty sitting still

Learns better when involved

May be coordinated and have athletic ability

Learning tips

Make a model, do lab work, role play, “be the ball”

Take frequent breaks

Copy letters and words to learn how to spell and remember facts

Use a computer

Write facts and figures over and over

Read and walk, talk and walk, repeat

The Adult learning style profile is an instrument used to indicate the type of learner you are:

visual, auditory, tactile/kinesthetic, or any combination of the three. No one modality is better or

worse than the other, but it is important that you discover what works best for you and then do it.

So, let’s see what type of learner you are.


ADULT LEARNING STYLE PROFILE INSTRUMENT

(Adapted from Learning Style Form, developed by Dr. Ray Barsch)

Directions: Read each statement and then circle the number in the appropriate box to indicate

your feelings. Work quickly—do not sit and ponder. THERE IS NO RIGHT OR WRONG

ANSWER. When finished, follow the instructions for scoring. Answers to each statement helps

determine your learning style (visual, auditory, or tactile/kinesthetic). There is no one best

learning style; however, each style does have its advantages and disadvantages

COMMENTS Often Some-

times

Seldo

m

1. I remember things better when people tell them to me rather than when I read them. 5 3 1

2. I follow written directions better than oral directions. 5 3 1

3. I like to write things down or take notes for visual review. 5 3 1

4. I bear down extremely hard with pen or pencil when writing. 5 3 1

5. I require oral explanations of diagrams, graphs, or visual directions. 5 3 1

6. I enjoy working with tools (cooking, woodworking, mechanical). 5 3 1

7. I am skillful and enjoy developing and making graphs and charts. 5 3 1

8. I like to learn something new by talking rather than reading about it. 5 3 1

9. I remember best by writing things down several times. 5 3 1

10. I can understand and follow directions using maps. 5 3 1

11. I do better at academic subjects by listening to lectures and tapes. 5 3 1

12. I handle objects (coins, keys, pencils) while studying, reading, and conversing. 5 3 1

13. I learn to spell better by repeating the letters aloud, not by writing them. 5 3 1

14. I understand a news article better by reading it than by listening to the radio. 5 3 1

15. I chew gum, smoke, eat, or drink while studying/working. 5 3 1

16. I remember something best by picturing it in my head. 5 3 1

17. I like to make, build, or create things as I learn. 5 3 1

18. I would rather listen to a good lecture or speech than read about the subject. 5 3 1

19. I am good at working and solving jigsaw puzzles and mazes. 5 3 1

20. I prefer listening to news on the radio or TV rather than reading about it. 5 3 1

21. I like to learn most by building, making, or doing things. 5 3 1

22. I enjoy researching an interesting subject by reading relevant material. 5 3 1

23. I feel comfortable touching others, hugging, handshaking, etc. 5 3 1

24. I follow oral directions better than written directions. 5 3 1

25. I enjoy learning by going places and seeing things. 5 3 1

26. I like to draw, color, sketch, and paint things. 5 3 1

27. I doodle during meetings, lectures, or while listening on the phone. 5 3 1

28. I enjoy listening to music. 5 3 1

29. I like to shape or make things with my hands (clay, ceramics, dough, etc.). 5 3 1

30. I read aloud (or whisper) to myself when trying to understand new written material. 5 3 1


SCORING PROCEDURES

Adult Learning Style Profile

1. Place the point value on the line next to its corresponding item number:

OFTEN = 5 Points SOMETIMES = 3 Points SELDOM = 1 Point

AUDITORY VISUAL TACTILE

Question # Points Question # Points Question # Points

1 2 4

5 3 6

8 7 12

11 9 15

13 10 17

18 14 21

20 16 23

24 19 25

28 22 27

30 26 29

Profile Score

Total

Profile Score

Total

Profile Score

Total

2. Total each column to arrive at your profile score total under each heading.

3. Write your profile scores (highest, middle, and lowest) on the appropriate lines below.

Highest Score:_______

Middle Score: ________

Lowest Score:__________

If your score reads something like: Auditory = 30 Visual = 27 Tactile = 20, it indicates you

are an auditory learner first, a visual learner second, and a tactile learner last.

Put another way, you learn best by hearing and/or verbalizing what it is you are trying to learn.

When you cannot hear and verbalize what you hear, your BEST mode of learning is being denied

you, but you can still learn through the VISUAL and TACTILE modes.


If your score reads something like this: Visual = 33 Auditory = 24 Tactile = 19, it indicates

you are a visual learner first, an auditory learner second, and a tactile learner last. Put another

way, you learn best by seeing what’s going on. When you cannot see what’s going on, your

BEST mode of learning is being denied you, but you can still learn through the AUDITORY and

TACTILE modes.

If your score reads something like this: Tactile = 34 Visual = 27 Auditory = 27, it indicates

you are a tactile learner first, a visual learner second, and an auditory learner last. Put another

way, you learn best by doing. You take notes during class, but rarely have to look at them

afterwards. It helps you to recall information when you are moving around or have something in

your hand.

Scores Indication Learn best by:

Auditory = 30

Visual = 27

Tactile = 20

auditory learner first, a visual learner

second, and a tactile learner last hearing and/or verbalizing

Visual = 33

Auditory = 24

Tactile = 19

visual learner first, an auditory learner

second, and a tactile learner last seeing what’s going on

Tactile = 34

Visual = 27

Auditory = 27

tactile learner first, a visual learner

second, and an auditory learner last by doing

“I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.”

- Confucius

Steps of the Learning Process

Chapters of the NCOADLC comprise reading assignments intended to prepare you to understand

the questions and formulate answers. The following study tips will prepare you as you proceed

through the chapters.


Read for Comprehension

In a broad sense, reading for comprehension is interpretation, understanding, and recollection of

written concepts. In other words, how you read affects how you learn. There are techniques that

will help improve your reading comprehension, and they include:

Be physically and mentally prepared to read.

Assume responsibility for comprehending.

Read to understand, rather than to agree or disagree.

Do not permit emotional barriers between yourself and the information.

Read for main ideas; do not become too involved in specific details or individual

supporting points.

Concentrate on reading to learn. The alert reader has ample time to mentally repeat,

summarize, and paraphrase the information.

Take Notes

Given the amount of material covered, and the fact that no one can memorize several hundred

complex leadership, management, and communication concepts, it is paramount that you develop

a solid method for taking notes as you read through the chapters. A good, solid method for

taking notes follows:

Be prepared to take notes.

Look at the overview/outline and include main ideas and enough supporting details to

make the main idea clear.

Watch for transitions to signal new main points—identify topic sentences

Identify points in introduction and conclusion

Bulletize lists and/or steps

Highlight keywords

Make an outline of significant points


Study

Keep in mind that effective reading and note taking are keys, but to learn effectively, you will

have to study your reading assignments and notes. Your reading assignments are designed to

give you knowledge-level background material on the course subjects. The reading assignment

is a building block. The progress checks, self-reflection opportunities, scenarios, and case study

analysis will expand above and beyond the reading assignment. Completion of all reading

assignments is a must! Failure to complete them will limit your knowledge base and could

prove detrimental to satisfactory performance on evaluations.

Listed below are some proven study tips:

Be systematic in your studying.

o Check your notes for accuracy. (You cannot study bad notes and expect to do well.)

o Build a realistic study schedule and stick to it.

Use your time wisely.

o Take study breaks. (Two 30- to 45-minute study sessions are more productive than a

marathon study session.)

o Instead of memorizing, seek to understand.

o Briefly review material from previous chapter to reinforce what you already know.

Concentrate on studying, and eliminate distractions.

Use the case study while studying. Look for how the lesson principles you have just

learned are used in the case study. Read the case study again after each chapter for the

same study exercise. This will reinforce the principles learned; familiarize you with the

case study’s content.

The bottom line on studying: Have a system, and stick to it; make studying a habit.

Practice

Practice, practice, and more practice will be your recipe for success. Practice reinforces

knowledge, helps measure learning outcomes, and builds self-confidence, so be sure to take

advantage of and accomplish all exercises presented throughout this course of instruction.

Practice will also prove to be important as you work on improving your managerial interpersonal

skills. Through application, you will learn to identify counseling skills. You will learn to adapt

your mentoring skills as you practice applying mentoring techniques in different situations.

Practice will also benefit you in improving your application of profession of arms skills.

Uniform wear will be inspected to ensure proper dress and appearance as well as your skills in

drill and ceremony.


Testing

The true test of learning, note taking, and studying comes after you graduate; however, one

indicator of how well you have learned is evident on test day. Let's look at some items to

consider about test taking.

Know what is being tested and how it is tested. Later in this reading, you will learn about

learning objectives and samples of behavior. These two concepts are indicators of what

you should study.

Exercise care when taking the test.

o Be prepared.

o Think positive.

o Concentrate.

o Use your time wisely.

o Read carefully.

o Be cautious about changing answers.

Learn from the test. Although your primary concern is probably your test score, the true

value of test taking is feedback. Did you learn the things you need to be a better Air

Force supervisor? Use the test for its educational value; compare how and what you

studied to what was actually tested.

o Did you fail to get something in your notes?

o Did you clarify confusing areas?

o Did you “read into the question?”

The real key to learning from your test is to reinforce what you did well, and to understand your

mistakes so they will not be repeated.

Lifelong Learning

Do not make your primary concern a test score, but rather focus on becoming a more effective

leader by doing your best to comprehend lesson concepts and principles. With this in mind,

analyze your test results and use the information to improve. Your true goal should be to apply

the information after graduation. Graduation should not mark the end of your learning, but

rather the continuation of your experience as a leader, manager, and NCO.

When a course lives up to its responsibilities in delivering the curriculum, and each student does

his or her best to use these keys to successful learning, the logical outcome is that everyone

achieves course objectives by reaching the appropriate levels of learning.


Progress Check

5. Place the letter A, V, or T to identify the Auditory, Visual, or Tactile Learner Characteristics.

Difficulty following written directions

May not look speakers in the eye

Has difficulty with spoken directions

Needs to see it to learn it

Has difficulty sitting still

Learns better when involved

Participate in discussions, ask questions, and repeat given information

Discuss the material with someone else

Use multicolored highlighters to organize notes

Write everything down; review often

Role play, “be the ball”

Take frequent breaks

6. Match the description from the right column with the corresponding key to successful

learning in the left column. All answers used only once.

___ Definition of Learning a. instead of memorizing, seek to understand

___ Take Notes b. include main ideas and supporting details

___ Study c. changes the way a person thinks, feels, or behaves

___ Practice d. one indicator of how well you have learned

___ Formative Exercises e. apply information after graduation and continue learning

___ Testing f. determine if you have met learning objectives

___ Summative Evaluation g. reinforces knowledge, builds self-confidence

___ Lifelong Learning h. indicate preparedness for summative evaluation


Levels of Learning

All Professional Military Education (PME) courses include cognitive and affective objectives

and both types target three levels of learning.

The affective domain includes the manner in which you deal with

things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation,

enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. There are five major

categories, but for the purpose of this course, only three will be

covered.

The affective domain is the feeling or internalization component of

learning. This means learners assign personal value to the content

of the chapter. Knowing the various levels of affective learning

and the affective learning objectives in the NCOADL curriculum

will help you understand what the Air Force expects of NCOs who

complete the course.

Affective Domain Levels of Learning

Receiving

Receiving is the affective domain’s first level of learning. At this level, learners pay attention

and actively receive. They display awareness and willingness to receive. Learners may employ

selective attending by making an effort to filter out other messages or distractions that threaten to

interrupt their reception of chapter material. The receiving of stimuli in these chapters are not

simply through the reading of the words. There are various forms of visual stimuli that aid in

solidifying the concepts and principles that are presented.

Responding

Responding is the affective domain’s second level of learning. For deeper levels of learning to

occur, simply receiving a message is not enough. After receiving the intended message, you

must do something with it. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding,

willingness to act/respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). Therefore, responding

involves some sort of action or response, such as complying with an Air Force directive or

performing some voluntary action and obtaining satisfaction from it. Responding behaviors, at

the highest level, reflect interests and activities that bring personal satisfaction.

Valuing

Valuing is the affective domain’s third level of learning. This ranges from simple acceptance to

the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of

specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are

often identifiable. A person at the valuing level responds to a message or action by assigning

some worth or value to them.

The affective domain involves the manner in which one deals with things emotionally. It is the impact of one’s attitude, or ability to value, appreciate, and motivate.


For example, at first you accept, later prefer, and finally commit yourself to something because

of its perceived worth or value. When you value something, you have a deep appreciation for it.

Commonly used terms associated with valuing are attitudes and appreciation.

Nearly all lessons in the NCOADL curriculum have an affective (attitude) component at the

VALUING level. Achieving the affective learning objectives requires a great deal of

involvement on your part. Just acquiring the comprehension and application levels of learning is

tough, but you may need to privately confront your own perceptions and feelings about ideals the

Air Force expects you to value to reach the third level.

Ultimately, you need to be willing to confront your reservations or reluctance as well as your

acceptance and promotion of Air Force policies, both before and after graduation. Failure to do

so will hold you back from working through critical issues that are foundational to becoming an

effective leader. This aspect of internal transformation and development as a leader is expected.


Affective Levels of Learning

Level Description Example Key Words

Receiving Awareness, willingness

to hear, selected

attention

Listen to others with

respect

Listen for and remember

the name of newly

introduced people

asks, chooses,

describes, follows,

gives, holds,

identifies, locates,

names, points to,

selects, sits, replies,

uses

Responding Active participation on

the part of the learners

Attends and reacts to a

particular event

Learning outcomes may

emphasize willingness

to respond (motivation)

Participates in class

discussions

Gives a presentation

Questions new ideals,

concepts, models, etc.,

in order to fully

understand them

Know the safety rules

and practices them

answers, assists, aids,

complies, conforms,

discusses, greets,

helps, labels,

performs, practices,

presents, reads,

recites, reports,

selects, tells, writes

Valuing The worth or value

attached to a specific

object, event, or

behavior

Ranges from simple

acceptance to the more

complex state of

commitment

Based on internalizing

a set of specified values

while clues to these

values are often

identifiable

Demonstrates belief in

the democratic process

Is sensitive towards

individual and cultural

differences (value

diversity)

Shows the ability to

solve problems

Proposes a plan to social

improvement and

follows through with

commitment

Informs management on

matters that one feels

strongly about

completes,

demonstrates,

differentiates,

explains, follows,

forms, initiates,

invites, joins, justifies,

proposes, reads,

reports, selects,

shares, studies, works


Cognitive Domain Levels of Learning

The cognitive domain is the thinking or reasoning component of

learning. In this type of learning, students acquire knowledge

by using their mental faculties. This is the type of learning

required to become a critical thinker. Understanding the levels

of cognitive learning and the cognitive learning objectives used

in the NCOADL curriculum will help you understand what the

Air Force expects of all graduates.

There are six major levels starting from the simplest behavior to

the most complex.2 The levels can be thought of as degrees of

difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered

before the next ones can take place. For the purpose of this

course, the first three levels of the cognitive domain will be

covered.

Knowledge

Knowledge is the cognitive domain’s first level of learning and is very basic. It only requires

you to keep, remember, recall, label, recognize, and repeat information you have read. Although

you already possess much knowledge about the subjects covered, your reading assignments

provide further information to bolster your knowledge level.

Comprehension

Comprehension is the cognitive domain’s second level of learning. There are three levels of

learning within this domain:

1. Translation: Putting things in your own words.

2. Interpretation: Answers the questions “what was the main idea…?” “can you distinguish

between…?” and “what is the relationship between…?”

3. Extrapolation: Answers the questions “what do you think could have happened next...?”

and “what can you predict…?”

At this level you see relationships, concepts, and abstracts beyond the simple remembering of

material. It requires you to demonstrate an understanding of facts and ideas by organizing,

comparing, translating, interpreting, describing, and summarizing in order to draw conclusions

and solve problems using those facts and ideas. To demonstrate the comprehension-level of

learning, students are usually required to describe a relationship between two related concepts.

The combining of two or more concepts results in what is referred to as a lesson principle. One

example of demonstrating comprehension is being able to explain in your own words the steps

for performing a complex task.

The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills.


Application

Application is the cognitive domain’s third level

of learning. To demonstrate this level of

learning, you must identify lesson principles

from among other lesson principles in simulated

situations.

After identifying the lesson principle, you must

then apply your knowledge and comprehension of

lesson principles to solve the problem or deal

with the issue appropriately and effectively. An

example of demonstrating application is

troubleshooting a piece of equipment by using

logical deduction.

The levels of learning build upon each other. You must know a subject before you can

comprehend it. You must know and comprehend lesson principles before you can apply them.

ALL NCOADL COURSE chapters follow this same basic pattern: the student develops

foundational knowledge by reading the content and accomplishing the formative exercises. The

reading generally provides definitions and examples of concepts so you are better prepared to

comprehend lesson principles. Comprehension of lesson principles allows you to apply them in

simulated situations and in your duty capacity.

Cognitive Levels of Learning

Level Description Example Key Words

Knowledge

Recall data or

information

Recite a policy

Quote prices from

memory to a customer

Knows the safety rules

defines, describes,

identifies, knows,

labels, lists, matches,

names, outlines,

recalls, recognizes,

reproduces, selects,

states

Comprehension

Understand the

meaning, translation,

interpolation, and

interpretation of

instructions and

problems

State a problem in

one's own words

Rewrites the principles

of test writing

Explain in one's own

words the steps for

performing a complex

task

Translates an equation

into a computer

spreadsheet

comprehends,

converts, defends,

distinguishes,

estimates, explains,

extends, generalizes,

gives an example,

infers, interprets,

paraphrases, predicts,

rewrites,

summarizes,

translates


Application

Use a concept in a new

situation or use an

abstraction without

prompt

Applies what was

learned in the

classroom into novel

situations in the work

place

Use a manual to

calculate an employee's

vacation time

Apply laws of statistics

to evaluate the

reliability of a written

test

applies, changes,

computes, constructs,

demonstrates,

discovers,

manipulates,

modifies, operates,

predicts, prepares,

produces, relates,

shows, solves, uses

Learning Outcomes, Objectives, and Samples of Behavior

Student Learning Outcome

These statements explain the behavior NCOs are expected to demonstrate after each chapter.

Affective Objectives

Many of the chapters in the NCOADL curriculum have an affective (attitude) component. For

example, you are expected to know the Air Force Core Values, but as an NCO, you must accept

and adopt them as part of your own value system. Affective objectives are utilized in almost all

chapters and are written at the VALUING level.

Ultimately, you need to be willing to discuss your reservations or reluctance as well as your

acceptance and promotion of Air Force policies. Failure to do so will hold you back from

working through critical issues that are foundational to becoming the military professional the

Air Force needs. This aspect of internal transformation, or development, as a leader is expected,

but it is entirely up to you. This is your time to prepare yourself, physically and mentally, for the

new roles you will be assuming.

Cognitive Objectives

These statements explain cognitive learning outcomes and almost always begin with either

know, comprehend, or apply.

Cognitive Samples of Behavior

These statements explain the knowledge, skill, or attitude students are expected to demonstrate at

the end of a chapter. You can quickly and easily determine the depth of learning expected by the

first word of the statement. For example, words like recall, label, and identify require only rote

memory whereas words like describe and explain require you to describe a concept or explain a

principle in your own words.

Many NCOADL COURSE chapters require you to demonstrate the interpretation level of

comprehension by being able to explain the relationship between two or more concepts.


You must thoroughly comprehend both concepts before you can explain how ‘Concept A’

impacts ‘Concept B.’ This gets a bit tricky because you may find that ‘Concept A’ can impact

“Concept B” positively, negatively, both, or not at all. On the other hand, when ‘Concept X’

enhances ‘Concept Y’, the relationship is exclusively positive.

Finally, some samples of behavior, or SOB for short, require you to demonstrate application of

lesson principles; the highest level of learning. This means that you must use your understanding

of underlying concepts to understand which lesson principle is in play and to solve a simulated

problem. You’ll know you’re dealing with application level of learning whenever you see a

sample of behavior statement containing the phrase “apply lesson principles to simulated

situations.”

Teaching Methods

Asynchronous

The NCOADL course uses an asynchronous teaching methodology. Asynchronous teaching is a

non-facilitated, self-paced, student-centered teaching method that uses online learning resources

to facilitate information sharing outside the normal constraints of time and location to effectively

deliver course content. This approach uses self-study to promote distance learning.

Asynchronous learning gives you the freedom to access the course and its instructional material

at any time, from any location - allowing accessibility for diverse student populations.

Progress Checks/Self-Reflection Opportunities

You will interact with data, as necessary to reinforce, and gauge your grasp of the lesson

principles presented. An important aspect of your progress is feedback intended to identify areas

that need improvement.

Scenarios and Case Study Analysis

Case studies help bridge the gap between course theory and practice. They provide opportunities

to apply previously learned concepts and principles to simulated situations. In the case study,

students analyze a simulated, but realistic, situation to achieve an educational objective.

Case studies and scenarios contain common problems encountered by military members. Its

greatest value is that it presents opportunities for students to apply previously learned concepts

and principles to first identify the problem and then solve it. However, gaining the most value

from a case study or scenario requires careful reading, full attention to the content of the case

study, and a high degree of maturity on your part.

Case studies and scenarios also help develop critical thinking skills. Diane Halpern, professor of

psychology and author of Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking says

that “critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability

of a desirable outcome.”3 Critical thinking is described as thinking that is purposeful, reasoned,

and goal directed.


It is the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating

likelihoods, and making decisions by using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the

particular context and type of thinking task.

Critical thinking also involves evaluating the thinking process—the reasoning that went into a

conclusion and the kinds of factors considered in making a decision. Critical thinking is valuable

to the learning process, and is also a characteristic of effective leadership.

Appropriate vs. Effective and Most Effective

While processing case studies and scenarios, you should ask yourself the following three

questions:

1. Are the characters’ actions, decisions, or behaviors appropriate or

inappropriate?

2. Are the characters’ actions, decisions, or behaviors effective or

ineffective?

3. Are the characters’ actions, decisions, or behaviors most effective?

Many people use appropriate and effective interchangeably. However,

when dealing with leadership and management principles, the words

mean two very different things.

Appropriate and inappropriate equate to right and wrong, or if you prefer, correct and incorrect.

The main thing to remember is there is no degree of right or wrong; no sliding scale. Depending

on the lesson principle being presented, actions, decisions, and behaviors are either appropriate

(right) or inappropriate (wrong).

On the other hand, a sliding scale accurately describes degrees of effectiveness. That is, actions,

decisions, and behaviors can be ineffective, least effective, mostly effective, and most effective.

For example, you observe an Airman in uniform outdoors who is not wearing a hat. According

to the lesson principles (enforcing discipline), you must correct the Airman. Choosing to correct

the Airman is the appropriate (correct) decision. This also makes choosing not to correct the

Airman an inappropriate decision. There is no degree of right or wrong. In other words, you

cannot be more right or more wrong in making the decision to correct or not correct the Airman.

However, in the above scenario, when actually correcting the Airman (corrective counseling),

your behavior can range from least effective (a very public verbal reprimand) to most effective

(correcting the Airman in private). Note that both behaviors are effective. That is, the Airman

puts his hat on. However, in most cases, public verbal reprimands are less effective than private

corrections. Thus, you see a sliding scale of effectiveness.

You can also be ineffective. For example, when conducting corrective counseling, you should

ensure the counselee completely understands what is expected.

Appropriate means suitable for a particular person, place or condition.


Suppose you reprimand the Airman for not wearing his hat, but never actually state you expect

him to immediately get his hat and wear it. The Airman could walk away without realizing you

want him to get his hat and put it on, thus the counseling is ineffective. How many times have

you been in a counseling session where the expected behavior is never actually stated?

Guide to Chapter/Lessons

In this course of instruction, all student guides use the same basic organization and design.

For example, the cognitive objective “Comprehend Unit Discipline” is at the comprehension

level of learning, which includes three distinct levels of comprehension: translation,

interpretation, and extrapolation. Thus, an example of an interpretation SOB might be, “Explain

the relationship between unit discipline, unit morale, and mission accomplishment.” This SOB

is asking you to take what you learned from reading materials and interpret it to explain the

relationship using lesson principles, but in your own words.

On the other hand, an SOB at the extrapolation level might look like this, “Predict the outcome

of actions, decisions, and behaviors involving Rights of the Accused, Preventative Discipline,

and Unit Discipline principles in simulated situations.” In this case, you must achieve one level

above interpretation because now you need to describe a future state using lesson principles in

your own words. Because there is such a fine line between interpretation and extrapolation,

you’ll find it very beneficial to pay close attention to what the SOBs are asking you to do.

Various learning aids are incorporated into each chapter. The learning aids consist of the

following:

Definition Boxes

Definition boxes contain key terms and definitions. It’s

important that you review these terms since they aren’t

defined in the content. You must have an understanding

of these terms in order to grasp the concepts and

principles.

Reference Boxes

Reference boxes are located throughout the chapters and

are a vital step to understanding and valuing the chapter

concepts and principles. These boxes contain additional

information from core documents such as: AFI 36-2618,

Enlisted Force Structure; Air Force Core Values Booklet;

and ANNEX 1-1, Leadership and Force Development.

Other AFIs and regulations are also included that are

pertinent to the specific chapter material.

The core value, Service Before Self, states that Professionals can’t indulge

themselves in self-pity, discouragement, anger, frustration, or defeatism. They

have a fundamental moral obligation to the people they lead to strike a tone of

confidence and forward-looking optimism.

Figure 1. Sample definition box

Change sponsors are the people responsible for initiating change within an organization.

Figure 2. Sample reference box


Emphasis Box

Emphasis boxes focus your attention on important

information located throughout the chapters. These boxes

contain additional information on the topic. They serve to

summarize information through bulleted lists or highlight

pertinent passages of supplemental information.

Self-Reflection Opportunities

These boxes will provide you with an opportunity to stop and

think about how the chapter material directly impacts you and

your Airmen. When you see one of these boxes, take the time

to pause and take an honest look at yourself. The goal of this

course is to help you become a better Airman, supervisor,

and leader. Reading the material and answering questions

isn’t enough. You must internalize the information.

Scenarios

Throughout the course, you’ll be presented with mini real-world scenarios to help you practice

making effective decisions based on the chapter content. In most cases, there will be a few

questions following the scenarios you’ll have to answer based on what you’ve learned.

Progress Checks

As you progress through the chapters, you’ll find progress checks along the way. Take these

opportunities to evaluate how well you understand the chapter material. They are located at the

end of each major section throughout the course. The Progress Checks can be in the form of

crossword puzzles, traditional true and false, matching, fill-in, etc.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: Have you ever had to implement a change you didn’t agree

with? How did you handle it? Did you support it with a positive attitude? If not, what would you do differently?

Figure 4. Example of a Self-Reflection Opportunity

Figure 5. Sample Scenario Box

TSgt Elm, the NCOIC of a maintenance work center, has identified a

more efficient maintenance procedure. After informing everyone of the

new procedure, he asked SSgt Pine to implement it throughout the shop.

All technicians, including SSgt Pine, have to train on and perform the

new procedure.

National Security Strategy Tasks

Championing aspirations for human dignity

Strengthening alliances to defeat terrorism

Figure 3. Sample Emphasis Box

Bbbbbb box


The answers for the Progress Checks are located at the end of each chapter; however, in order to

make this learning experience as valuable as possible, try to answer the questions before looking

up the answers!

Formative Exercises and Summative Evaluations

The NCOADL course employs a formative exercise and summative evaluation system. The

formative exercise is part of the learning process and is not part of the evaluation process. The

formative exercise is designed to provide feedback to you on your strengths and weaknesses. It

is given under the exact conditions as the summative evaluation and provides an opportunity to

prepare for the summative evaluation. Thus, formative exercises are considered exercises in

learning, and passing them is NOT a requirement for graduation; however, you should

prepare for formative exercises the same way you prepare for summative evaluations, i.e., give

them the same weight or seriousness when studying, reviewing, etc. That way, the formative

exercises will serve their purpose, which is to give you a clear indication of where you stand for

the summative evaluations. The summative evaluations determine whether you possess the

requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform as a military professional in the US Air

Force. They will be the measuring stick to determine whether you have met the learning

objectives of the NCOADL course.

All test questions are patterned after the following test questions. For practice, try answering the

following sample questions.

1. TSgt Shelby listens as the NCOA instructor says, “The course is rigorous so you’ll want to

manage your time wisely because your achievements depend entirely on the effort you put

forth. Invest time in reviewing lesson objectives and samples of behavior because they help

you prepare for in class sessions as well as exams. Although we use various teaching

methods to appeal to all learning styles, most students find it takes effective study habits,

critical thinking, and effective use of EPME’s structured thinking process to make it through

the course.”

The comments BEST explain ________ concepts and how they contribute to individual

success.

a. time management

b. successful learning

c. teaching methods and effective study habits


2. The day before graduating, TSgt Shelby is showing her dad, a military retiree, around the

campus when he asks, “What was the hardest part of the course?” Shelby replies, “The

schedule was hard at first because I was juggling reading, writing, and homework

assignments plus marathon study sessions with my flight. I finally settled into a routine that

helped me pay attention in class, take good notes, and actively participate in classroom

discussions. However, I would have to say the hardest part for me was the public speaking.

Thank goodness, my flight came together to practice all the time.

TSgt Shelby’s comments BEST illustrate:

a. time managements impact on an individual’s public speaking success

b. how study and practice habits can impact an individual’s time management

c. steps of the learning process and how they contribute to individual success

3. On graduation day, during a discussion with a fellow instructor concerning student

performance, TSgt Bright says, “TSgt Shelby worked hard, completed all assignments,

always participated in class, and did a great job with her speaking assignments. She took

good notes, which she generously shared the flight and she organized several study sessions

which probably helped her and her peers score well on the final exam.” The other instructor

says, “It sounds like you may have more than one distinguished graduate on your hands.”

TSgt Shelby’s use of ____________ will MOST LIKELY earn her _______________.

a. successful learning; a graduation diploma

b. study habits and class participation; an academic achievement award

c. time management and study habits; a distinguished graduate certificate

All questions on the formative and summative examinations are assessed at the comprehension

level. For example:

1. Question 1 assesses the lowest level of comprehension as evidenced by the word

“explain” in the question. Because these types of questions are slightly above the

knowledge level (memorization), exact words, synonyms, or both are used to “explain”

the concept. If you know terms and definitions associated with major concepts well

enough, then its exact words or synonyms, the concept should jump off the page for you.

Remember, pay close attention to terminal samples of behavior.


TSgt Shelby listens as the NCOA instructor says, “The course is rigorous so you’ll want

to manage your time wisely because your achievements depend entirely on the effort you

put forth. Invest time in reviewing lesson objectives and samples of behavior because

they help you prepare for in class sessions as well as exams. Although we use various

teaching methods to appeal to all learning styles, most students find it takes effective

study habits, critical thinking, and effective use of EPME’s structured thinking process to make it through the course.”

The comments BEST explain ________ concepts and how they contribute to individual

success.

a. time management

b. successful learning

c. teaching methods and effective study habits

2. Question 2 assesses the second level of comprehension as evidenced by the word

“illustrate” in the question. These questions are harder because they usually involve a

scenario that does not directly describe the concept but offers an example of the concept

in use. Therefore, just knowing terms and definitions is not enough. You must know the

all of key elements of a concept well enough to identify it and to know whether its use is

appropriate/inappropriate or effective/ineffective. These questions typically include the

impact or result in the scenario, but sometimes the impact is implied.

The day before graduating, TSgt Shelby is showing her dad, a military retiree, around the

campus when he asks, “What was the hardest part of the course?” Shelby replies, “The

schedule was hard at first because I was juggling reading, writing, and homework

assignments plus marathon study sessions with my flight. I finally settled into a routine

that helped me pay attention in class, take good notes, and actively participate in

classroom discussions. However, I would have to say the hardest part for me was the

public speaking. Thank goodness, my flight came together to practice all the time.

TSgt Shelby’s comments BEST illustrate:

a. time managements impact on an individual’s public speaking success

b. how study and practice habits can impact an individual’s time management

c. steps of the learning process and how they contribute to individual

success


3. Question 3 assesses the highest level of comprehension as evidenced by the phrases such

as “MOST LIKELY” or “Probably result in,” and so forth. These questions not only

require you to know the all of key elements of a concept well enough to identify it and to

know whether its use is appropriate/inappropriate or effective/ineffective, you must be

able to predict the outcome of the actions, decisions, or behaviors described in the

scenario.

On graduation day, during a discussion with a fellow instructor concerning student

performance, TSgt Bright says, “TSgt Shelby worked hard, completed all assignments,

always participated in class, and did a great job with her speaking assignments. She took

good notes, which she generously shared the flight and she organized several study

sessions which probably helped her and her peers score well on the final exam.” The

other instructor says, “It sounds like you may have more than one distinguished graduate

on your hands.”

TSgt Shelby’s use of ____________ will MOST LIKELY earn her _______________.

a. successful learning; a graduation diploma

b. study habits and class participation; an academic achievement award

c. time management and study habits; a distinguished graduate certificate

By now, you have probably figured out that predict level questions are the most difficult, give

example questions are slightly difficult, and explain questions are moderately easy. The

NCOADL course tests include a mix of all three types of questions.

Finally, you got through K-12 and maybe even many college courses by memorizing terms and

definitions. That method will not work here. Memorization will only get you past the

knowledge and low-level comprehension questions. To be truly successful, you must learn all of

the elements of all of the concepts, know how they are supposed to be used and why, and know

what happens when concepts are and are not applied appropriately and/or effectively.

With the teaching methods and student guides covered, it’s time to explore the IDDP Structured

Thinking Process used in the NCOADLC.


IDDP Structured Thinking Process/Critical Thinking

NCOs spend the majority of their time solving problems, but most never give much thought to

how they go about it. If you stop and think about it, you solve almost every problem using the

same process over and over. First, you identify what’s going on, and then you decide whether

what you see is right or wrong, effective or ineffective. If you decide what you see is effective,

you usually move on to other things. On the other hand, if you decide that what you see is

inappropriate or ineffective, you determine what should be done and then take action to correct

the situation or fix the problem. You take particular actions because you believe the outcome

will be positive.

Now, if you had to describe the above steps using just four words, what four words would you

choose? Dr. Hunter, Dean of EPME in the late 90s, chose the words identify, differentiate,

determine, and justify and designed curriculum around these four words or, to be more accurate,

these four steps. Later, the word predict was added and the word justify removed as a stand-

alone step and added as a sub-step to each primary step.

Dr. Hunter and his team, and deans that followed Dr. Hunter, have consistently used the four

steps when designing scenarios and case studies. Over the years, it has proven to be a simple

method for helping students think through course material in a structured manner. Students who

follow the process exactly report a much deeper understanding of lesson concepts and principles

and thus achieving the application level of learning and becoming more effective leaders.


Using the IDDP Structured Thinking Process

EPME breaks the application level of learning into two distinct categories. The first category is

minimum application which learners demonstrate when they complete the IDENTIFY step of

IDDP. The second category is maximum application which learners demonstrate when they

complete the entire IDDP Structured Thinking Process. In this course, you will use the

minimum and maximum applications.

The first situation requires you to demonstrate a basic understanding of course content. You

accomplish this by recognizing critical attributes and associating them with the correct concept

or principle under discussion. We call this the minimum level of application.

The second situation requires you to demonstrate a thorough understanding of course content.

You accomplish this by successfully completing the entire IDDP process. This means you must

be able to solve problems and predict outcomes using your knowledge of the concepts and

principles taught. We call this the maximum level of application.

To get a better understanding of what we mean by minimum and maximum levels, let us

examine each step of the IDDP process and then work through two scenarios.

Identify

Purpose: As the first step of the IDDP Structured Thinking Process, this step allows you to

demonstrate your ability to identify concepts or principles associated with specific chapters.

This step is crucial toward solving problems correctly. Skipping this step or giving it a fleeting

look often results in wasted time and effort because either you try to solve a nonexistent problem

or you take actions that create more problems than they solve. Once you have identified the

problem, you must justify your answer based on lesson concepts and principles taught rather than

on personal opinion or outside experience. Remember, completing only this step demonstrates a

basic understanding of course content.

Differentiate

Purpose: This second step allows you to demonstrate your ability to distinguish whether actions,

decisions, or behaviors described in the scenario are appropriate/inappropriate,

effective/ineffective, or most effective according to lesson concepts and principles.

Your successful completion of this step demonstrates a thorough understanding of the concept(s)

and principles associated with the actions, decisions, or behaviors described in the simulated

situation. There is no “degree” of appropriate/inappropriate; something is either right or wrong.

Choosing not to correct an infraction is inappropriate (wrong).

In contrast, there are degrees of effectiveness; something can be ineffective, somewhat effective,

effective, highly effective, or most effective. These degrees of effectiveness are most obvious

when applying leadership and management models.


For example, using some of the steps of performance counseling usually results in a somewhat

effective counseling session whereas using most of the steps would result in an effective or even

highly effective session.

As always, justify your answers based on lesson concepts and principles taught rather than on

personal opinion or experience. This also allows you to assess your level of understanding of the

concept or principle under discussion and, when necessary, go back over any areas that are still

confusing to you.

It is important to note that if you differentiate actions, decisions, or behaviors described in the

scenario as appropriate, effective, or most effective then skip the determine step and go straight

to the predict step.

Determine

Purpose: When actions, decisions, or behaviors described in a scenario are inappropriate or

ineffective, this third step allows you to demonstrate your ability to determine an appropriate

and/or effective course of action based on your understanding of lesson concepts and principles.

Recommended course(s) of action must adhere to lesson concepts and principles taught rather

than one’s opinion or experience. Remember, you are solving problems that have single or best

answers. A recommended course of action may include both appropriate and effective decisions,

actions, and behaviors. For example, when subordinates fall below standards it is appropriate for

supervisors to ‘choose” to provide corrective counseling and, it’s effective when supervisors use

most/all of the performance counseling steps.

As before, you must justify your answer based on lesson concepts and principles taught rather

than on personal opinion or outside experience

Predict

Purpose: This final step allows you to demonstrate your ability to answer the question, "What

would happen if?” That is to make predictions or extensions of consequences or trends based on

the information in the scenario rather than on information brought from other experiences. This

provides you with an opportunity to practice high-order thinking.

Your predictions must address the lesson principle (how one concept relates to or impacts

another concept). Questions you must answer at this stage normally include either of the

following:

“What can you predict will happen if the individual continues using an appropriate/effective

course of action?”

“What can you predict will happen if the individual continues using an inappropriate/ineffective

course of action?”


As before, you must justify your answer based on lesson concepts and principles taught rather

than on personal opinion or outside experience.

During the next section of the chapter, you will walk through the IDDP Structured Thinking

Process answering questions associated with each step of the process. The scenario below is a

simple training scenario that covers the entire IDDP process.

1 SMSgt Williams called White’s supervisor, Master Sergeant (MSgt) Browning.

2 MSgt Browning told him she had noticed changes in SSgt White’s behavior since his

3 recent move to the DPU. For example, instead of taking a break for lunch, SSgt White

4 ate junk food at his desk while he took call-ins at the same time. White had been working

5 late, but never seemed to catch up with his paperwork. SSgt White had also

6 criticized the unit and had not attended the last two unit picnics. MSgt Browning

7 arranged to meet with SMSgt Williams to talk more about SSgt White.

In the IDENTIFY step, first, you should attempt to answer the five w’s of who, what, where,

when, and why, doing so will provide a brief synopsis explaining what’s going on in this

scenario. Be sure to name the main character(s) and briefly explain what you know about them.

Finally, you’ll be asked to identify which traits under the core values are evident in the scenario.

Here is an example of the IDDP process in action based on the scenario above.

Question Your Answer

What’s going on in this

storyline?

SSgt White’s behavior has changed. He seems

overworked, talks bad about the unit, and avoids unit

functions.

Who are the main characters

and what do we know about

them?

SSgt White works in the Demand Processing Unit

(DPU) of Base Supply.

MSgt Browning is SSgt White’s supervisor.

What lesson principles are

evident in this storyline?

(Identify question)

Organizational Stress (Identify answer)

Where do you see

organizational stress?

(Continuation of the Identify

step)

On Lines 3 – 5 (Continuation of the Identify step

answer)

Why is that organizational

stress? (Justify question)

Because SSgt White does not take breaks, eats at his

desk while still taking calls and, although he works

late, he never catches up with his paperwork. (Justify

answer)


At this point, you might think you did a good job of justifying your answer, but, upon closer

examination, you can see that you only repeated text from the paragraph.

The question, “Why is that organizational stress?” is asking you why/how the statements that

you identified relates to organizational stress. In this example, you failed to justify your answer

because you did not tie the statements to concepts associated with stress. Justification helps you

to assess your level of understanding of the concept or principle under discussion. It provides an

opportunity for you to practice critical thinking.

So, let’s pick up at the question, “Why is that organizational stress?” However, this time try to

justify your answers based on lesson concepts and principles.

Question Your Answer

Why is that organizational

stress? (Justify question)

In the stress chapter, I learned about psychological,

physiological, and behavioral symptoms associated with

stress. I also learned about overload and role ambiguity.

In this scenario, SSgt White is eating junk food and taking

calls at his desk, which are behavioral symptoms.

Because SSgt White never seems to catch up his paperwork,

he could be experiencing work overload, which may be

caused by unrealistic deadlines, insufficient training,

emotional fatigue, etc. At this point in the case study, I can’t

say for certain what’s causing SSgt White to not complete his

work.

Finally, I know SSgt White recently moved to the DPU, and

he may not have enough information to perform all duties

satisfactorily, which is an indicator of role ambiguity.

Much better! You’ve properly justified your answer based on lesson concepts and principles. In

some scenarios you would be finished at the end of the IDENTIFY step, but because this

scenario includes actions, decisions, and behaviors, you are required to continued through the

entire IDDP process.

What do you think about

MSgt Browning’s actions

concerning SSgt White?

(Differentiate step question)

Her actions are ineffective. (Differentiate step answer)

Why do you say ineffective?

(Continuation of Differentiate

step question )

Because in the stress chapter, I learned the first thing

supervisors must do is recognize the symptoms of stress and

then take action to reduce it or mitigate its effects.


In this scenario, MSgt Browning notices SSgt White’s change

in behavior and all of the other symptoms because she tells

SMSgt Williams about them. However, rather than discuss

the issue with SSgt White, she arranges to meet with SMSgt

Williams instead. (Justify step answers)

In the DIFFERENTIATE/Justify step, you made a distinction between actions, decisions, or

behaviors and if they were appropriate/inappropriate, and/or effective/ineffective. If the

differentiation was inappropriate or ineffective, you moved on to the determine step. On the

other hand, if the differentiation was appropriate or effective, you skip the determine step and

went directly to the predict step.

What should MSgt Browning

do? (Determine step

question)

In the stress lesson, organizational stress management

methods such as job redesign, subordinate involvement,

personnel job placement, and improving the work

environment were outlined. MSgt Browning should speak

with SSgt White, which is subordinate involvement, to first

determine what’s causing his stress and then use the

appropriate stress management methods to reduce his stress.

For example, she may be able to reduce White’s workload.

(Justify step answer)

In the DETERMINE/Justify step, you were required to establish a proper course of action based

on lesson principles.

Let’s assume MSgt Browning

follows your advice. What

can you Predict will be the

impact on SSgt White and the

DPU? (Predict step question

– positive impact)

According to stress management lesson principles, if she

takes action to reduce the organizational stressors, SSgt

White’s personal situation will improve, which will have a

positive impact on his health and morale, and which, in turn,

will improve the quality and quantity of his work.

Additionally, his improved performance and morale will have

a positive impact on the DPU’s overall production and

workforce. (Predict step answer – positive impact)

Now, let’s assume MSgt

Browning, who up to this

point has done nothing to help

SSgt White, decides to ignore

your advice, what can you

Predict will be the impact on

SSgt White and the DPU?

(Predict step question –

negative impact)

According to stress management lesson principles, if she does

not take action to reduce the stressors causing SSgt White’s

stress, his personal situation will get worse and, as his

situation deteriorates, so will his performance, which will also

negatively impact the overall production of the DPU.

For example, unless SSgt White gets some relief from his

stress, the quality and quantity of work will continue to suffer.

He may begin to experience headaches or backaches and, if

his stress continues long enough, he could lose sleep,

experience family problems, become depressed, end up with

high blood pressure, and even experience a heart attack.

(Predict step question answer– negative impact)


In the PREDICT/Justify step, you were expected to predict the likely outcomes of the selected

course of action. This is where the rubber met the road. NCOs who grasp the concepts taught in

NCOADL course are very effective at solving problems. They are not only able to identify the

true problem; they are able to select the most effective course of action because they also fully

understand the impact (future outcome) of their decisions.

In the above example, you were required to justify every answer based on lesson principles

rather than simply repeating what’s in the scenario text. This example should give you a good

indication of what’s expected when using the IDDP Structured Thinking Process.

In order to fully understand how to use the IDDP process, you must understand its relationship to

lesson principles. A typical principle statement calls for a relationship between two or more

concepts stated in terms of a conclusion. Here is one example of a principle statement:

“Comprehend team building’s impact on mission accomplishment.”

Did you notice the stated conclusion? The word impact implies a relationship exists between

team building and mission accomplishment. However, the statement does not say whether that

impact is positive or negative. This is done on purpose to encourage you to examine both sides

of an issue. By the way, the following concepts are used throughout the course to build principle

statements:

1. NCO Effectiveness

2. Mission Accomplishment

3. Unit Effectiveness

4. Subordinate Performance/Conduct

5. Team Effectiveness/Performance

Since lesson principles describe the learning outcome, expect to see the above concepts show up

in various lessons as part of the lesson’s principle statements. For example, you just encountered

an example of the IDDP process in action using the stress management principle statement. You

were asked to “Comprehend the relationship between stress management and subordinate

performance/conduct.”

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking has been defined as:

“The art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improve it; critical thinking is, in

short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires

rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective

communication and problem-solving abilities, as well as a commitment to overcome our native

egocentrism and sociocentrism.4


Critical thinking is that mode of thinking—about any subject, content, or problem—in which the

thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully analyzing, assessing, and

reconstructing it.”

There are three critical attributes of the elements of thought: analytic thinking, evaluative

thinking, and creative thinking.

Analytic Thinking: To break up a whole into its parts and examine in detail, so

as to determine the nature of, or look more deeply into an issue or situation. All

learning presupposes some analysis of what you are learning if only by

categorizing or labeling things in one way rather than another.

Evaluative Thinking: To judge or determine the worth or quality of. Evaluation

has “a logic” and should be carefully distinguished from mere subjective

preference. The elements of its logic may be put in the form of questions which

may be asked whenever an evaluation is to be carried out:

Are you clear about precisely what you are evaluating?

Are you clear about your purpose? Is your purpose legitimate?

Given your purpose, what are the relevant criteria or standards for evaluation?

Do you have sufficient information about that which you are evaluating? Is

that information relevant to the purpose?

Have you applied your criteria accurately and fairly to the facts as you know

them?

Creative Thinking: To create, by having or showing imagination and artistic or

intellectual inventiveness (creative writing), and/or to stimulate the imagination

and inventive powers.

Consider the critical thinking concepts as you work your way through these chapters and use

them to help with your answers and responses to the case studies, scenarios, and formative

questions. Because critical thinking is such an integral part of effective leadership and because it

is interwoven throughout this course, you are expected to apply critical thinking at all times.

More concepts for you to consider are below.

Clarity makes it easier to understand, to be free from confusion or ambiguity, to remove

obscurities. Clarity is a fundamental perfection of thought, and clarification is a fundamental

aim in critical thinking. The key to clarification is concrete, specific examples. Questions

include:

Could you elaborate further?


Could you give an example?

Could you illustrate what you mean?

Accuracy is being free from errors, mistakes, or distortion. The word “correct” connotes little

more than absence of error, whereas the word accurate implies a positive exercise to obtain

conformity with fact or truth. The word exact stresses perfect conformity to fact, truth, or some

standard, and the word precise suggests minute accuracy of detail. Accuracy is an important

goal in critical thinking, though it is almost always a matter of degree. It is important to

recognize that making mistakes is an essential part of learning. It should also be recognized that

some distortion usually results whenever you think within a point of view or frame of reference.

You should always think with this awareness in mind, with some sense of the limitations of your

own, the text's, the teacher's, and the subject's perspective. Questions include:

How could you check on that?

How could you find out if that is true?

How could you verify or test that?

Precision is the quality of being accurate, definite, and exact. The standards and modes of

precision vary according to subject and context. Questions include:

Could you be more specific?

Could you give more details?

Could you be more exact?

Relevance is the bearing upon or relating to the matter at hand. The word relevant implies a

close logical relationship with, and importance to, the matter under consideration. Questions

include:

How does that relate to the problem?

How does that bear on the question?

How does that help with the issue?

Depth is the intellectual complexity or difficulty of thought. Questions include:

What factors make this a difficult problem?

What are some of the complexities of this question?

What are some of the difficulties you need to deal with?


Breadth is the range of knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. Questions include:

Do you need to look at this from another perspective?

Do you need to consider another point of view?

Do you need to look at this in other ways?

Logic is correct reasoning, or the study of correct reasoning and its foundations. Logic is the

system of principles, concepts, and assumptions that underlie any discipline, activity, or practice.

It is the set of rational considerations that bear upon the truth or justification of any belief or set

of beliefs. It’s the set of rational considerations that bear upon the settlement of any question or

set of questions. Questions include:

Does all this make sense together?

Does your first paragraph fit in with your last?

Does what you say follow from the evidence?

Significance is the quality of having importance or being regarded as having great meaning.

Questions include:

Is this the most important problem to consider?

Is this the central idea to focus on?

Which of these facts are most important?

Fairness is treating both or all sides alike without reference to one's own feelings or interests.

Questions include:

Do I have any vested interest in this issue?

Am I sympathetically representing the viewpoints of others?


IDDP Exercise

Answer the following questions for each scenario to demonstrate your understanding of the

IDDP structured thinking process. This simulated situation (scenario) does not include actions,

decisions, or behaviors. It contains only the information needed to identify the core value of

Integrity First. Refer to Attachment 1 for an excerpt of text from The Little Blue Book to help

you answer these questions.

Scenario #1

1 While looking over the special duty job advertisement, MSgt Sperrow reads, “Persons

2 performing this duty do what is right even if the personal cost is high.

3 They promote a free flow of information while consistently seeking feedback from all directions.

4 They never act in ways that would discredit the organization and they willingly invite

5 examination of how they do business. In short, they acknowledge their duties and act

6 accordingly without fail. If you are sobered by the awesome task of defending the Constitution

7 of the United States of America and you want to be part of something much bigger than yourself,

8 apply today.

Now, take it to the next level and run through the entire IDDP process.

QUESTIONS YOUR RESPONSES

What’s going on in this scenario?

What core values are evident in this

scenario? (Hint: The attributes of

courage, honesty, accountability,

responsibility are indicative of which

core value?)

Why do you say Integrity First?

Which moral traits do you see?


Scenario #2

1 While reading the special duty advertisement, MSgt Sperrow notices TSgt Ware standing in his

2 doorway and asks, “What do you want?” TSgt Ware replies, “Boss, do you have a few minutes

3 to discuss an issue? MSgt Sperrow says, “I have a few minutes, come on in.” After several

4 minutes of heated discussion, MSgt Sperrow reluctantly consents to TSgt Ware submitting his

5 subordinate SrA Brown for the upcoming quarterly awards. Later that month, TSgt Ware sees

6 the quarterly award winners announced via email and is pleasantly surprised to see SrA Brown’s

7 name on the list of winners. He decides to congratulate her in person right away. As he walks

8 up to SrA Brown’s office he sees MSgt Sperrow shaking hands with SrA Brown and then hears,

9 “I’m truly surprised. I had no idea TSgt Ware was considering me.” MSgt Sperrow replies,

10 “Well, he didn’t want to be bothered but with a little arm twisting, but I finally convinced him to

11 submit you.” Since MSgt Sperrow and SrA Brown had not seen him yet, TSgt Ware turns and

12 silently walks away.

QUESTIONS YOUR RESPONSES

What’s going on in this scenario?


scenario?

Why do you say Integrity First?

Are MSgt Sperrow’s actions

appropriate or inappropriate?

Why do you say inappropriate?


Air Force Institutional Competencies

Several years ago, SNCOs, NCOs, officers, and civilians from around the Air Force met in

Washington, D.C., for the purpose of developing a set of competencies that apply to Airmen at

all levels of the Air Force. Comprised of subject matter experts, this think tank invested

thousands of hours in developing the Institutional Competency List (ICL) by drawing from

various documents such as AFI 36-2618, Enlisted Force Structure, Air Force Doctrine Document

1-1, the Air Force core values, and the CJCSI 1805.01, to name a few. This monumental effort

resulted in the ICL. This list identifies three broad categories (organizational, people/team, and

personal) and includes eight specific competencies and 24 sub competencies (see table below).

ORGANIZATIONAL PEOPLE/TEAM PERSONAL

1. Employing Military

Capabilities

a. Operational and

Strategic Art

b. Unit, Air Force Joint

and Coalition

Capabilities

c. Non-adversarial

Crisis Response

5. Leading People

a. Develops and Inspires

Others

b. Takes Care of People

c. Diversity

7. Embodies Airman Culture

a. Ethical Leadership

b. Followership

c. Warrior Ethos

d. Develops Self

2. Enterprise Perspective

a. Enterprise Structure

and Relationships

b. Government

Organization and

Processes

c. Global, Regional and

Cultural Awareness

d. Strategic

Communication

6. Fostering Collaborative

Relationships

a. Builds Teams and

Coalitions

b. Negotiating

8. Communicating

a. Speaking and Writing

b. Active listening

What should MSgt Sperrow have

done?

What can you predict will be the

impact of MSgt Sperrow’s

inappropriate actions?


3. Managing Organizations

and Resources

a. Resource Stewardship

b. Change Management

c. Continuous

Improvement

4. Strategic Thinking

a. Vision

b. Decision-making

c. Adaptability

Given the fact that the institutional competency list is the EPME foundational document that

drives all EPME curriculums, let’s take a closer look at each competency and its corresponding

sub-competencies. Keep in mind that the descriptions provided are very broad and designed to

include all ranks, from SrA to General. Put another way, ALS, NCOA, and AFSNCOA teach

only those knowledge, skills, and attitudes required at their respective levels.

Organizational (broad category)

1. Employing Military Capabilities (competency)

a. Operational and Strategic Art: This sub-competency requires an understanding of

operational and strategic art in conventional, peacekeeping, and homeland defense

operations, along with an understanding of doctrine and an understanding of the use of

innovation and technology in the employment of lethal and non-lethal force.

b. Unit, Air Force, Joint, and Coalition Capabilities: This sub-competency requires an

understanding of the capabilities of the Air Force across air, space, and cyberspace and

how Air Force capabilities relate to and complement other service capabilities. It also

requires an understanding of interdependencies and interoperability across services,

agencies, departments, and coalition partners.

c. Non-adversarial Crisis Response: This sub-competency requires knowledge of the

national security implications of peacekeeping operations, humanitarian relief operations,

and support to civil authorities, both foreign and domestic. It also requires an

understanding of the need for engagement before and after warfighting and crisis

response, along with the need for integrated involvement with interagency and

multinational partners and the need for multipurpose capabilities that can be applied

across the range of military operations.

2. Enterprise Perspective (competency)

a. Enterprise Structure and Relationships: This sub-competency requires an understanding

of the organizational structure and relationships between the Air Force, the Department

of Defense, Joint Staff, the joint commands, the defense agencies, and other elements of

the defense structure.


It also requires an understanding of how one’s function or unit fits into its parent

organization and how one’s parent organization relates to its external environment, e.g.

supporting and supported organizations, the public, Congress, etc.

b. Government Organization and Processes: This sub-competency requires an

understanding of the essential operating features and functions of the Air Force, DOD,

the national security structure, other related executive branch functions, and Congress, to

include: leadership and organization; roles of members/committees/staffs; authorization,

appropriation and budget processes; acquisition policy and procedures; and

interdependencies and relationships.

c. Global, Regional, and Cultural Awareness: This sub-competency requires an awareness

of regional and other factors influencing defense, domestic, and foreign policy. It also

requires an understanding of foreign cultural, religious, political, organizational, and

societal norms and customs.

d. Strategic Communication: This sub-competency requires the ability to inform and

appropriately influence key audiences by synchronizing and integrating communication

efforts to deliver truthful, timely, accurate, and credible information. It also requires the

ability to formulate institutional messages to tell the Air Force story.

3. Managing Organizations and Resources (competency)

a. Resource Stewardship: This sub-competency requires the ability to identify, acquire,

administer, and conserve financial, informational, technological, material, warfare, and

human resources needed to accomplish the mission. It also requires the ability to

implement “best practice” management techniques throughout an organization.

b. Change Management: This sub-competency requires the ability to embrace, support, and

lead change by understanding the change management process, including critical success

factors, common problems, and costs. It also requires the ability to perceive

opportunities and risks before or as they emerge.

c. Continuous Improvement: This sub-competency requires the ability to originate action to

improve existing conditions and processes by using appropriate methods to identify

opportunities, implement solutions, and measure impact. It also requires the ability to

sustain a commitment to improve processes, products, services, and people while

anticipating and meeting the needs of both internal and external stakeholders.

4. Strategic Thinking (competency)

a. Vision: This sub-competency requires the ability to take a long-term view and build a

shared vision that clearly defines and expresses a future state.


It requires the ability to demonstrate innovative and creative insights/solutions for

guiding and directing organizations to institutional needs; for formulating effective plans

and strategies for consistently achieving goals and maximizing mission accomplishment,

and for anticipating potential threats, barriers, and opportunities while encouraging risk-

taking.

b. Decision-making: This sub-competency requires the ability to identify, evaluate, and

assimilate data and information from multiple streams and then differentiate information

according to its utility. It also requires the ability to use information to influence actions

and decisions; to use analytic methods in solving problems and developing alternatives;

and to make sound, well-informed and timely decisions, despite conditions of ambiguity,

risk, and uncertainty. Finally, this sub-competency requires the ability to analyze

situations critically to anticipate second and third order effects of proposed policies or

actions and then establish metrics to evaluate results and to adapt/implement feedback.

c. Adaptability: This sub-competency requires the ability to maintain effectiveness when

experiencing major changes in work tasks or environment. It also requires the ability to

adjust to change within new work structures, processes, requirements, and cultures, while

also responding quickly and proactively to ambiguous and emerging conditions,

opportunities, and risks.

People & Teams (broad category)

1. Leading People (competency)

a. Develops and Inspires Others: This sub-competency requires the ability to help and

motivate others to improve their skills and enhance their performance through feedback,

coaching, mentoring, and delegating. It also requires the ability to empower others and

guide them in the direction of their goals and mission accomplishment, while also

inspiring them to transcend their own self-interests and embrace personal sacrifice and

risk for the good of the organization and mission.

b. Takes Care of People: This sub-competency requires the ability to put people first by

attending to the physical, mental, and ethical well-being of fellow airmen and their

families, by creating an environment where Airmen take care of Airmen 24/7, 365 days a

year, including leaders, peers, and subordinates. It also requires the ability to integrate

wellness into mission accomplishment and to establish work-life balance through time

management and by setting clear expectations/priorities.

c. Diversity: This sub-competency requires the ability to leverage the value of differences

in perspectives, approaches, preferences, race, gender, background, religion, experience,

generation, thought, and other factors. It also requires the ability to leverage diversity for

mission accomplishment, to foster a tolerant environment, to show respect for others

regardless of the situation and to treat people in an equitable manner.


2. Fostering Collaborative Relationships (competency)

a. Builds Teams and Coalitions: This sub-competency requires the ability to build effective

teams for goal and mission accomplishment and improved team performance. It also

requires the ability to contribute to group identity while fostering cohesiveness,

confidence, and cooperation. Finally, this sub-competency requires the ability to attend

to the interests, goals, and values of other individuals and institutions, while also

developing networks and alliances that span organizational, service, department, agency,

and national boundaries.

b. Negotiating: This sub-competency requires an understanding of the underlying principles

and concepts applied before, during, and after a negotiation in order to attain desired

mission outcomes while maintaining positive, long-term relationships with key

individuals/groups. It also requires the ability to use appropriate interpersonal styles and

methods to reduce tension or conflict between two or more people, to anticipate and

addresses conflict constructively, and to anticipate and prevent counter-productive

confrontations. Finally, this sub-competency requires the ability to persuade and

influence others while building consensus and gaining cooperation and effective

collaboration.

Personal (broad category)

1. Embodies Airman Culture (competency)

a. Ethical Leadership: This sub-competency requires the ability to promote Air Force Core

Values through goals, actions, and referent behaviors and to develop trust and

commitment through words and actions. It also requires the ability to hold others

accountable for their areas of responsibility and personal actions, while maintaining

checks and balances on self and others.

b. Followership: This sub-competency requires a comprehension of the essential role of

followership in mission accomplishment, while providing unbiased advice. It also

requires the ability to align priorities and actions toward chain of command guidance for

mission accomplishment. Finally, it requires the ability to exercise flexibility and to

adapt quickly to alternating role as leader/follower.

c. Warrior Ethos: This sub-competency requires the ability to demonstrate a hardiness of

spirit despite physical and mental hardships – moral and physical courage, continuously

hones skills to support the employment of military capabilities, display of

military/executive bearing, self-discipline, and self-control.

d. Develops Self: This sub-competency requires the ability to assess one’s self in order to

identify personal strengths and developmental needs. It also requires the abilities of

seeking and incorporating feedback on one’s performance; of being fully aware of one’s

personal impact on others, of continually increasing breadth and depth of knowledge and

skills, and of developing life-long learning habits.


2. Communicating (competency)

a. Speaking and Writing: This sub-competency requires the ability to articulate ideas and

intent in a clear, concise, and convincing manner through both verbal and written

communication. It also requires the ability to adjust one’s communication approach to

unique operational environments and audience needs. Finally, this sub-competency

requires the ability to effectively create communication bridges between units,

organizations, and institutions.

b. Active listening: This sub-competency requires the ability to foster the free exchange of

ideas in an atmosphere of open exchange, while actively attempting to understand others'

points of view and to clarify information as needed. Also required is the ability to solicit

feedback to ensure that others understand messages as they were intended.

Progress Check

7. Match the sub-competency description from the right column with the corresponding

competency in the left column. All answers used only once.

___ Employing Military Capabilities a. Adaptability

___ Enterprise Perspective b. Negotiating

___ Managing Organizations and Resources c. Global, Regional and Cultural Awareness

___ Strategic Thinking d. Diversity

___ Leading People e. Active listening

___ Fostering Collaborative Relationships f. Operational and Strategic Art

___ Embodies Airman Culture g. Ethical Leadership

___ Communicating h. Change Management



First, the chapter covered time management’s role in Successful Learning and how it will help

you during the course. Then it explained the keys to successful learning, and you saw how they

will help you as you continue through these chapters. Next, you looked at affective learning and

explored those levels of learning and objectives. Then, you looked at cognitive learning and

discussed levels of learning, objectives, samples of behavior, criterion objectives, and activity

statements. You then examined teaching methods and learned how they link to your learner

behaviors. Next, you were introduced to the IDDP structured thinking process and completed

two case studies. Lastly, you learned about the institutional competencies that drive all EPME

curriculums.

Learning is obviously an essential element of the NCOADLC experience. But, Successful

Learning doesn’t just happen. For some students, learning is easier than others. Whether you

are a student who finds learning easy or one who finds it difficult by using the concept and

techniques presented in this chapter, you have the opportunity to gain as much knowledge as

possible to help you prepare to become the best reporting official, leader, communicator, warrior,

and military professional possible. The degrees to which you learn will directly affect not only

your test scores, but also more importantly, help you be a better supervisor and Air Force NCO.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: How might your understanding of successful

learning and the implementation of some of its suggested techniques impact your NCOADLC

experience and its outcome?


Key Terms

Affective domain, 44

Appropriate, 51

Critical thinking, 64

Cognitive domain, 47

Learning, 33

Maximum application, 59

Minimum application, 59

References

Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 36-2236. Guidebook for Air Force Instructors, 12 November

2003.

Bloom, Benjamin S., Max D. Englehart, Edward J. Furst, Walker H. Hill, and David R.

Krathwohl. The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, The Classification of Educational Goals,

Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay, 1956.

Halpern, Diane F. Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking. New Jersey:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996.

Hopson, Barrie, and Mike Scally. Time Management: Conquering the Clock. California:

Pfeiffer & Company, 1993.

Krathwohl, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram B. Masia. Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives, The Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook II: Affective Domain. New

York: McKay, 1964.

Mayer, Jeffrey J. If You Haven’t Got The Time To Do It Right, When Will You Find The Time To

Do It Over? New York: Fireside/Simon & Schuster, 1990.

Mayer, Jeffrey J. Time Management for Dummies. California: IDG Books, 1995.

McGee-Cooper, Ann and Duane Trammel. Time Management for Unmanageable People.

New York: Bantam Books, 1994.

University of Northwestern Ohio, Virtual College. Learning Styles Evaluation, 14 December

2000.


Progress Check Answers

1.

Don’t be caught off guard

Follow a set schedule

Get organized (prioritize tasks/assignments)

Don’t procrastinate

Budget time for work and play (avoid burnout)

2.

Build “no studying” time into my schedule.

Participate in outside activities such as:

o Flight outings / sightseeing

o Community activities / shopping

Visit local friends and family

3.

Work ahead

Set a realistic deadline and stick to it

Do the task early; get it out of the way

Find ways to make tasks more interesting

Set aside part of day to get all the little tasks out of the way

Use calendar

4.

Allows me to focus on important items first

Allows time to read, study, and practice

Prevents/avoids procrastination

Prevents having to rush at the last minute to complete an assignment

Reduces / eliminates stress associated with falling behind

Allows free time to relax more


5.

Difficulty following written directions A

May not look speakers in the eye A

Has difficulty with spoken directions V

Needs to see it to learn it V

Has difficulty sitting still T

Learns better when involved T

Participate in discussions, ask questions, and repeat given information A

Discuss the material with someone else A

Use multicolored highlighters to organize notes V

Write everything down; review often V

Role play, “be the ball” T

Take frequent breaks T

6.

c Definition of Learning a. instead of memorizing, seek to understand

b Take Notes b. include main ideas and supporting details

a Study c. changes the way a person thinks, feels, or behaves

g Practice d. one indicator of how well you have learned

h Formative Exercises e. apply information after graduation and continue learning

d Testing f. determine if you have met learning objectives

f Summative Evaluation g. reinforces knowledge, builds self-confidence

e Lifelong Learning h. indicate preparedness for summative evaluation


7. Match the sub-competency description from the right column with the corresponding

competency in the left column. All answers used only once.

f Employing Military Capabilities a. Adaptability

c Enterprise Perspective b. Negotiating

h Managing Organizations and Resources c. Global, Regional and Cultural Awareness

a Strategic Thinking d. Diversity

d Leading People e. Active listening

b Fostering Collaborative Relationships f. Operational and Strategic Art

g Embodies Airman Culture g. Ethical Leadership

e Communicating h. Change Management


IDDP Exercise - Answers

Training Scenario #1 (Identify Only)

As stated before, this simulated situation (scenario) does not include actions, decisions, or

behaviors. It contains only the information needed to identify the core value of Integrity First.

Even though the words “Integrity First” are not in the text, the inclusion of critical attributes such

as courage, honesty, accountability, responsibility, and so forth help you recognize the concept

of Integrity First.

QUESTIONS SAMPLE RESPONSES

What’s going on in this scenario? Your answer should center on:

MSgt Sperrow is reading a special duty job

advertisement.


scenario?

Your answer should be:

Integrity First

Why do you say Integrity First? Your answer should center on:

In the Core Values (Little Blue Book) I read

about Integrity First and this text uses words

and phrases that describe the moral traits under

Integrity First.

Which moral traits do you see?

Your answer should center on:

Courage: Line 2: do what is right even if the

personal cost is high

Openness: Line 3: free flow of information and

seeking feedback from all directions and Line

4/5: willingly invite examination of how they

do business

Self Respect: Line 4: never act in ways that

would discredit the organization

Responsibility: Line 5/6: acknowledge their

duties and acting accordingly

Humility: Line 6: sobered by the awesome task

of defending the Constitution


Training Scenario #2 (Entire IDDP process)

QUESTIONS SAMPLE RESPONSES

What is going on in this scenario? Your answer should center on:

TSgt Ware submits his subordinate for the

quarterly awards and the subordinate wins, but

when TSgt Ware goes to congratulate SrA

Brown, he hears MSgt Sperrow lie to SrA

Brown.


scenario?

Integrity First

Why do you say Integrity First? Your answer should center on:

In the Core Values (Little Blue Book) we read

about Integrity First and this text uses words

and phrases that describe the moral traits under

Integrity First.

Honesty: Line 10/11: “…he didn’t want to be

bothered but with a little arm twisting, I finally

convinced him to submit you.”

Accountability: Line 10/11: “…I finally

convinced him to submit you.”

Are MSgt Sperrow’s actions appropriate or

inappropriate?

Inappropriate

Why do you say inappropriate? Your answer should center on:

From the Core Values (Little Blue Book) we

know that honesty is the hallmark of the

military professional…we never lie, and we do

not tolerate those who do. MSgt Sperrow lied

about convincing TSgt Ware to submit the

awards package.

We learned that Accountability means never

shifting the blame to others or taking credit for

the work of others. In lying about the issue,

MSgt Sperrow is also taking credit for TSgt

Ware’s initiative to submit SrA Brown.


What should MSgt Sperrow have done? Your answer should center on:

Rather than lie about the submission issues and

take credit for it, she should adhere to the core

value of Integrity First and demonstrate

commitment to the core values by being honest

with SrA Brown.

What can you predict will be the impact of

MSgt Sperrow’s inappropriate actions? Your answer should center on:

Confidence in and respect for MSgt Sperrow

will decline; subordinates may no longer be

willing followers.

Her actions contribute to a breakdown of the

Core Values Continuum…when others see her

act without integrity they may soon follow suit

thus ethical erosion occurs and the ripple effect

can be devastating!


Attachment 1

Use this excerpt from the Little Blue Book to complete the IDDP Exercise.

(1) INTEGRITY FIRST

Integrity is a character trait. It is the willingness to do what is right even when no one is looking.

It is the “moral compass”—the inner voice; the voice of self–control; the basis for the trust

imperative in today’s military.

• Integrity is the ability to hold together and properly regulate all of the elements of a personality.

A person of integrity, for example, is capable of acting on conviction. A person of integrity can

control impulses and appetites.

• But integrity also covers several other moral traits indispensable to national service.

· Courage. A person of integrity possesses moral courage and does what is right even if

the personal cost is high.

· Honesty. Honesty is the hallmark of the military professional because in the military,

our word must be our bond. We don’t pencil-whip reports, we don’t cover up tech data

violations, we don’t falsify documents, and we don’t write misleading operational

readiness messages. The bottom line is we don’t lie, and we can’t justify any deviation.

· Responsibility. No person of integrity is irresponsible; a person of true integrity

acknowledges his or her duties and acts accordingly.

· Accountability. No person of integrity tries to shift the blame to others or take credit for

the work of others; “the buck stops here” says it best.

· Justice. A person of integrity practices justice. Those who do similar things must get

similar rewards or similar punishments.

· Openness. Professionals of integrity encourage a free flow of information within the

organization. They seek feedback from all directions to ensure they are fulfilling key

responsibilities, and they are never afraid to allow anyone at any time to examine how

they do business.

· Self-respect. To have integrity also is to respect oneself as a professional and a human

being. A person of integrity does not behave in ways that would bring discredit upon

himself or the organization to which he belongs.

· Humility. A person of integrity grasps and sobered by the awesome task of defending

the Constitution of the United States of America.



86


Cognitive Techniques and Skills of Strategic Thinking

Critical Thinking

Creative Thinking

Innovative Thinking

Adaptive Thinking

Reflective Thinking

Analytical Thinking

Future Thinking

Synthesis

Critical Thinking: A Closer Look

The Critical Thinking Sub-Skills

Investigate

Create and Develop

Communicate

Evaluate

Characteristics of the Critical Thinker

Critical Thinking Hindrances

Approaches for Evaluating Information

Consider the Source

Faciones’s Scoring Rubric

Thinking Deeply About Leadership

Impact on NCO Effectiveness

"It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought

without accepting it."

- Aristotle

CHAPTER FOUR: Strategic Thinking

Imagine yourself as the NCOIC in midst of preparing

your work center for an operations or compliance

inspection. You have been assigned there for a while and

feel very comfortable with the way operations are being

conducted. However, during an inspection preparation

meeting with key players, a member brand new to the unit

questions the way your section conducts business. He

suggests several never-seen-before ideas that will

completely alter the way your section does business and,

if implemented, will undoubtedly improve efficiency. Are

you willing and able to consider this “new guy’s”

perspective and suggestions? Why is it that he came up

with these revolutionary ideas and you did not? What

cognitive techniques and skills did he use to envision and

create such ideas?

Chapter Four: Strategic Thinking 87

Your cognition, or ability to think and learn, is vital to

your success. Consider the following:

Your skills and talents are the natural strengths you have, determination is the size of your

dreams and imagination, effort is how much work you are willing to do, and cognitive ability

refers to how well one utilizes the cognitive techniques and skills of critical, creative, future,

adaptive, innovative, reflective, systems thought to compile various pieces of information, ideas,

concepts, conclusions, etc. in new and different ways to reach desired results.


should be able to:

TERMINAL COGNITIVE

OBJECTIVE:

Comprehend strategic thinking

concepts and their impact on NCO

effectiveness.


Behavior:

1. Explain how strategic thinking

impacts NCO effectiveness.

2. Give examples of strategic

thinking’s impact on NCO

effectiveness.

3. Predict the impact of strategic

thinking on NCO effectiveness.


Value strategic thinking and how it

enhances NCO, subordinate, unit, and

mission effectiveness.


1. Actively participate in strategic

thinking opportunities that

develop critical, creative, future,

adaptive, innovative, reflective,

systems thinking, and

synthesizing information, ideas,

concepts, conclusions that impact

NCO, subordinate, unit, and


2. Willingly accept that strategic

thinking techniques are important

to NCO, subordinate, unit, and


3. Develop a preference for using

strategic thinking techniques to

enhance NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

4. Commit to using strategic

thinking techniques to enhance

NCO, subordinate, unit, and


88 Chapter Four: Strategic Thinking

Cognitive Techniques and Skills of Strategic Thinking

Just because you have a sharp wit or belong to Mensa (an intellectual society that requires a high

IQ to be a member) does not mean you are a proficient strategic thinker. There are geniuses that

are renowned for their irrational beliefs and unreasonable opinions. Remember Dr. Ted

Kaczynski (also known as the Unabomber)? He

was a highly intellectual child prodigy!

This chapter begins by examining the cognitive

techniques and skills that support strategic

thought (Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking,

Innovative Thinking, Adaptive Thinking,

Reflective Thinking, Analytical Thinking Future

Thinking, and Systems Thinking, and Synthesis)

and how these skills enhance NCO,

organizational, and mission effectiveness and that

desired state of success.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is part of the human understanding process and embody “those cognitive skills

or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome...thinking that is purposeful,

reasoned and goal directed - the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating

inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are

thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task.”5

Creative Thinking

Creative thought unlocks the power of possibility by

fostering new and innovative ideas or as Professor Guy

Claxton puts it, is simply the skill of “coming up with a new

idea when you need one.”6 Although many psychologists

believe this skill originates during childhood and the awe of

wonder, creative thought exists throughout all facets of life.

It is the cognitive ability to imagine and innovate.

Imagination is simply the capacity to conceive what is not —

something that does not exist or may exist but cannot be

perceived. It is the ability to conjure new realities and

possibilities.7 Consider the creative thought by one of the

world’s most renowned scientists and modern-day thinkers,

Albert Einstein.

Albert Einstein conducted thought experiments that enabled

him to make leaps that other scientists of his time (even the great ones) could not. It wasn’t that

Einstein had lots more determination or computational brainpower than others who came

tantalizingly close to many of Einstein’s most famous insights.

Strategic thinking refers to the ability to

take a long-term view and build a shared

vision that clearly defines and expresses a

future state. It requires the ability to

demonstrate innovative and creative

insights/solutions for guiding and directing

organizations.


The difference, according to biographer Walter Isaacson, was imagination. From the time

Einstein was young, he practiced visualizing things in novel ways. What would it be like, he

asked himself, if you could run alongside a wave of light? What if you were in an enclosed

elevator accelerating up through space? By starting with such questions and playing with them,

instead of accepting the “givens” of normal science, Einstein was able to take his already

extraordinary mind and open it even more, and thus his theory of relativity was born.8

If imagination is the capacity to conceive of what is not, then creativity, in turn, is imagination

applied: doing something, or making something, with that initial idea. However, not all acts of

creativity are inherently innovative. Innovation comes when an act of creativity has somehow

advanced the existing form.9

Innovative Thinking

The world has relied on innovation and has benefited greatly by the innovative spirit. From the

creation of the wheel and telephone to the automobile and the Internet, these revolutionary feats

have propelled civilization to new and never-before imagined technological and procedural

frontiers. The contributions of innovative thinkers throughout military history led to the

competitive advantage and advancement of operations planning, advanced weaponry, and

organizational efficiency; all of which support America’s premier fighting force.

Innovative thinking from an organizational standpoint can be simplified using The Innovation

Value Continuum (above).

Efficiency Innovation focuses on identifying new ideas for improving what already

exists. This approach requires minimal investment since the team is building on the past

and only looking for small changes to what is currently being done. These innovations

are lower-impact improvements or adaptations of an organization’s existing products,

services, programs, or processes. The strategy for Efficiency Innovations is usually to cut

costs, reduce cycle time, improve quality, offset a competitor’s move, or attract new

customers. Typically, only small gains are realized.

Evolutionary Innovation focuses on identifying ideas that represent something

“distinctly new and improved.” An example of an Evolutionary Innovation is the

introduction of automatic banking machines that transformed the way banks viewed their

staffing needs and shifted banking from set hours to banking at any hour. Evolutionary

Innovation requires the team to look more broadly than cost-savings initiatives and see

the “bigger picture” of what is really needed in the organization.


Instead of duplicating what already exists, the team must look for new ways to bring

value to the organization and its customers through new and improved products, services,

and processes which can change the way customers relate to the organization or the way

work is processed within the organization.

Revolutionary Innovation focuses on radically new and better ideas that may dismantle

the existing structure of the organization. For example, McDonald’s fast-food approach

changed the restaurant business. Disney’s unique characters and interactive theme parks

changed the entertainment business. MP3 technology revolutionized the music sales

industry. 10

Note: Innovative thinking is not to be confused with Chapter Six: Adaption-Innovation

(A-I) Theory. A-I Theory pertains to the preferred cognitive thinking styles of adaptive and

innovative to solve problems whereas here, we concentrate on the cognitive skills and

techniques of adaptive and innovative thought.

Adaptive Thinking

The term adaptive thinking refers to the cognitive behavior one demonstrates when confronted

by unanticipated circumstances during the execution of a planned activity (i.e. military

operation). The skilled adaptive thinker is able to make adjustments within his or her plan to

either exploit the advantage or minimize the damage of the unanticipated event by adapting to

the conditions for a more successful outcome. Developing adaptive thinking does not occur in

controlled, predictable, or calm reflective environments. Rather, it occurs in complex,

challenging, and often stressful situations and requires deliberate practice and repetition.

Deliberate practice differs from simply exercising a skill or ability in that deliberate practice

involves:

Repetition. Task performance occurs repetitively rather than at its naturally occurring

frequency. A goal of deliberate practice is to develop habits that operate expertly and

automatically. If appropriate situations occur relatively infrequently or are widely spaced

apart while performing “as you fight” they will not readily become habitual.

Focused feedback. Task performance is evaluated by the coach or learner during

performance. There is a focus on the critical parts of how one does the task and

constructive criticism is provided at regular intervals.

Immediacy. After feedback is provided on task performance, there is an immediate

repetition so that the task can be performed more in accordance with expert norms.

Focusing on weaknesses. Deliberate practice can be tailored to the individual and

focused on areas of weakness. During "train as you fight" performances the individual

will avoid situations in which he knows he is weak, and rightly so as there is a desire to

do one’s best.11

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Highlight


Reflective Thinking

Reflective thinking is part of strategic thought that pertains specifically to the processes of

analyzing and making judgments about what we know, what we need to know, and how we

bridge that gap. This cognitive skill is the active, persistent, and careful consideration of beliefs

or supposed bodies of knowledge where one “steps back” and thinks about how he or she will

solve a problem and how the selected strategy will enable goal achievement.

Analytical Thinking

When you think analytically, you are examining (thinking comprehensively) about the different

parts or details of something in order to understand or explain it. However, we must realize that

analytical thought is not simply left brain, logical activity, but a whole-brain, purposeful, and

necessary approach for developing creative and innovative ideas. For instance, when analyzing a

concept, object, or problem, you may be required to consider the following:

Cause and effect Complexity

Similarities and differences Possible solutions and alternatives

Associations and disconnections Steps within a process

Relationships between all parts Trends

Sequences of events Examples

One well-known method used to help in analytical thought include Asking the Five “W”

questions (Who? What? When? Where? Why?) as well as What if? and So what?

Another is called mind mapping. This is a diagram that begins with a central topic usually

placed in the middle with sub-topics and relevant details “branching” from the topic. Here is one

example that may assist you with your next vehicle purchase.


Future Thinking

Future thinking (sometimes referred to as futuring) is an intellectual process of peering into the

future through creative visioning, speculation, brainstorming, and disciplined research with the

intent of deflecting or controlling these events in a desired direction.12

It is the practice of visionaries, those who skillfully see desired goals and outcomes through their

mind’s eye. Now futurists are not mythical fortune tellers or able to predict the future; future

thinking assists those with vision to design alternative futures based on available data. They then

incorporate creative and innovative thinking to solve existing social and technical problems.13

Systems Thinking

In essence, systems thinking is a discipline of seeing the “whole,” recognizing patters and

interrelationships and learning how to structure more effective, efficient decisions. The two

systems of thinking include: System 1 – Reactive Thinking and System 2 – Reflective Thinking.

System 1 (Reactive Thinking) relies heavily on situational cues, prominent memories,

trial and error, and heuristic thinking (discovering solutions for self) to arrive quickly and

confidently at judgments, particularly when situations are familiar and immediate action

is required.

System 2 (Reflective Thinking) is broad and informed problem-solving and deliberate

decision making. It is useful for judgments in unfamiliar situations, for processing

abstract concepts, and for deliberating when there is time for planning and more

comprehensive consideration. Argument making is often part of the deliberation process

when making System 2 decisions.

The concept of systems thinking is covered comprehensively in the Continuous Improvement

chapter.

Synthesis

Synthesis, a higher order of thinking that pertains to critical thinking and the ability to combine

various pieces of information, ideas, concepts, conclusions, etc. in new and different ways. It

requires the cognitive flexibly to determine alternatives and explore new methods to

accomplishing a given task (i.e. problem solving). By utilizing the cognitive skills and techniques of

critical, creative, innovative, adaptive, reflective, analytical, and future thinking; we are able to

construct, compile, formulate, modify, discuss, and eliminate existing thoughts and ideas to

construct, create, design, develop, propose, and test, new thoughts and ideas that are new,

improved, and innovative. Keep in mind that the ability to synthesize thoughts and ideas relies

heavily on one’s ability to think abstractly.

Often referred to as “outside of the box thinking,” abstract thinking is the ability to

conceptualize, generalize, or understand that encountered concepts can have multiple meanings.


Such thinkers may see patterns beyond what is considered obvious and are able to use various

patterns, ideas, and clues to solve complex problems. Abstract thinking helps to solve problems

in more creative and innovative ways. Take a moment to appreciate this abstract painting by the

famous surrealist painter, Salvador Dali. Titled “The Paranoiac Visage,” this painting (circa

1935) is an example of double imaging. For some, it depicts a village. For others, it portrays a

face. What did you see first? Can you see both images?

Try this: Distance yourself from the

picture as this allows you to take in all

aspects of the painting’s attributes like

the colors, shapes, shades, dimension,

and contrast. You may even realize

Dali’s point of view and intent for

painting this masterpiece!


Progress Check

1. Match the cognitive technique and skill to its respective definition.

Note: All responses are only used once.

__ Adaptive Thinking a. Thinking that is purposeful, reasoned

and goal directed involved in solving

problems, formulating inferences,

calculating likelihoods, and making

__ Analytical Thinking b. It is the cognitive ability to imagine

and innovate

__ Creative Thinking c. Thinking that results in efficiency,

evolutionary, and revolutionary

improvements and advancements

__ Critical Thinking d. Thinking one demonstrates when

confronted by unanticipated

circumstances during the execution of

a planned activity (i.e. military

operation

__ Future Thinking e. Thinking that concentrates on what we

know, what we need to know, and

how we bridge that gap

__ Innovative Thinking f. Thinking that requires generative

thinking (divergent thinking): the

development of ideas

__ Synthesis g. The practice of visionaries, those who

skillfully see desired goals and

outcomes through their mind’s eye

__ Reflective Thinking h. ability to combine or compile various

pieces of information, ideas, concepts,

conclusions, etc. in new and different

ways


Critical Thinking: A Closer Look

Of the cognitive skills and techniques noted in this chapter, critical thinking is the most dynamic

and requires a deeper understanding. Before we delve deeper into critical thinking, take a

moment to attempt the following mind-bender.

Exercise: Connect the Dots

Link all 9 dots using four straight lines or fewer, without lifting the pen and without tracing the

same line more than once. Hint: To solve this puzzle you need to think “outside the box.”

“Ultimately, it is not we who define thinking; it is thinking that defines us.”

- Carey, Foltz, & Allan

It is the critical appraisal of beliefs, perspectives, and claims to arrive at well-reasoned

judgments.14 Often considered consequential (far-reaching or momentous) thinking, critical

thought is used to solve problems in practical, creative, or scientific ways; engaging in

psychological reasoning; and adopting different perspectives when evaluating ideas or issues.15

We use critical thought when handling those tough topics and tasks, sampling different

approaches to problems, evaluating strategies, and internalizing appropriate questions and

concepts. Therefore, in order to think critically we may have to consider and adopt a new way of

thinking. Consider the story of Dr. John Snow, a mid 19th-century British physician.


Dr. Snow was faced with the arduous task to discover the

reason for a massive cholera (a water-borne bacterial

infection) outbreak that plagued neighborhoods in and

around London. Using a map of the city, Dr. Snow plotted

the addresses of all the known dead— around 500 people—

as well as the location of all the local public water pumps.

After much analysis, investigation, creativity, logical theory

development, and discussions with fellow health

professionals and water treatment specialists, Dr. Snow

realized that the majority of the cholera-related deaths

occurred near one particular water pump. He ordered the

removal of the pump and within a few weeks, the epidemic

ended.16

Humans synthesize their perception of reality in the context

of their basic emotional needs, values, and principles in order to create new ideas and draw

conclusions. During this process, they may or may not use critical thinking as this requires us to

combine our rational logic, creativity, common sense, and intuition into structured expressions of

clear solutions and ideas that are useful and relevant to the task.

Critical thinking is very important in the global economy driven by information and technology.

You have to be flexible, be able to deal with the abundance of new information, and be able to

analyze and integrate information to solve problems at an incredible pace. How many times in

your career have you had to come up with new ideas or to pick from ideas to determine the best

one to accomplish the mission? Military members across the Air Force and at all levels use

critical thinking to solve perplexing problems on- and off-duty that endanger personal and

organizational morale, welfare, task completion, and ultimately mission accomplishment. For

instance, to determine the resources needed to meet specific objectives, ways to procure them,

and logical alternatives for those resources if they are simply unavailable; we must apply the

critical thinking sub-skills demonstrated by Dr. Snow which are: investigate, create and

develop, communicate, and evaluate.


The Critical Thinking Sub-Skills

Investigate

Investigation involves identifying the real problem(s), gathering pertinent data, asking

appropriate questions, analyzing and judging the value of available information, constructively

challenging ideas, and questioning assumptions. There are three actions that support one’s

ability to investigate: interpretation, analysis, and Inference.

Interpretation is extremely important when investigating and is the ability to

“comprehend and express the meaning or significance of a wide variety of experiences,

situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria.”17

Analysis assists investigations where one identifies “the intended and actual inferential

relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions, or other forms of

representation intended to express belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information, or

opinions.”18

Inference means “to identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions;

to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to educe the

consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs,

opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation.”19

Create and Develop

Critical thinkers use his or her imagination and understanding of a matter to create logical ideas

and explore possibilities. While expanding (developing) ideas with all the information gathered,

they are constantly on the lookout for patterns, recognizable differences, generalizations, and

plausible conclusions and predictable outcomes. Oftentimes, we are faced with situations where

all the information is simply unavailable. It is during these instances that the critical thinker

relies on his or her abilities to creatively think and “fill in the blanks” with logical information

and assumptions.

Communicate

Critical thinkers interact with different audiences not to argue, debate, or criticize, but to collect,

consider, and accept the inputs of others. Within and across organizations, we are often teamed

with other adaptive and innovative thinkers to investigate situations, and create [develop] logical

thoughts. With this in mind, we must always remain cognizant, considerate, and open to the

perspectives and inputs of others as we seek best possible solutions to problems and strategies to

situation improvement. The sub-skill set of explanation is essential to effective, intellectual

communication.

Explanation: the ability to present in a cogent and coherent way the results of one’s

reasoning.


It is “to state and to justify that reasoning in terms of the evidential, conceptual,

methodological, criteriological, and contextual considerations upon which one’s results

were based; and to present one’s reasoning in the form of cogent arguments.” 20

Evaluate

Evaluation is assessing “the credibility of statements or other representations which are accounts

or descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation, judgment, belief, or opinion; and

to assess the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements,

descriptions, questions or other forms of

representation.”21

Critical thinkers must often go

to great lengths to thoroughly evaluate the

accuracy and validity of information, whether

specific claims are true, if perspectives are

rational, and if identified solutions and

alternatives are in fact reasonable. Other

variables susceptible to evaluation also include:

related arguments, interpretations, beliefs,

theories, policies and regulations, and one’s own

reasoning.22

Self-regulation is a sub-skill set of

evaluation.

Self-regulation means to “self-consciously monitor one’s cognitive activities, the

elements used in those activities by applying skills in analysis, and evaluation to

one’s own inferential judgments with a view toward questioning, confirming,

validating, or correcting either one’s reasoning or one’s results.”23

Characteristics of the Critical Thinker

Critical thinking is more than thinking logically or analytically, it also means thinking rationally

or objectively. There is an important distinction. Logic and analysis are essentially

philosophical and exacting concepts, whereas thinking rationally and objectively are broader

concepts that embody the fields of psychology and sociology.

The first step to becoming a proficient critical thinker is

developing the proper attitude that embodies the following

characteristics: open-mindedness, healthy skepticism,

intellectual humility, free-thinking, and high motivation.

The first two characteristics may seem contradictory;

however, the critical thinker must be willing to consider,

investigate, and evaluate viewpoints different from his or her

own while recognizing that do not merit such consideration.

A critical thinker must be neither inflexible nor naive.

Healthy Skepticism: Too much

skepticism will lead you to doubt

everything and commit yourself to

nothing, whereas too little will lead one to

gullibility and credulousness.


Therefore, being both open-minded and skeptical means simply seeking the facts, information,

and data along with the reasoning to support issues you intend to evaluate.

It is examining issues from as many perspectives as possible, seeking the positive and negative

points of each, and even accepting the fact that you may be in error yourself. In the end, as a

critical thinker we must always remain focused on seeking the truth rather than merely trying to

please others or finding fault with their views.

Intellectual humility means adhering tentatively to recently acquired opinions and belief and

being prepared to examine all new evidence and arguments even if such efforts leads you to

discover flaws in your own cherished opinions and beliefs. This requires us to stop thinking that

every complex issue can be reduced to a principle of right and wrong or black and white.

Instead, we must begin thinking in terms of degrees of certainty and shades of grey. Sometimes,

“I don’t know” can be the wisest position to take on an issue. Socrates once said, “Arrogance

does not befit the critical thinker.”

A critical thinker must also have an independent mind and be a free-thinker. To think freely,

you must restrain your desire to agree and accept an opinion or belief because of social pressures

to conform. This can be quite difficult and virtually impossible for some. You must be willing

to ask if conformity is motivating your belief or opinion and, if so, have the strength and courage

to at least temporarily abandon your position until you can complete a more objective and

thorough evaluation.

Finally, the critical thinker must possess a natural curiosity to pursue his or her understanding of

a matter and be highly motivated to put in the effort necessary to evaluating multiple sides of the

issue. This may require the critical thinker to ask many questions, which can be unsettling to

those expected to respond.

Isadore Rabbi, a Nobel-prize winning physicist, tells a story of his childhood in the Jewish ghetto

of New York. When the children came home from school, their mothers would ask them, “What

did you learn in school today?” But Isadore's mother would ask him, “What good questions did

you ask today?” Dr. Rabbi suggests he became a physicist and won the Nobel Prize because he

was valued more for the questions he was asking than the answers he provided.24

Asking questions is one of the most important things you

can do on your journey to becoming a good critical thinker.

A critical thinker cannot be a lazy thinker! A critical

thinker must be careful not to fall into a drone mentality or

being set on ”autopilot” where you fall into a pattern of not

paying attention to the world around you—it can easily

sneak up on you. Here is an exercise to see if you have

drone creep.


Exercise: Drone Creep

So how much do you pay attention to the world around you? Can you identify a common,

everyday object you’ve handled countless times throughout your life?

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: How many times have you heard the saying, “This

is how we’ve always done it?” How can having the critical thinking mindset increase your

ability and affect the unit and mission effectiveness?


Progress Check

2. What are the four sub-skill sets of critical thinking?

3. What does self-regulation mean?

4. What is open-mindedness?

5. How can you be open-minded and still maintain a healthy sense of skepticism?

6. What does intellectual humility mean?

7. What does it mean to be a free-thinker?

8. What does it mean to have a high motivation to become a critical thinker?


Critical Thinking Hindrances

Each day of your life you become exposed to things that hinder and

obstruct your ability to think clearly, accurately, and fairly. Some of

these hindrances result from unintentional and natural human limitations,

whereas others are clearly calculated and manipulative. Some are

obvious, but most are subtle or insidious. Armed with the proper

attitude, a critical thinker must next understand how to recognize and

avoid (or mitigate) the gauntlet of deception that characterizes everyday

life. These hindrances can be divided into four categories:

Basic Human Limitations – These apply to everyone, including the

greatest of critical thinkers. These limitations remind us that we are not perfect and that our

understanding of facts, perceptions, memories, built-in biases, etc., precludes our ability of ever

seeing or understanding the world with total objectivity and clarity. The best one can do is to

acquire a sufficient or adequate understanding of the matter at hand.

Use of Language - Is inherently relevant to critical thinking. The choice of words

themselves can conceal the truth, mislead, confuse, or deceive. From advertisements

that guarantee fast and easy weight loss to politicians assuring prosperity and riches for

everyone, a critical thinker must learn to recognize when words are not intended to

communicate ideas or feelings, but rather to control thought and behavior.

Faulty Logic or Perception – This leads to misconceptions, which are the basis of

false or mistaken ideas.


Psychological or Sociological Pitfalls - Perceptions can be misinterpreted due to

psychological and sociological influences, and reasoning can be twisted to gain

influence and power. Consider the following visual example:


Exercise: Critical Thinking Hindrances

Match the hindrances/definitions number to its corresponding example. Indicate your responses

by writing the numbers in the left-hand boxes. Then brainstorm one or two tips that will help

you avoid falling prey to each hindrance.

Basic Human Limitations

Hindrance Example Critical Thinking Tip

Air traffic controllers often have

difficulty making good judgments

after long hours on duty.

Dramatic stories of Bigfoot sightings

do not prove the existence of Bigfoot.

If one believes that more murders

occur during a full moon, then one

will tend to take notice of murders

that occur during a full moon and

tend not to take notice of murders

that occur at other times.

Police officers should not show a

photo of a possible assailant to a

witness prior to a police lineup, or

the actual memory of the witness

may be unconsciously replaced.

Some people are biased against

claims made by scientists because

their worldview appears too cold and

impersonal.


Hindrances/Definitions

1. Physical and Emotional Hindrances: Stress, fatigue, drugs, and related hindrances can

severely affect your ability to think clearly and critically.

2. Confirmation Bias and Selective Thinking: The process whereby you tend to notice and

look for what confirms your beliefs, and to ignore, not look for, or undervalue the

relevance of what contradicts your beliefs.

3. Testimonial Evidence: Relying on the testimonies and vivid anecdotes of others to

substantiate your own beliefs, even though testimonies are inherently subjective,

inaccurate, unreliable, biased, and occasionally fraudulent.

4. Personal Biases and Prejudices: Everyone has personal biases and prejudices resulting

from their own unique life experiences and worldview that make it difficult to remain

objective and think critically.

5. False Memories and Confabulation: Being unaware that your memories are often

“manufactured” to fill in the gaps in your recollection, or that some memories or facts, over

time, can be unconsciously replaced with fantasy.

Use of Language


Naming detergents “Joy” and

“Cheer” (positive), not “Dreary” and

“Tedious” (negative). The military

using the phrase “neutralizing the

opposition” (less negative) rather

than “killing” (negative).

An ad that claims a battery lasts “up

to” 30% longer but does not say it

will last 30% longer, and if it did,

longer than what.

The dairy industry cleverly

expresses fat content as a percentage

of weight, not of calories. Thus 2%

“low” fat milk really has 31% fat

when fat is measured as a percentage

of calories.


Referring to a family as “a bounded

plurality of role-playing individuals”

or a homeless person as a “non-goal

oriented member of society.”

Expressions such as “As everyone

knows…” and “Common sense tells

us that…”

From the statement “Lying expert

testified at trial”, is the expert a liar

or is the person an expert on telling

when someone is lying?


1. Doublespeak Jargon: The use of technical language to make the simple seem complex,

the trivial seem profound, or the insignificant seem important, all done intentionally to

impress others.

2. Meaningless Comparisons: Language that implies that something is superior but retreats

from that view.

3. Assuring Expressions: Using expressions that disarm you from questioning the validity

of an argument.

4. Ambiguity: A word or expression that can be understood in more than one way.

5. False Implications: Language that is clear and accurate but misleading because it suggests

something false.

6. Emotive Content: Intentionally using words to arouse feelings about a subject to bias

others positively or negatively in order to gain influence or power.

Faulty Logic or Perception


Irrationally believing that how one

wears their hat while watching a

football game can influence the

score.


Making a claim that Printer A makes

better copies than Printer B, while

ignoring the important fact that only

Printer B can also fax, copy, and

scan.

Arguing that two children sharing the

same bedroom is wrong because

double-celling of criminals in a

penitentiary can lead to bad behavior.

“Because regulators have controlled

smoking in public places, their

ultimate goal is to control everything

else in our lives.”

After using a magnetic belt for a

while, a woman notices her back pain

is less, even though there may be a

dozen other reasons for the reduced

back pain.

Believing that there must be life on

Mars because no one has proved that

there is not life on Mars.

Hindrance/Definitions

1. Pragmatic Fallacy: Arguing something is true because “it works,” even though the

causality between this something and the outcome are not demonstrated.

2. Slippery Slope Fallacy: An argument that assumes as adverse chain of events will occur

but offers no proof.

3. Irrelevant Comparisons: Making a comparison that is irrelevant or inappropriate.

4. Argument from Ignorance: A logical fallacy claiming something is true because it has

not been proven false.

5. Apophenia* and Superstition: Erroneous perception of the connections between

unrelated events.


* Meaning “unmotivated seeing of connections” accompanied by a "specific experience of

an abnormal meaningfulness" has come to represent the human tendency to seek patterns in

random nature in general, as with gambling, paranormal phenomena, religion, and even

attempts at scientific observation.

6. False Analogies: Making illogical analogies to support the validity of a particular claim.

Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls


“Anyone who supports removing

troops from Iraq is a traitor!”

Making jokes about one’s own

character in order to disarm critics

and evade having to defend policy.

Advertisements that appeal to one’s

vanity, pity, guilt, fear, or desire for

pleasure, while providing no logical

reasons to support their product

being better than a competitor.

“You should not believe a word my

opponent says because he is just

bitter because I am ahead in the

polls.”

“You are either with us, or with the

terrorists!”

Thousands of years ago the average

person believed that the world was

flat simply because most other

people believed so.


1. Evading the Issue, Red Herring: If one has been accused of wrongdoing, diverting

attention to an issue irrelevant to the one at hand.


2. Poisoning the Well: Creating a prejudicial atmosphere against the opposition, making it

difficult for the opponent to be received fairly.

3. Ad hominem Fallacy: Criticizing the person making an argument, not the argument itself.

4. Fallacy of False Dilemma, Either/Or Fallacy: Intentionally restricting the number of

alternatives, thereby omitting relevant alternatives from consideration.

5. Ad populum, Bandwagon Fallacy: An appeal to the popularity of the claim as a reason

for accepting the claim.

6. Emotional Appeals: Making irrelevant emotional appeals to accept a claim, since emotion

often influences people more effectively than logical reasoning.


Progress Check

9. What are the four categories of hindrances to critical thinking discussed in this chapter?

10. Provide your own example for each of the categories above.


Approaches for Evaluating Information

When first learning a musical instrument or a sport, you can tell that some of your peers are

better at the instrument or the sport than others. Everyone makes progress, and soon everyone is

doing better than when they first started. You do not have to be an expert to begin to see

qualitative differences and to make reasonable evaluations. This, too, is true of critical thinking.

There are some readily available ways to begin to make reasonable judgments concerning

stronger or weaker uses of critical thinking.

Consider the Source

Aside from your personal experiences, where do you

usually acquire information? Sources such as the Internet,

TV, media publications, statistical reports, and surveys

probably come to mind. In today’s information age, there is

an overabundance of sources, but how do you know which

ones you can trust? While there is no simple answer, a

critical thinker should look for information sources that are

credible, unbiased, and accurate. This will depend on such

things as the source’s qualifications, integrity, and

reputation. Does the source have a motive for being

inaccurate or overly biased? It is extremely easy to fool

people with numbers—so you may consider becoming

educated in the fundamental principles of probability and statistics before believing statistical

information that supports an argument. These are the types of questions a critical thinker will

consider.

"Knowing a great deal is not the same as being smart; intelligence is not information alone but

also judgment, the manner in which information is collected and used."

- Carl Sagan


Exercise: Source Credibility

Consider the following question, and then determine whether you believe each source would be

credible to consult on this question. Briefly explain your answers. What other sources might be

worth consulting?

“Should television stations be prevented from broadcasting children’s shows that contain

violence?”

Source Credible? Why or Why Not?

A vice president of an

advertising agency that sells

toys and electronic games

A child psychologist

A Nobel Peace Prize winner

An owner of a video store

A representative from a

parenting group

A doctor specializing in

neurology

A programmer from a

television station

Friends of yours who have

children

A police officer who deals

with “juveniles”

Your congressional

representative


Fascione’s Scoring Rubric

In the following exercise, you will use a tool designed to evaluate statements in terms of critical

thinking called the Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR). This tool, developed by

Dr. Peter Facione and Dr. Noreen Facione, relies on the ordinary meanings of common terms

used to talk about thinking. It can aid you in evaluating real-life examples of critical thinking

because it only requires you to consider four evaluative definitions: strong, acceptable,

unacceptable, and weak.

This simple tool is sufficient to get you started evaluating critical thinking. Naturally, as you

learn more about critical thinking, you will become better at applying the rubric.

Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR)25

4 (Strong): Consistently does all or almost all of the following:

Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc.

Identifies the salient arguments (reasons and claims) pro and con.

Thoughtfully analyzes and evaluates major alternative points of view.

Draws warranted judicious, non-fallacious conclusions.

Justifies key results and procedures, explains assumptions and reasons.

Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.

3 (Acceptable): Does most or many of the following:

Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc.

Identifies relevant arguments (reasons and claims) pro and con.

Offers analyses and evaluations of obvious alternative points of view.

Draws warranted non-fallacious conclusions.

Justifies some results or procedures, explains reasons.

Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.


2 (Unacceptable): Does most or many of the following

Misinterprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc.

Fails to identify strong, relevant counter-arguments.

Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view.

Draws unwarranted or fallacious conclusions.

Justifies few results or procedures, seldom explains reasons.

Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-

interest or preconceptions.

1 (Weak): Consistently does all or almost all of the following:

Offers biased interpretations of evidence, statements, graphics,

Questions, information, or the points of view of others.

Fails to identify or hastily dismisses strong, relevant counter-arguments.

Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view.

Argues using fallacious or irrelevant reasons, and unwarranted claims.

Does not justify results or procedures, nor explain reasons.

Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-

interest or preconceptions.

Exhibits close-mindedness or hostility to reason.


Exercise: Evaluating Student Statements

Imagine a professor has assigned a group of four students to comment on the Edward M.

Kennedy Serve America Act. Among other things, the bill, signed into law on April 21, 2009,

designates September 11th

as a national day of service. The group of four students has access to

the information outlined below.

Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act

“The bill encourages voluntary service. The legislation provides for gradually increasing the

size of the Clinton-era AmeriCorps to 250,000 enrollees from its current 75,000. It outlines

five broad categories where people can direct their service: 1) helping the poor, 2) improving

education, 3) encouraging energy efficiency, 4) strengthening access to health care, and 5)

assisting veterans.”

“AmeriCorps offers a range of volunteer opportunities including 1) housing construction, 2)

youth outreach, 3) disaster response and 4) caring for the elderly. Most receive an annual

stipend of slightly less than $12,000 for working 10 months to up to one year”

“The bill also ties volunteer work to money for college. People 55 and older can earn up to

$1000 education awards by getting involved in public service. Those awards can be

transferred to a child, grand-child, or even someone they mentored”

“Students from sixth grade through senior year of high school could earn $500 education

awards for helping in their neighborhoods during a new summer program”

Read each of the students’ statements below and refer to the scoring rubric that follows. Apply

the scoring rubric by evaluating each student’s statement to see which level of the rubric offers

the best description of the reasoning evident in that statement. Place a label of 1, 2, 3, or 4, next

to each student’s statement.


Students’ Statements Label

Student #1: “My take on it is that this bill requires national service. It’s

like…a churchy-service-sorta-thing. But, you know, like run by the

government and all. We all have to sign up and do our bit before we can go

to college. That’s a great idea. Think about it, how could anyone be against

this legislation? I mean, unless they are either lazy or selfish. What excuse

could a person possibly have not to serve our country? The president is

right, we need to bring back the draft so that our Army has enough soldiers,

and we need to fix health care and Social Security. I don’t want to pay into a

system all my working life only to find out that there’s no money left when

it’s my time to retire”

Student #2: “Well I think this bill is a stupid idea. Who’s going to agree to

work for a lousy $12,000 a year? That’s nuts. I can earn more working at

Target or by enlisting in the Navy. This legislation is just more foolish

liberal nonsense that takes our nation one step closer to socialism. Socialism

is when the government tries to control too many things. And now the

president is trying to control volunteer service. Maybe you want to build

houses for poor people or clean up after hurricanes, but I don’t see how any

of that is going to help me pass physics or get me a better job after college.”

Student #3: “I think there are problems with the legislation, too. But you’re

wrong about people not wanting to volunteer. The number of hits on the

AmeriCorps Web site keeps going up and up each month. Retired people,

students, and people who just want to make a difference go there and to

Serve.gov to see what opportunities might exist near where they live. On the

other hand, I do have issues with the government being the organizing force

in this. Volunteerism was alive and well in America before Big Brother got

involved. I don’t see why we need to spend 5.7 billion dollars getting people

to do what they were already going to do anyway. We shouldn’t pay people

to be volunteers.”

Student #4: “That’s the point, some of them wanted to do volunteer service

but they need a small incentive. Nobody is going to get rich on the stipends

the government is offering. I think that people who want to keep

government at arm’s length are going to have problems with this bill. They

are right that it is another way that government is worming itself into every

facet of our lives. But a lot of people feel that way about religion, too; that’s

why they do not want to volunteer in programs sponsored by religious

groups because they don’t want to be seen as agreeing with all the beliefs of

that group. The real question for me is the effect that this legislation might

have on the future politics of our nation. All these volunteers could become,


in effect, people the Administration can call on in the next election.

Organizing tens of thousands Americans who basically agree with the idea of

public service at public expense is like lining up the Democratic voters who

will want to be sure these policies are not reversed by the Republicans. I’m

not talking about a vague idea like “socialism,” I’m talking about clever

politics, positioning the Democratic Party for success in 2012. On balance,

that’s OK with me. But we need to understand that this legislation will result

in more than just a lot of wonderful work by a large number of generous

Americans who are willing to give of their time to help others.”


Progress Check

11. As a critical thinker, what are some questions you should ask yourself about any source of

information?

12. What is the Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR) and how is it useful to

critical thinkers?


Thinking Deeply About Leadership

The purpose of the following activity is to get you to think deeper about

leadership. The questions are critical thinking questions designed to

allow you to explore the subject; however, there is no correct or best

answer. The NCODL course includes many chapters that help you think

deeper about these issues, so you may find it useful to record your

answers so you can revisit them during associated chapters throughout

the course.

Leadership Questions

Whether from a subordinate, peer, or supervisor, what do you really want when you ask for

feedback: What does it mean when people (especially superiors) say they want feedback?

How much feedback should you offer to others?

We all need feedback, but is feedback always necessary? If feedback is not needed, but as the

leader you ask for it anyway, what will happen? How do you get real feedback?

Do awards motivate people? What else might they do? How do you feel when people win

awards they don’t deserve? How do you know they don’t deserve them? Can awards cause

more harm than good? How? Why?

What motivates the people you work with? How do you know? What does it take for a leader

to effectively motivate others?

What is meant by: For leaders, asking questions—the right questions— is essential.

Do you think the statement, your power within an organization comes from dependent

relationships—those you depend on and those who depend on you” is true? If so, why? If

not, how would you rephrase the statement?

What is it that gives the word “no” power? Why does the word “yes” lack the same power?

Which is easier to say, “yes” or “no”? Why? Which word is more powerful over the long-

term? Why?

Should you encourage your followers to question authority? Why or why not?

Why might you take the blame for something that wasn’t your fault? What might happen if

you made it a habit to take on more blame in your organization? How can taking blame help

your organization? How can taking blame help you personally?

What are some reasons why leaders don’t or won’t fix broken processes even when they know

about them?


What is meant by: The cause of a problem is never the cause. It cannot be the cause. The

cause always has a cause which also cannot be the cause.

Consider the following types of employees and then answer the questions below.

Benevolent Obedient Employees: Genuinely care about the organization and follow all the

rules.

Benevolent Disobedient Employees: Care about the organization but usually do things their

own way. They push the boundaries of the organization and can instigate change.

Malicious Obedient Employee: Don’t care about the organization, but follow all the rules to

the letter.

Malicious Disobedient Employee: Are antagonistic to the organization and do not follow the

rules.

Assume you lead an organization with exactly 100 members:

Which type(s) of employee(s) would you keep? Why?

Of the types you keep, how many of each would you want? Why?

What would be the impact of having only Benevolent Obedient Employees?

How hard would it be to get rid of a Malicious Obedient Employee? Why? How

would you go about it?

What examples of priming do you see at work? Is it possible not to prime people

with whom you interact? As a leader and considering priming, can you ever

afford to have a bad day? How might priming increase or decrease your

effectiveness?

Note: Priming, which emerged in the 1960s, is summarized as, “The language and

expressions leaders use on a daily basis prime followers to think in a certain way.

It’s one of the subconscious processes which occurs continuously in all

organizations”

What is meant by: “The heart of leadership is constant inquiry?”

Note: One group of people is content with their regular routine and never seeks to

learn anything. Another group of people never seems to be satisfied with what

they know. They have a constant desire to seek a better understanding of

themselves and the world in which they live.


What purpose do meetings serve even when they don’t seem to have a purpose?

Can you please everyone at work? If not, whom should you aim to please most?

Why?

Do you agree or disagree with this statement: Effective leadership is grounded in

purpose. As an enlisted leader your purpose is to seek a better understanding of

the complex interrelationships within the unit or work center you are leading?

Why?

What does it mean to be fair? If things are perceived as unfair, what can a leader

do to change the perception?

Is there someone in your organization who you just can’t stand to be around but

everyone else seems to like? What is it that causes you to feel this way? To what

extent might your effectiveness be limited if you refuse to acknowledge your

inner motivations and emotions?

Do you know what your subordinates expect of you? Are you willing to fulfill

that role for them? How likely is it that you will fail to live up to subordinate

expectations? How will you deal with it? How “human” do people expect their

leaders to be?

Impact on NCO Effectiveness

Critical thinking is very important in

today’s military. You must be able to

analyze and integrate information to

solve problems at an incredible pace.

Critical thinking requires you to

combine your rational logic, creativity,

common sense, and intuition into

structured expressions of clear solutions

and ideas that are useful and relevant to

the task. How many times in your

career have you had to come up with

new ideas or pick from ideas to

determine the best one to accomplish

the mission? Critical thinking not only helps you become more effective in mission-related

decisions, it is also useful when it comes to reflection and life choices.


Critical thinking skills help you:

Make well-reasoned judgments about what to believe and what to do

Make consistent and well-reasoned decisions

Remain open-minded and fair-minded

Analyze and interpret better in order to and solve a myriad of problems

Ask better questions so that you (and your subordinates) learn better, learn more

Better regulate your actions, decisions, and behaviors,

Consider multiple perspectives and approaches and study complex problems without

bias

Analyze situations critically and reach conclusions that may not follow the

conventional wisdom but could be the key to success

Understand that, in many situations, there is no right answer


Progress Check

13. How might critical thinking skills impact your effectiveness as an NCO?

Exercise: Self-Test

Turn to Attachment 1 at the end of this chapter and take a few minutes to complete the self-test.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: Do you welcome feedback whether it’s

from a subordinate, peer, or supervisor? Are you able to objectively assess the

feedback? How can this enhance you, the unit, and the mission effectiveness? What

will you do to encourage critical thinking in your unit?



Strategic thinking is a compilation of active, cognitive ability imperative to the effectiveness and

credibility of today’s military enlisted leader and essential as he or she faces complex and

unstructured environments with constrained resources. Existing problems and ambiguous

situations detrimental to mission progress and success demand a proactive approach by all

involved and impacted. As NCOs, we must actively learn as much as possible about each

problem and situation we encounter so that we can begin formulating feasible solutions and

alternatives. As we move toward possible resolution, we must continue to think deliberately

about all facets of the existing situation to include probable, unanticipated surprises,

uncertainties, and changes that may (or even may not) occur along with the appropriate actions to

take in the event these situations arise.

This chapter began by examining the eight cognitive skills and techniques that make up strategic

thought. It continued by exploring critical thinking further, immediately offering you an

opportunity to your critical thinking skills with an exercise. This chapter presented various

concepts pertaining to critical thought to include: the attributes of a proficient critical thinker,

known habits of the critical mind, and the essentials to adopting the attitude of a proficient

critical thinker. It then investigated various hindrances to critical thinking from basic human

limitations to the use of language, recognizing faulty logic and perceptions, as well as

understanding psychological and sociological pitfalls. Next, you explored approaches to

evaluating information sources and did some brainstorming of your own. In this chapter, you

were given a chance to evaluate four students’ thinking process using Facione’s Scoring Rubric.

As you evaluated their thinking process, hopefully, you learned a little about your own thinking

process. Lastly, the chapter challenged you to spend some time thinking critically about

leadership and on the impact critical thinking skills have on NCO effectiveness.

So, how do you rate as a Strategic thinker? Be honest with yourself so you can truly gauge

where you stand in the realm of personal thinking patterns. As stated at the beginning of this

chapter, your success is determined by your skills and talents, determination, effort, and

cognitive ability. Therefore, you are in complete control of your success. It all depends on your

determination and effort, and of course, your strategic thinking skill.


Key Terms

Adaptive Thinking, 90

Ad hominem Fallacy, 109

Ad populum, Bandwagon Fallacy, 109

Ambiguity, 106

Analytical Thinking, 91

Apophenia and Superstition, 107

Argument from Ignorance, 107

Assuring Expressions, 106

Basic Human Limitations, 102

Communicate, 97

Confirmation Bias and Selective

Thinking, 105

Create and Develop, 97

Creative Thinking, 88

Critical Thinking, 88

Doublespeak Jargon, 106

Emotive Content, 106

Emotional Appeals, 109

Evading the Issue, Red Herring, 108

Evaluate, 98

Fallacy of Dilemma, Either/Or Fallacy,

109

False Analogies, 108

False Implications, 106

False Memories and Confabulation, 105

Faulty Logic or Perception, 102

Free-thinker, 99

Future Thinking, 92

Highly motivated, 99

Innovative Thinking, 89

Intellectual humility, 99

Investigate, 97

Irrelevant Comparisons, 107

Meaningless Comparisons, 106

Open-minded, 99

Personal Bias and Prejudices, 105

Physical and Emotional Hindrances, 105

Poisoning the Well, 109

Psychological or Sociological Pitfalls, 103

Pragmatic Fallacy, 107

Reflective Thinking, 91

Skeptical, 99

Slippery Slope Fallacy, 107

Strategic Thinking, 88

Synthesis, 92

Testimonial Evidence, 105

Use of Language, 102


References

Barell, J. 1988, cited (p. 59) in Costa & O'Leary, “Co-cognition: The cooperative development

of the intellect.” In Davidson, J. and Worsham, T (Ed.) Enhancing Thinking through

Cooperative Learning. (Ed.) (1988, April). Cogitare: A Newsletter of the ASCD Network on

Teaching Thinking, 3(1).

Facione, Peter A., (2011) Think Critically – student edition. Pearson Education, Inc., Prentice

Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Haskins, G. R. (2006). “A Practical Guide to Critical Thinking”

Paul, Richard Dr. and Elder, Linda Dr., (2008). “The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking:

Concepts and Tools, fifth edition, Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.” Available from:

www.criticalthinking.org



1. Match the cognitive technique and skill to its respective definition.

Note: All responses are only used once.

d Adaptive Thinking a. Thinking that is purposeful, reasoned

and goal directed involved in solving

problems, formulating inferences,

calculating likelihoods, and making

f Analytical Thinking b. It is the cognitive ability to imagine and

innovate

b Creative Thinking c. Thinking that results in efficiency,

evolutionary, and revolutionary

improvements and advancements

a Critical Thinking d. Thinking one demonstrates when

confronted by unanticipated

circumstances during the execution of a

planned activity (i.e. military operation

g Future Thinking e. Thinking that concentrates on what we

know, what we need to know, and how

we bridge that gap

c Innovative Thinking f. Thinking that requires generative

thinking (divergent thinking): the

development of ideas

h Synthesis g. The practice of visionaries, those who

skillfully see desired goals and

outcomes through their mind’s eye

e Reflective Thinking h. ability to combine or compile various

pieces of information, ideas, concepts,

conclusions, etc. in new and different

ways

2. What are the four sub-skill sets of critical thinking?

Investigate

Create and Develop

Communicate


Evaluate

3. What does self-regulation mean?

Self-consciously monitoring one’s cognitive activities, the elements used in those

activities by applying skills in analysis, and evaluation to one’s own inferential

judgments with a view toward questioning, confirming, validating, or correcting

either one’s reasoning or one’s results.

4. What is open-mindedness?

Willingness to investigate viewpoints different from your own and ability to

recognize when to doubt claims that do not merit such investigation.

5. How can you be open-minded and still maintain a healthy sense of skepticism?

Seek out facts, information sources, and reasoning to support issues you intend to

judge; Examine issues from as many sides as possible; Rationally look for the good

and bad points of the various sides examined; Accept the fact that you may be in error

yourself; Maintain the goal of getting at the truth or as close to the truth as possible

6. What does intellectual humility mean?

Adhering tentatively to recently acquired opinions; Being prepared to examine new

evidence and arguments even if such examination leads you to discover flaws in your

own cherished beliefs; Stop thinking that complex issues can be reduced to right and

wrong or black and white and look at degrees of certainty or shades of gray;

Recognizing that “I don’t know” can sometimes be the wisest position to take on an

issue.

7. What does it mean to be a free-thinker?

Having an independent mind and being able to restrain yourself from the desire to

believe because of social pressures to conform

8. What does it mean to have a high motivation to become a critical thinker?

Having a natural curiosity to further your understanding ; Putting in the work to

evaluate the multiple sides of an issue; Reaching a sufficient level of understanding

before making judgments

9. What are the four categories of hindrances to critical thinking discussed in this chapter?

Basic Human Limitations, Use of Language, Faulty Logic or Perception,

Psychological or Sociological Pitfalls

10. Provide your own example for each of the categories above.

Answers will vary. Examples should be similar to those provided in the critical

thinking hindrances exercise.

11. As a critical thinker, what are some questions you should ask yourself about any source of

information?


A critical thinker should ask: Is the source credible, unbiased, and accurate? Does

the source have a motive for being inaccurate or overly biased?

12. What is the Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR) and how is it useful to

critical thinkers?

This tool relies on the ordinary meanings of common terms used to talk about

thinking. It can aid you in evaluating real-life examples of critical thinking because it

only requires you to consider four evaluative definitions: “strong,” “acceptable,”

“unacceptable,” and “weak.” This simple tool is sufficient to get you started

evaluating critical thinking.

13. How might critical thinking skills impact your effectiveness as an NCO?

Answers will vary, but will most likely illustrate that critical thinking can help you:

Make well-reasoned judgments about what to believe and what to do

Make consistent and well-reasoned decisions

Remain open-minded and fair-minded

Analyze and interpret better in order to and solve a myriad of problems

Ask better questions so that you (and your subordinates) learn better, learn more

Better regulate your actions, decisions, and behaviors

Consider multiple perspectives and approaches and study complex problems without

bias

Analyze situations critically and reach conclusions that may not follow the

conventional wisdom but could be the key to success

Understand that, in many situations, there is no right answer


Exercise Answers

Nine Dots Exercise Drone Exercise

Critical Thinking Hindrances Exercise

Basic Human Limitations


1 Air traffic controllers often have

difficulty making good judgments

after long hours on duty.

Restrain from making critical decisions

when extremely exhausted or stressed.

3 Dramatic stories of Bigfoot sightings

do not prove the existence of

Bigfoot.

Resist making judgments based on

testimonies alone. Extraordinary claims

generally require extraordinary evidence.

2 If one believes that more murders

occur during a full moon, then one

will tend to take notice of murders

that occur during a full moon and

tend not to take notice of murders

that occur at other times.

Obtain and objectively evaluate all

relevant information and sides of an issue

before passing judgment.

5 Police officers should not show a

photo of a possible assailant to a

witness prior to a police lineup, or

the actual memory of the witness

may be unconsciously replaced.

Put more reliance on proven facts than

memory recollection or testimonies from

others. Know your own memory

limitations.

4 Some people are biased against

claims made by scientists because

their worldview appears too cold and

impersonal.

Resist your own biases by focusing on

the facts, their sources, and the reasoning

in support of arguments.


Use of Language


6 Naming detergents “Joy” and

“Cheer” (positive), not “Dreary” and

“Tedious” (negative). The military

using the phrase “neutralizing the

opposition” (less negative) rather

than “killing” (negative).

Learn to recognize and distinguish the

emotive (emotional) content of

language. Try to focus on reasoning and

the cognitive (factual) content of

language when evaluating arguments.

2 An ad that claims a battery lasts “up

to” 30% longer but does not say it

will last 30% longer, and if it did,

longer than what.

Avoid making judgments if it is not

exactly clear what is being compared.

5 The dairy industry cleverly expresses

fat content as a percentage of weight,

not of calories. Thus 2% “low” fat

milk really has 31% fat when fat is

measured as a percentage of calories.

Understand not only the facts, but also

their relevance and context.

1 Referring to a family as “a bounded

plurality of role-playing individuals”

or a homeless person as a “non-goal

oriented member of society.”

Recognize the cognitive (factual)

content of jargon words and expressions.

3 Expressions such as “As everyone

knows…” and “Common sense tells

us that…”

Disregard assuring expressions and

instead focus on facts & reasoning that

support arguments.

4 From the statement “Lying expert

testified as trial”, is the expert a liar

or is the person an expert on telling

when someone is lying?

If the intended meaning of an ambiguous

word or expression cannot be

determined, avoid making judgments.


Faulty Logic or Perception


5 Irrationally believing that how one

wears their hat while watching a

football game can influence the score.

Recognize the difference between cause

& effect versus unrelated coincidence.

3 Making a claim that Printer A makes

better copies than Printer B, while

ignoring the important fact that only

Printer B can also fax, copy, and

scan.

Be sure to compare “apples with apples.”

6 Arguing that two children sharing the

same bedroom is wrong because

double-celling of criminals in a

penitentiary can lead to bad behavior.

Learn to recognize the faulty

assumptions behind false analogies.

2 “Because regulators have controlled

smoking in public places, their

ultimate goal is to control everything

else in our lives.”

Evaluate the logic supporting an alleged

adverse chain of events.

1 After using a magnetic belt for

awhile, a woman notices her back

pain is less, even though there may

be a dozen other reasons for the

reduced back pain.

Try to identify known or possible causal

mechanisms for observed effects,

starting with those that are more likely,

not more emotionally appealing.

4 Believing that there must be life on

Mars because no one has proved that

there is not life on Mars.

Do not believe a proposition simply

because it cannot be proven false.


Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls


2 “Anyone who supports removing

troops from Iraq is a traitor!”

When evaluating an argument, focus on

the argument, not prejudicial remarks.

1 Making jokes about one’s own

character in order to disarm critics

and evade having to defend policy.

Learn to recognize evasion, which implies

a direct attempt to avoid facing an issue.

6 Advertisements that appeal to one’s

vanity, pity, guilt, fear, or desire for

pleasure, while providing no logical

reasons to support their product

being better than a competitor.

If an argument requires a logical reason to

support its claim, do not accept emotional

appeals as sufficient evidence to support

it.

3 “You should not believe a word my

opponent says because he is just

bitter because I am ahead in the

polls.”

Focus on reasons and facts that support an

argument, not the person making the

argument. Independently verify

supporting facts if the source is in

question.

4 “You are either with us, or with the

terrorists!”

Seek opposing arguments on the subject

which may reveal the existence of other

viable alternatives.

5 Thousands of years ago the average

person believed that the world was

flat simply because most other

people believed so.

A valid claim should be based on sound

arguments, not popularity.

Source Credibility Exercise

Answers will vary.


Evaluating Student Statements Exercise

Student statement #4 is a good example of the top-level, “strong”

Student statement #3 is “acceptable”

Student statement #2 is “unacceptable” because it displays the problems listed in the scoring

rubric in category 2

Statement #1 is so far off base that it qualifies as “weak”


Attachment 1

A Self-Test For Critical Thinkers

Place a check mark next to each item that you believe is true (most of the time) of your personal

thinking patterns.

____ I think for myself and am not easily manipulated by others.

____ I recognize my own values and perspectives, and I can talk insightfully about the influences

on my beliefs.

____ I do not simply accept conclusions; I evaluate and critique the underlying reasons.

____ I recognize irrelevant facts and false assumptions, and I discount them.

____ I am able to consider the strengths and weaknesses of my own point of view and that of

opposing positions.

____ I admit my tendency toward egocentrism and my capacity for self-deception; and I work to

overcome them.

____ I am able to distinguish what I know from what I don't know; and I am not afraid when "I

don't know."

____ I am willing to consider all available information when working on problems or making

decisions; and I am also flexible and willing to try any good idea whether it has been done before

or not.

____When evaluating the behavior of myself and others, I am conscious of the standards I use,

and I am especially concerned with the consequences of actions.

____ I am a good questioner. I like to probe deeply into issues, to dig down to root ideas, to find

out what's really going on.

____ I am comfortable being questioned, and I do not become defensive, confused, or

intimidated. I welcome good questions since they help to clarify my thinking.

____ I am a critical reader. I read with healthy skepticism, while reserving judgment until I fully

understand the author's perspective.

136


Chapter Five: Four Lenses 137


INTRODUCTION: THE Four Lenses

The Four Temperaments

Green

Blue

Gold

Orange

Blind Spots

Communicating Through The “Lenses”

Maturity

Real-life Guidelines and Strategies of Colors

CHAPTER FIVE: Four Lenses

“All of us think we see the world as it is: when in reality

we see it as we are.”

- Stephen Covey

138 Chapter Five: Four Lenses

This chapter marks the beginning of your journey into

self-awareness. As you already know, we all have our

own preferences, mannerisms, and methods as to how

we approach life, its challenges, and one another. These

variances make life creative, innovative, and intriguing.

However, they can also be the root cause of conflict,

misunderstandings, and heartache. Therefore, the more

we learn about our own personality and temperaments,

the more effective we will be when interacting with one

another.

It is no secret that our individual happiness and success

often depends on our ability to positively interact with

others. After all, practically everything we need, want,

and expect from life is usually provided through the aid

and assistance of others. For instance, we constantly

rely on the support of our parents, teachers, siblings,

neighbors, co-workers, subordinates, mentors, customer

service employees, resource advisors, etc. to either

reach personal, mutual, and organizational goals. With

the clashes of differing views and personalities, you

may wonder, How did we ever survive? Taking the

steps toward a higher understanding of others and

ourselves enables us to better interact with one another,

thus improving our effectiveness and ultimately,

success.

This chapter begins by introducing a revolutionary

theory that identifies four specific personality

temperaments known as the Four Lenses. Next, it

offers an in-depth explanation of each temperament and

another element of our social construct known as blind

spots. It continues by explaining how we can

communicate “through the Lenses” to achieve desired

results and examines the role maturity plays in social

interaction. Finally, it provides some strategies to assist

you in effectively putting the Four Lenses into practice.


should be able to:

TERMINAL COGNITIVE

OBJECTIVE:

Comprehend Four Lenses concepts

and their impact on NCO, unit, and



Behavior:

1. Explain Four Lenses concepts

and their impact on NCO, unit,

and mission effectiveness.

2. Give examples of how Four

Lenses concepts impact NCO,

unit, and mission effectiveness.

3. Predict the impact of Four Lenses

concepts on NCO, unit, and



Value Four Lenses.


1. Read about Four Lenses

concepts with an open mind and

remember new information

(receiving).

2. Complete all activities (progress

checks, adult learning profile,

IDDP exercises, and self-

reflection), and question

concepts, models, etc. in order to

fully understand them

(responding).

3. Accept the idea that effective use

of Four Lenses concepts

positively impacts individual,

unit, and mission effectiveness

(value).

4. Willingly develop a preference

for using Four Lenses concepts

to enhance individual, unit, and

mission effectiveness (value).

5. Commit to using Four Lenses

concepts to enhance individual,

unit, and mission effectiveness

(value).


Introduction: The Four Lenses

The Four Lenses is a practical theory that identifies the four distinct personality temperament

types that exist within each of us and throughout society. It is intended to assist us in

recognizing the temperament we prefer to operate from the most as well as the preferred

temperaments of others so that we may, regardless of existing personality differences, interact

more effectively.

The Four Lenses is a product of the research conducted by Swiss

psychologist, Dr. Carl Jung who believed that observation of the

habitual exercise of individual choice, consistent with certain shared

preferences, could be used to help identify fundamental differences in

people. According to Jung, each person is

born with a specific predisposition toward a

particular preference. In the 1940’s, Isabel

Myers and Katherine Briggs combined the

works of Jung with their own findings to

create an instrument we know as the Myers-

Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).26

Today, it is one of the most widely

used personality surveys in the world. Dr. David Keirsey, a

renowned clinical psychologist also used some of Jung’s research to

develop the Keirsey Temperament Theory.27 Both of these

instruments are foundational to the Four Lenses assessment.

Special Note:

As you examine the Four Lenses theory, keep in mind that the terms preferences, colors, and

temperaments are synonymous. Every person you meet or interact with is a unique individual,

each with his or her own personality traits, characteristics, and mannerisms, all expressed in

different ways.

What one likes and dislikes, where and how they were raised, what their beliefs and values are,

and their unique life experiences all contribute to making each of us different.


Green

Competence

Curiosity

Independent Learning

Analysis

Education ??

The Four Lenses identifies four rather different “approaches” to life, known as temperaments. In

the Four Lenses, these temperament styles are categorized using and easy-to-remember color

code of Gold, Green, Blue, and Orange. It is easy for people who share the same temperament

style to relate, communicate, and get along because they “see” each other through the same lens.

However, by learning about each temperament, we are better able to understand everyone rather

than only those who are most like us. According to research conducted by the experts at Shipley

Communications, today’s society is a compilation of the four temperaments with 44 percent of

the population preferring Gold, followed closely by the Orange (40 percent), Green (10 percent),

and lastly the Blue temperament (only 6 percent)28.

The Four Temperaments

As previously noted, there are four different temperament styles represented by colors: Gold,

Green, Blue, and Orange. It is important to remember that each of us is a compilation of all four

temperaments. However, we choose to view and approach life through a most preferred “lens”

or temperament.

Green

Logical thought and analytical evaluation are at the core

of the Green. One who prefers this temperament values

competence in themselves and others and can quickly

develop contempt for individuals they consider

incompetent. Greens often like to work in solitude and

have a hard time with rules and routine. They are

reasonable and inquisitive, always inclined to ask endless

“why” questions. Because of their never-ending search

for better or improved ways to accomplish things, they

require sufficient time to complete tasks. For the Green

temperament, all assignments need to be meaningful and

are most valued when they realize that the experience will

enhance their competence, knowledge, and credibility as

an intellectual.

Greens are most interested in expanding their own knowledge and abilities rather than tending to

the needs of others. It is not usually important for those who prefer this temperament to feel like

As you learn about the Four Lenses, remember that even though we all have a preferred temperament that we behave from and view the world through the most, each of us is a compilation of all four temperaments.


they fit in. In fact, many of them relish the fact that they are different and may go to great

lengths to ensure they do not follow the societal “herd.” Often they will follow a belief that

takes the moral or intellectual high ground, even if it causes disharmony with others.

They are usually not afraid to engage in heated debate, as long the discussion focuses on ideas

and concepts and not feelings or emotions. Greens feel the need to challenge the status quo in

pursuit of innovation for the betterment of the process rather than the people. You could say

their motto is, “If it isn’t broke, there is still a better way.” The Green temperament does not

require ample amounts of social and emotional support, but they do desire support and

encouragement when it comes to their ideas and cognitive abilities.29

Below are some tips for motivating Greens:

Be competent

Avoid defending black-and-white positions that rely on feelings or conjecture

Value them as individuals

Value intelligence, facts, and research

Create assignments that are thought-provoking and meaningful

Recognize them for their ability to think and work with new ideas

Explore and entertain the “what-if” questions as well as theories

Allow them to work in their area of interest and expertise

Provide multiple and continuous access to resources

Help them to understand the significance and impact of their assignments

Provide opportunities for them to share what their knowledge

Provide opportunities for them to develop alternative approaches

Be personally inquisitive and reward their inquisitive nature

Let them experiment

Be flexible and reasonable

Focus on facts, theories, and proper analysis of data, information, and knowledge

Allow them to work with like-minded people

People with Green as their preferred temperament include Aristotle, President Abraham

Lincoln, Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Steven Spielberg, Steven Hawking, and Steve Jobs.


Blue

Passion

Love

Empathetic Creativity

People

Emotion Family

Listens Belonging

Relationship

Blue

Feelings and people are at the crux of the Blue temperament. When these individuals receive

emotional support and understanding from others, there is no limit to what they can accomplish.

Interpersonal interaction and relationships are essential components of this temperament. Blues

strive to please others, offer encouragement, and will oftentimes go out of their way to help

everyone fit in to the group. Harmony and peace are very important to those who prefer the Blue

temperament and will sacrifice their wants just to maintain group cohesion.

Blues want to be a positive and productive part of the group and respond well to diplomatic team

settings. To increase and maintain their personal energy levels, they desire considerable amounts

of emotional support and constructive feedback from their peers. For example, compliments are

more effective when correcting substandard performance

than criticism. Therefore, a good rule of thumb when

working with a Blue is offering five compliments to one

criticism. The five compliments will somewhat cushion

the blow before and/or after giving the constructive

criticism. They must believe that your criticism is given

out of genuine concern for their well being. As

mentioned, those of the Blue temperament follow

through on their assignments if for no other reason to

avoid disappointing others. However, they have to

choose between meeting a deadline and tending to the

needs of another, the person will almost always become

the Blues top priority. A good rule of thumb for

understanding the Blue temperament is that people and

cohesion is the absolute and not the exception.30

Below are some tips for motivating Blues:

Make sure they know you care about them personally

Focus on feeling, not just on facts

Create a pleasant, inviting, and harmonious environment

Create ways for them to use their creative abilities

Reward them with small personal interactions such as notes, smiles, approving looks, etc.


Gold

Organization

Security

Discipline

Stability

Tradition

Goals

Success

Leadership $$

Utilize principles, not facts

Engage them in group projects or activities

Be enthusiastic, happy, and upbeat

Smile and laugh a lot

Draw on their values and interests

Be whimsical and allow them to do the same

Show concern for their needs

Downplay competition

Focus on subjects at the feeling level as well as the intellectual level

Use open-ended questions

Make sure people come before any other consideration

Examples of famous people who prefer the Blue temperament include Oprah Winfrey, Eleanor

Roosevelt, Martin Luther King Jr., President Jimmy Carter, Mahatma Gandhi, and Dranafile

Bojaxhiu (you may know her as Mother Theresa).

Gold

Structure, security, and order are at the core of the

Gold temperament. Golds thrive well in environments

that are deliberate and well organized. Confusion,

chaos, and disorder are very unsettling and frustrating

to those who prefer the Gold temperament. They are

typically obedient, law-abiding, and respectful of rules

and authority. Golds pride themselves on hard work

and dedication and appreciate detailed instruction with

well-defined details. Once they know precisely what

is expected of them, Golds are goal oriented, ready to

complete any task requiring little prompting or

encouragement. You can usually rely on those who

prefer the Gold temperament to do the right thing

because they truly believe that rule following and law-

abiding is the best and only way to be. They have a


strong sense of loyalty and duty, and they excel in positions of leadership and authority. Golds

often expect all things to be fair, morally right, and just and work best in environments where

everyone “pulls their own weight” and respond well to verbal praise and acknowledgement of

their efforts. A good rule of thumb for when understanding this temperament is that a Gold’s

real happiness is achieving established goals on time while keeping everything in order and in its

proper and rightful place.31

Below are some tips for motivating the Gold temperament:

Treat them professionally

Focus on traditional approaches

Make sure all expectations are clearly explained and outlined

Reward them in tangible ways

Lay out things in a step-by-step fashion

Be highly organized and establish a predictable routine

Follow and enforce the rules

Be fair

Clearly explain acceptable behaviors and expect them to do the right thing

Maintain an orderly work environment

Develop assignments focused and organized with specific goals and objectives

Create clearly identifiable tasks and responsibilities

Help them see there is more than one right way to do something

Provide opportunities to fix mistakes

Be prompt in providing feedback

Give them enough time to do an assignment well

Let them work in leadership or service positions

Examples of the Gold temperament include Julius Caesar, President Harry S. Truman, John D.

Rockefeller, Sandra Day O’Connor, and retired U.S. Army General, former Chairman of the

Joint Chiefs of Staff and Secretary of State, Colin Powell.


Orange

Action

Fun

Variety

$$

Hands on

Freedom

Bold

Work Hard!

Play Hard!

Win

Competition

Orange

Fun and excitement are staples of the Orange

temperament. They thrive on competition and the

adrenaline rush from doing things others are typically

afraid to try. Oranges prefer to surround themselves with

people who are willing to laugh, explore, play hard, take

risks, and work hard. At times, they may be viewed as

renegades and free spirits, challenging authority and the

status quo when in reality Oranges believe that there

respect is something that is earned, not expected and that

taking chances leads to innovation and improvement.

Though many people mistake their tireless optimism and

happy-go-lucky spirit as something less than a serious

approach to life, those who prefer the Orange

temperament are upbeat, fun, inspiring to be around and

are relentless when they are involved in pursuits that are valuable to

them. They possess a tireless ability and stamina and work as hard as

they play. Oranges are proud of their competitive drive, which makes

them highly ambitious and successful. Although Oranges may appear

unorganized and unprepared, they have their own sense of order and

an impressive ability to think under pressure. They desire the ability

to accomplish tasks and issues in a very practical way.

If they cannot see the immediate reason for doing something, they will often dismiss it as stupid

or boring. Oranges typically allow their gut instincts to determine their actions without fully

considering the possible consequences. A good rule of thumb for understanding an Orange is

they love fun, excitement, and being in the center of the action.32

Below are some tips for motivating Oranges:

Keep life engaging, fun, and exciting by using non-traditional approaches

Make sure all expectations are clearly explained and understood

Help them find some joy in doing thing Gold things

Be flexible

Be willing to negotiate

Be willing to overlook certain behaviors

Make sure to remind them continually concerning due dates and assignments

Use humor

Establish a non-obtrusive routine


Make things more hands-on

Help them stay on task

Provide opportunities for alternative assignments

Utilize their boundless energy

Allow them to learn by doing

Develop the use of healthy competition

Provide immediate and tangible rewards

Examples of the Orange temperament include Johnny Carson, General George S. Patton, Laila

Ali, Donald Trump, and Olympic gold medalist and snowboarder, Shaun White.

Progress Check

1. The __________ temperament values Interpersonal interaction and close relationships.

2. The _______________ temperament values competitiveness, hands on work, and people who

prefer this temperament work as hard as they play.

3. The ______________ temperament values competence in themselves and others and can

quickly develop contempt for individuals they consider incompetent.

4. People who prefer the _______________ temperament are goal oriented, ready to complete

any task requiring little prompting or encouragement.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: How can understanding the preferred

temperaments of yourself and others help you understand the motives of other people,

improve lines of communication, and reduce personal misunderstandings?


Blind Spots

A well-known model that illustrates one’s self-awareness is the Johari Window Model (see

below). Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (hence its name, Johari), the model is

essentially a pattern of four quadrants used to determine a person’s four areas or panes of self-

awareness to include how others see or perceive that person.

The Johari Window

Counter-clockwise and beginning in the upper left-hand corner of the model, the Open

windowpane refers to characteristics and traits that you and others know about yourself. For

example, you and others may realize that you do not care for sitting through long meetings,

eating chocolate, or that you have a habit for playing with your hair when you are nervous. The

next windowpane, Hidden, (or façade) regards aspects about yourself that you refuse to share

with others. Sometimes referred to as the “skeletons within our closet,” these may include fears,

traumatic past experiences, etc. However, sharing information about these characteristics moves

this awareness from the hidden to the open pane. The next windowpane, Unknown, refers to

aspects about ourselves that no one knows, to include ourselves. For instance, you will never

know if you like or despise broccoli unless you try it. Neither you nor anyone else knows for

sure whether you like (or despise) broccoli. On the other hand, once you try broccoli and share

your opinion of it with others, your love, (or hatred) for broccoli moves from the Unknown to the

Open pane.


The last pane in Johari’s Window, known as the Blind windowpane, refers to aspects about us

that we are not aware of, but others are. For example, others may notice that you avoid eye

contact when talking with them; something you did not know about yourself. It is through

receiving feedback from others about your lack of eye contact that you will reduce this blind

spot. The more others identify and share what they notice about us, the more we will know

about ourselves, thus increasing self-awareness.33

Consider the following example that relates the Johari Window to the Four Lenses.

Suppose you meet a person whose primary temperament is Gold but possesses a very low

level of Blue (remember, we are all a composition of all four temperaments). As we

know, the Gold temperament is task-oriented and prefers structure, discipline,

organization, schedules, timelines, and deadlines. They have difficulty expressing

emotions or being sensitive to others and they may not realize that they appear cold,

insensitive, or heartless to those whose preferred temperament is Blue. This

temperamental “blindness” could have a devastating effect on Gold’s relationships at

work and at home! Blind spots like this can lead to misunderstandings, unhealthy

relationships, conflict, which can create unhealthy communication and hostile

environments.

The first step to reducing temperament-related blind spot(s) is simply being aware of them.

Once you realize and accept that they exist, you can explore ways to remedy and reduce them.

Some ways to minimize blind spots include:

requesting feedback from others about yourself, your personality, and mannerisms;

becoming more familiar and comfortable with the other temperaments by learning about

and interacting with them; and

balancing your blind spot “shortfalls” by capitalizing on the strengths of the other

temperaments.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: Why is it important to become aware of our blind

spots? How might you go about reducing your own blind spots? How can you help others

reduce their blind spots?


Progress Check

Complete the crossword puzzle using concepts associated with the Johari Window Model.

5. Down: These are aspects about ourselves that we are unaware of, but those around us are.

6. Across: This windowpane refers to those aspects about ourselves that we wish to keep

private.

7. Across: These are the characteristics about ourselves that everyone is aware of.

8. Down: This windowpane refers to information about ourselves that no one is aware of, not

even ourselves.


Communicating Through the Lenses

Do not expect people to change the way they interact with you just because they recognize your

preferred temperament. Instead, try adjusting the way you interpret, interact, and respond to

others by keeping the Four Lenses concepts in mind, especially the traits associated with each

temperament.

For example, if your preferred temperament is Blue and a coworker’s preferred temperament is

Green, communication with this person may be short and bland. In fact, you may even label

your coworker as rude, quiet, condescending, and uncaring because she does not seem interested

in what you have to say. However, with your newfound knowledge of the Four Lenses, and a

comprehension of the Green temperament, you now know that your coworker may actually care

about you very much, but seldom shows you because, as a critical thinker who values

competence, she is usually concentrating on the task rather than feelings or emotions.

Anti-Tobacco Poster Activity

Look at the following anti-tobacco posters and then decide which temperament finds which

poster most appealing. Next, determine what the poster designers got right, what they might

have missed, and what they could have done better.


Anti-Smoking Ad34

Did you think this poster appealed to the Green temperment? The poster designers used facts

rather than abstract ideas to attract the fact-finding reader. Remember, Green temperments are

analytical and like facts and substantiated data. To make this more appealling, designers could

have incorporated a graph or timeline and a website link that captures the results of the

conducted health studies. Try this next advertisement:


Anti-Dip and Smoking Ad35

Did you think this advertisement appeals to males whose preferred temperament is Orange? This

poster is full of life, happiness, and colors. The playful and fun image appeals to the wild nature

of Orange temperments. To make this more appealing to the Orange temperment, the designers

may have used more colors, placed the women in a party setting, or added wild font to make the

image more exciting and fun.

Tel

l it Like it is

We like our men dip and smoke free!


Anti-Smoking Ad36

Did you think this image appeals to the Gold temperament? The poster is simple and

straightforward without any excitement and emotional appeals. However, this image is of a

national military cemetery that represents organization, heritage, and dedication to duty, all of

which are valued by the Gold temperament.

http://dailydesigninspiration.com/diverse/adv/tbwa/World-No-Tobacco-Day---Non-Smoking-Area.jpg


Anti-Smoking Ad37

Did you think this image appeals to the Blue, Orange, and Gold temperments? Here, the

designers used words that center on words that represent what we value. Family, kids, and

friends all appeal to the Blue temperament’s need for close and meaningful relationships.

Health, readiness, and strength may target the Orange temperament who is more physically

active and competitive, whereas budget, unit, and country may lean more toward the Gold

temperamant who values (financial) security and remains loyal and dedicated to what upholds

and defends our rights and freedoms as a free nation. To make this poster more appealing to all

readers, the the desingers could have incorporated some facts that represent the impact smoking

has on all these subjects (for the Green temperament) and more colors and exciting imaging (to

attract the Orange temperament).


Keep the following tips in mind when interacting with the four temperaments.

When communicating with those of the:

Green temperament; be civil, composed, emotionally balanced, concise, and factual.

Give them time to process information. Do not take confrontation personally. Support

your points with proof, studies, or research. Do not expect immediate results.

Blue temperament do not attack them personally. Encourage them to express their point

of view, and give them time to reflect on their feelings. Validate the helpful parts of what

they say before critiquing the rest. Expect emotional reactions. Respond and conclude

with a positive gesture.

Gold temperament, be courteous and polite. Clearly define the issue at hand and the

goals to be accomplished. Be factual, set goals, and benchmark time frames. Put the final

resolution in writing and stick to it unless you meet again to revise your plan.

Orange temperaments lighten the mood with some humor. Do something active like

walking or moving around the area to release some physical tension. Expect to be

challenged or debated. Be flexible and adaptable. Do not back them into a corner. Stress

the importance of a collaborative solution that can work well for both of you.


Maturity

Maturity

9

D

e

v

e

l

o

p

m

e

n

t

humility

pride

The spine/backbone

Maturity Continuum Model

Maturity is the ability to express one’s own strengths, feelings, and beliefs in a manner that is

considerate toward the abilities, thoughts, values, and feelings of others. In reference to the Four

Lenses, it is the ability to remove your primary lens (temperament) and instead, see others and

the world through someone else’s lens (color). One’s maturity can be viewed as a continuum of

low maturity to high maturity (see Maturity Model).

A person with a high level of maturity is often considered humble, modest, and discreet which

forms humility. Humility is a personal quality where one can modify their behaviors to

effectively interact with all temperaments. It can be very difficult to determine the preferred

temperament of a mature person because they function from the nexus (or center) of the four

lenses. A person with a high level of maturity can be compared to a temperamental chameleon,

meaning he or she is able to adapt to the colors of those they are interacting with. A person with

a high level of maturity will not “force” their temperament on others. Instead, they apply what

they know of the other temperaments and modify their own behaviors accordingly in order to

effectively communicate with others.

Maturity is a product, and the proverbial “face” of, our overall character and it develops as

character develops. A low level of maturity doesn’t necessarily mean a person is immature or

juvenile; it simply means the person requires development in their maturity and character. To

develop maturity, one should expand his knowledge of the four temperaments, recognize the

differences of each, and seek enrichment opportunities to experience each temperament first-

hand to complement the learning (maturation) process.


One should also be willing to make personal behavioral changes to better empathize, relate, and

communicate with those with different temperament preferences. As maturity develops, your

ability to operate in all your non-primary colors improves. The result is a person who, regardless

of primary temperament, is capable of genuinely connecting with each person they interact with

so naturally that their primary color is difficult to determine. Others often view a person with a

high-level of maturity as an influential member of society. As a person develops her maturity,

she may start out with a low-level, firmly believing that her way (or color) is the best or most

appropriate one. Because of pride she may even “force” her preference on others. However, as

she matures, she gains knowledge and experience (such as learning about the Four Lenses) and

realizes that each temperament is different. As maturing continues, she discovers that change is

not the goal, it is one’s behavior. For example, an Orange would never become a Blue, but

perhaps could learn to ‘act’ more like a Blue when with those of the Blue temperament. As she

moves along the continuum toward higher maturity, she gradually increases her ability to operate

in her non-primary color. Eventually, she would reach a high-level of maturity, with the ability

to ‘do’ the attributes and mannerisms of the other temperaments with little effort, selecting the

most appropriate behaviors for the people and situation. She could accomplish this without

advertising it and with humility.38

Real-life Guidelines and Strategies of Colors

With all of the information you have learned about yourself and others in this lesson, you now

have enough information to be dangerous to yourself and others. Inappropriate use of this

information (whether out of good intentions or not) can potentially damage relationships and

jeopardize healthy communication. To help you avoid this, the creators of the Four Lenses have

developed a list of real-life guidelines and strategies for you to follow.

1. Don’t stereotype others – Everyone is their own unique blend of the four temperaments.

Something that is true for a person of a certain color may not be true for another person of

the same color.

2. Don’t try to change people – When we look at others, we are using our own preferred lens to

view them and eventually try to compare others to ourselves. You might have a tendency to

believe that because someone is different from you, that person is flawed and you may want

to try to help them to become more like you. This is counterproductive and virtually

impossible.

3. Don’t negate the values of others – Refrain from judging color characteristics as right or

wrong. Each temperament has its own set of values and standards that differ (often greatly)

from the others.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: What kind of behaviors would you expect to see in

people with a “low maturity” as it relates to Four Lenses? Why should we strive to reach a

high level of maturity?


4. Don’t let strengths become liabilities – Sometimes, when people are down and/or stressed,

they tend to minimize or maximize certain traits to the point that the traits that were once

strengths become liabilities. For example, a Gold being so obsessed with cleanliness to the

point that he or she frustrates and drives others away.

5. Don’t use colors as an excuse – Our preferred temperament does not completely reflect our

capabilities and limitations. It is counterproductive to blame characteristics of your

personality for behaviors.

6. Keep your observations private – People tend to react negatively to being ‘figured out’ or

‘diagnosed’ by others. Even if you recognize someone as having a Gold preference, refrain

from pointing it out. Instead, use this information to improve your communication and

relationship with that person.

7. Give good gifts – Give people what they value, not what you value. This applies to

communication as well. Instead of addressing or relating to someone in a way that you

prefer, you should consider doing it in a way they would prefer.

8. Carry all the color lenses with you – Try adopting another perspective if one is not working

for you. If communicating in one style fails, try a different colored lens.

9. Validate the strengths of each color – Each temperament has a unique set of strengths that

the others don’t have. Recognizing, accepting, and validating them is important to the

success of any organization. It also encourages growth and development in others.

10. Learn from others – By becoming familiar with the skills and strengths that other

temperaments possess, you are able to potentially develop new skills or possibly compensate

for ones you are unable to develop. By surrounding yourself with friends or coworkers of

other temperaments, allows you to successfully adapt to various challenges that life brings.39

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: How can you use the information you have learned

to be a more effective NCO?


Progress Check

Match the descriptions from the left column with the concepts from the right column. All

concepts are used only once.

Description Concept

9. ___A personal characteristic that causes one to force

their preferred temperament on others. a. Maturity

10. ___A personal quality where one can modify his or

her behaviors to effectively interact with all

temperaments.

b. Humility

11. ___Simply because Greens are known to prefer their

independence does not mean all who prefer this

temperament wish to be alone.

c. Pride

12. ___This is the ability to remove your primary lens and

see others, situation, and environment through another

other lenses.

d. Validate each colors strengths

13. ___Do not label others as a Gold or Blue, even though

you may have correctly identified their preferred

temperament.

e. Give good gifts

14. ___Treat others the way they want to be treated, not

the way you prefer to treat them. f. Keep your observations private

15. ___Validate each colors strengths: successful

organizations and leaders acknowledge the unique

capabilities of each temperament.

g. Don’t stereotype others



The Four Lenses chapter marks the beginning of your journey into self-awareness. You learned

basic information about The Four Lenses as well as the characteristics of each of the four

temperaments. You also learned about how to motivate each temperament as well as how

recognizing your blind spots can improve your self-awareness and interactions with others. You

then examined the ways we can adjust our behaviors to better interact and communicate with

others who prefer temperaments that differ from our own preferred style. The last part of the

lesson concentrated on the concept of maturity and how it relates to not only the Four Lenses, but

also how maturity and the Four Lenses apply to you…the noncommissioned officer.

This chapter was specifically designed to teach you about yourself and others in a way that

improves your ability to effectively interact with others, regardless of their preferred

temperament. The knowledge you gained from this experience, if used appropriately, will

improve your communication and relationships with others in a way that fosters mutual

understanding and acceptance, thus enhancing your effectiveness as a NCO. Opportunities to

apply the concepts of the Four Lenses will be evident throughout your Air Force experience and

life…you’ll see!


Key Terms

Blind Spots, 147

Johari’s Window Model, 147

Maturity, 156

The Four Lenses Theory, 139

References

Bryce, Nathan K. Four Lenses Unfolded. North Orem, UT: Insight Learning Foundation, 2002.

Covey, Stephen R., The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Simon & Schuster, 1989.

Four Lenses Facilitator’s Guide, Shipley Communication, 2005.

Four Lenses, 4-Temperament Discovery: The Kit, Shipley Communication, 2009.

Fraser, George C., Ten Truths for Building Extraordinary Relationships, The McGraw-Hill

Companies, 2007.

Keirsey, David, and Marilyn Bates. Please Understand Me: Character and Temperament Types,

Del Mar, CA: Gnosology Books, Ltd., 1984.

Luft, J. and Ingham, H. The Johari Window, A Graphic Model of Interpersonal Awareness,

Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development, Los Angeles:

UCLA, 1955.

Shipley Communication official website: http://www.shipleycommunication.com /assessments/

(accessed 13 February 2013).

Wellness Proposals website: http://wellnessproposals.com/wellness-library/tobacco-

cessation/tobacco-cessation-posters/ (accessed 13 February 2013).

http://wellnessproposals.com/wellness-library/tobacco-cessation/tobacco-cessation-posters/

http://wellnessproposals.com/wellness-library/tobacco-cessation/tobacco-cessation-posters/


Formative Exercise

1. SMSgt Brock, the security forces superintendent, calls SSgt Downy into her office and says,

“I noticed you and your fire team “ranger rolling” your hats.” Smiling, Downy replies,

“Ma’am, I believe it creates a more aggressive look; besides, the ladies really like them.”

Brock says, “You may not be aware, or even care, Sergeant Downy, but ranger rolling your

hat is not authorized.” Standing up she adds, “I know you dislike the rule and it is your

nature to take risks, but the ranger rolls end today. Are we clear?” Reluctantly, Downy

replies, “Yes, ma’am!” The next day Brock notices Downy and his team wearing their hats

appropriately.

SMSgt Brock’s actions BEST illustrate her understanding of SSgt Downy’s ______ and its

impact on NCO effectiveness.

a. temperament

b. blind-spot

c. high level of maturity

2. MSgt Norton calls SSgt Pyle, one of his most motivated NCOs, into his office and announces, “I

am going on emergency leave and have a few tasks for you while I’m gone.” Pyle asks

nervously, “Am I familiar with these tasks sir?” Norton replies, “Not at all, but they are career

enhancing opportunities.” She replies, “Great! I’ll go grab my planner and be right back.”

Norton replies, “We don’t have time for note-taking or to-do lists. Relax, I’ll explain everything

you need to know on the way to the airport.”

Because MSgt Norton _____________, his actions will MOST likely ____________ SSgt Pyle’s

effectiveness.

a. understands SSgt Pyle’s blind spot; enhance

b. misunderstands SSgt Pyle’s blind spot; hinder

c. understands SSgt Pyle’s temperament; enhance

d. misunderstands SSgt Pyle’s temperament; hinder



1. The Blue temperament values Interpersonal interaction and close relationships.

2. The Orange temperament values competitiveness, hands on work, and people who prefer

this temperament work as hard as they play.

3. The Green temperament values competence in themselves and others and can quickly

develop contempt for individuals they consider incompetent.

4. People who prefer the Gold temperament are goal oriented, ready to complete any task

requiring little prompting or encouragement.

5. Down: Blind

6. Across: Hidden

7. Across: Open

8. Down: Unknown

Crossword Puzzle Answer Key


Match the descriptions from the left column with the concepts from the right column. All

concepts are used only once.

Description Concept

9. c A personal characteristic that causes one to force

their preferred temperament on others.

a. Maturity

10. b A personal quality where one can modify his or

her behaviors to effectively interact with all

temperaments.

b. Humility

11. _g_Simply because Greens are known to prefer their

independence does not mean all who prefer this

temperament wish to be alone.

c. Pride

12. _a_ This is the ability to remove your primary lens

and see others, situation, and environment through

another other lenses.

d. Validate each colors strengths

13. _f_Do not label others as a Gold or Blue, even though

you may have correctly identified their preferred

temperament.

e. Give good gifts

14. _e_Treat others the way they want to be treated, not

the way you prefer to treat them.

f. Keep your observations private

15. _d_Validate each colors strengths: successful

organizations and leaders acknowledge the unique

capabilities of each temperament.

g. Don’t stereotype others


Formative Exercise Answers

1. CORRECT ANSWER: a

RATIONALE:

a. This answer is CORRECT. According to the Four Lenses chapter, understanding

the different temperaments allows leaders to communicate better with their

subordinates. Based on her understanding of temperaments, Brock recognizes SSgt

Downy’s preferred temperament is orange as illustrated in the statements, “I believe

it creates a more aggressive appearance and the ladies really like them” and “…I

realize you do not care for all these rules and it is your nature to take risks …” she

also does not allow him to use it as an excuse (or crutch) for unacceptable behavior.

SMSgt brock understands that Downy’s behavior can have a negative impact on

NCO effectiveness; therefore, her actions in correcting the issue will positively

impact her effectiveness.

b. This answer is incorrect. According to the Four Lenses chapter, blind spots are areas that

are outside a person’s preferred temperament range, which can create barriers to

communication, misunderstandings, and unhealthy relationships if the blind spots are

ignored. Although SSgt Downy may have a blind spot, the scenario does not clearly

indicate, describe, or explain blind spots or their impact on NCO effectiveness.

Furthermore, the question specifically addresses SMSgt Brock’s actions. See rationale

for correct response for additional information.

c. This answer is incorrect. According to the Four Lenses chapter, low maturity can be

indicated by a need for development and a belief that one’s way is the only/best way.

Maturity is relating and understanding the preferred temperaments of others and being

able to see through their “lenses.” Though SSgt Downy may be displaying a low-level of

maturity, there is not enough information to determine if SMSgt Brock understands

Downy’s maturity. See rationale for correct response.


2. CORRECT ANSWER: d

RATIONALE:

a. This answer is incorrect. According to Four Lenses chapter, blind spots are areas that are

outside a person’s preferred temperament range, which can create barriers to

communication, misunderstandings, and unhealthy relationships if the blind spots are

ignored. These are reduced through identification and learning. There is no indication of

MSgt Norton addressing blind spots; therefore there is not enough information to

determine if he understands them. See rationale for correct response.

b. This answer is incorrect. There is no indication of MSgt Norton addressing blind spots;

therefore, there is not enough information to determine if he understands them. See

rationale for “a” and the correct answer for additional information.

c. This answer is incorrect. MSgt Norton misunderstands SSgt Pyle’s Gold temperament

which will most likely hinder, not enhance, SSgt Pyle’s effectiveness. See rationale for

correct answer for additional information.

d. This answer is CORRECT. According to the Four Lenses chapter, the Gold

temperament is comfortable in familiar and structured environments. In this

scenario, Pyle’s temperament is Gold as evidenced by her wanting to take notes, use

a planner, and to-do lists. MSgt Norton misunderstands SSgt Pyle’s Gold

temperament, as evidenced by 1) giving Pyle unfamiliar tasks, 2) discounting Pyle’s

need to take note and use a planner, and 3) expecting Pyle to be successful based on

a verbal explanation on the way to the airport. This will most likely hinder SSgt

Pyle’s effectiveness.



168

“To problem solve successfully . . . we need to view problems

and conceive solutions in terms of what is needed. . . we need

to understand how each person in our problem-solving team

works, so as to get the best out of everyone as the nature of

each problem changes”

– M .J. Kirton


Preferred Cognitive (Thinking) Approach A-I Theory’s Basic Principles

Adaption-Innovation Theory

Proper Terms and Perception

Implications for Use of A-I Theory

CHAPTER SIX: Adaption-Innovation (A-I) Theory

http://www.psychologyschools.com/multibrains.jpg

Chapter Six: Adaption-Innovation (A-I) Theory 169

Imagine this. The Chief Master Sergeant of the Air

Force has been levied with the task of creating a new

performance system for enlisted personnel. He forms a

team of the leading experts in enlisted force

development. The experts begin to propose different

designs to use to build the new performance system.

There are strains developing within the team. They

seem to bicker a lot and lose track of the objective. It

appears they will never develop the new performance

system. What problems do you see? You could label

them Problem A: creating a new performance system

for enlisted personnel; and Problem B: getting the team

to work toward the common objective of creating a new

enlisted performance system.

Why should NCOs be concerned with Problem A and

Problem B situations? NCOs typically work in teams

on the job. Teams typically solve problems better than

individuals solve and therefore, are seen as superior in

handling complex problems involving intertwining

competencies and expertise. Teams are superior only if

they can solve the problems for which they were

created. Teams are superior only if they can stay

focused on Problem A. Teams that are consumed with

Problem B will never solve Problem A.

Leaders must learn to solve difficult problems that are

complex and hard to define. Because change is

constant, problem solving has to change and flex with

the situations as they develop. A vibrant solution in

one situation would be a disaster in another. Problem

solving teams rely on blending different talents in

different combinations in order to reach viable solutions

at the strategic levels of the Air Force. The A-I Theory

helps you understand attributes that enhance the team.

It also makes you aware of another aspect – that of diversity.

This chapter will convey useful information to help you understand the A-I Theory. Don’t

confuse the A-I theory with the techniques of adaptive thinking and innovative thinking that you

learned about in Chapter 4, Strategic Thinking. The techniques in chapter 4 augment our

“preferred style of problem solving” covered in this chapter. In order for you, as a supervisor, to

understand the A-I Theory, you will look at preferred cognitive (thinking) approach, A-I

Theory’s Basic Principles, understanding adaption-innovation, proper terms and perception,

cognitive gap, bridgers, and coping behavior.

Upon completion of this chapter, you

should be able to:

TERMINAL COGNITIVE

OBJECTIVE:

Comprehend how A-I Theory impacts

NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.


Behavior: 4. Explain how A-I Theory impacts

NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness.

5. Give examples of A-I Theory impacting NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

6. Predict the impact of A-I Theory NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.


Value A-I Theory and how it

enhances NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

Affective Samples of Behavior: 1. Read about A-I Theory concepts

with an open mind and remember new information (receiving).


checks, exercises, and self-reflection), and question concepts,

models, etc. in order to fully

understand them (responding). 3. Accept the idea that effective use of

A-I Theory concepts positively

impacts individual, unit, and mission effectiveness (value).

4. Willingly develop a preference for using A-I Theory concepts to

enhance individual, unit, and

mission effectiveness (value). 5. Commit to using A-I Theory

concepts to enhance individual, unit,

and mission effectiveness (value). mission effectiveness (value).

170 Chapter Six: Adaption-Innovation (A-I) Theory

Preferred Cognitive (Thinking) Approach

Thinking is the means by which we solve problems and are creative. We cannot “see” thinking

occur so we have to devise means to identify one’s preferred thinking (cognitive) style. The

Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory (KAI) is a precise measure of preferred thinking style.

The KAI is a psychometric instrument that has been tested across many cultures, and for over 40

years, proven to be one of the world’s most reliable and valid instruments for measuring

cognitive preference. Kirton’s work proves that preferred styles are established by the late

teenage years and remain stable throughout life. The instrument is so reliable that if you took it

when you first joined the Air Force and then take it again today, your score today would be

within one half of a standard error of measurement (10 points) deviation from your original

score.

A-I Theory’s Basic Principles

A-I Theory Emphasizes Three Key Issues:

1. When we problem solve we are limited by the way we are built (e.g. our intelligence, no one

has endless capacity or flexibility).

2. All of us are intelligent and creative, at different levels and with different styles, and

therefore, all of us are capable of learning to contribute to team problem solving, as long as

there is both motive and opportunity.

Problem A: This is an ‘actual problem’ that two of more individuals come together to solve.

Problem B: This encompasses all of the problems (team dynamics, interpersonal skills,

communication, collaboration, etc.) that stem from ‘human interactions’ and it steals time

and energy from efforts needed to solve Problem A.

3. Leaders interact with people to solve a myriad of problems every day and to be truly

successful at solving both problem A and problem B, leaders must be able to effectively

manage the diversity that stems from people whose A-I preference ranges from highly

adaptive to the highly innovative and every point in between.

Adaption-Innovation Theory

One could spend years reading and learning about this theory and still not understand fully its

power. Even today, Dr. Kirton, along with his closest colleagues from the University of

Pennsylvania and the Thomas N. Barnes Center for Enlisted Education are learning new things

about the theory and new ways it can be used to help organizations, and the leaders of those

organization solve problems and manage change.

With that said, our purpose here is to provide a basic understanding of the theory in order to help

you better understand yourself and those you lead. As they say, leadership begins with self-

awareness.


The Adaption-Innovation Theory is founded on the assumption that all people solve problems

and are creative, and that both are outcomes of the same brain function.

“The theory sharply distinguishes between level and style of creativity, problem solving, and

decision making, therefore the theory is ONLY concerned with style”

Level: Refers to potential capacity (intelligence or talent) and learned levels (such as

management, supervisory and leadership competency). It is important to understand and

remember that both styles (adaption and innovation) are found at every level—from the highest

to the lowest.

Style: Refers to “how we think,” our preferred cognitive approach to problem solving, and

decision making. These style differences, which lie on a normally distributed continuum, range

from strong adaption to strong innovation.

Progress Check

1. What is the difference between Problem A and Problem B?

2. The Adaption-Innovation Theory is only concerned with ___________.

3. What is the difference between style and level?


Proper Terms and Perception

Although people tend to use the terms adaptors and innovators, we should always use the more

precise terms of “more adaptive” and “more innovative.” These are better because they keep us

from labeling others as only adaptive or only innovative. The fact is, although your position on

the continuum remains stable over time, how you are perceived is relative and changes

depending on who (individuals/groups) you are interacting with.

The bell curve below shows the distribution of style preferences along the A-I continuum. All

numbers refer to the general population relative to a normal distribution of the responses (Bell

Curve):

1. 68% fall between Mild Adaptor and Mild Innovator (34% on each side of mean)

2. 26% are moderate adaptors or moderate innovators (13.59% each)

3. 5% are strong adaptors or strong innovator (2.14% each)

Bell Curve

Refer to Perceptions Figures below:

Example 1: In this example, you (Y) are in the Mild Adaptor area of the continuum and the

people (P) you work with are very close to your position on the continuum. These people

perceive you (and you perceive them) as being very similar, e.g. all of you take a very similar

approach to problem solving. You may also notice that it is easy to communicate with the

members in this group.


Example 2: Although your position (Y) on the continuum has not changed, the people you

interact with fall in the Moderate and Strong Innovator areas of the continuum, and as a result,

they may perceive you as conforming, predictable, inflexible, wedded to the system, and

intolerant of ambiguity. You probably see them as unsound, impractical, risky, abrasive, and a

threat to the established system. You may also notice some challenges in communicating

(getting your thoughts across) to this group

Example 3: Once again, your position has not changed, but this time, the people you must

interact with fall below you in the Strong Adaptor area of the continuum. This means they will

more than likely perceive you as unsound, impractical, risky, abrasive, and a threat to the

established system, just as you perceived the people in example 2. Again, you may also notice

some challenges in communicating (getting your thoughts across) to this group.

So, it is all relative! Although your position on the continuum does not change, how others

perceive you and how you perceive them depends on where you are on the continuum in relation

to their position.

Perceptions


So what is the take away from these examples:

First, it is equally important that you understand how others perceive you, and why they perceive

you that way. Remember it is relative to where you and others fall on the continuum.

Second, although large gaps between styles means greater chances of conflict (i.e. Problem B), it

also offers greater potential/ability to solve problems (Problem A) because of cognitive diversity.

Regardless of where we fall on the continuum, we can all be equally creative, which also means

we can all be equally good or equally bad at handling change.

Before moving on, let’s be clear about Problem A and Problem B.

Problem A: This is the ‘actual problem’ that two of more individuals come together to

solve.

Problem B: This encompasses all of the problems (team dynamics, interpersonal skills,

communication, collaboration, etc.) that stem from ‘human interactions’ and it steals time

and energy from efforts needed to solve Problem A.

In the examples above we used words and phrases such as predictable, inflexible, wedded to the

system, and unsound to describe the more adaptive and words like impractical, risky, and

abrasive to describe the more innovative. In reality, both styles have many traits, tendencies, and

characteristics as described below. See if you recognize any of them in yourself.


Adaptors exhibit the following tendencies:

Innovators exhibit the following tendencies:

- Prefer more structure and more of it

consensually agreed.

- Improve or extend the paradigm in order to

solve problems.

- Use rules to solve problems.

- Bring order out of turbulence.

- Revitalize current systems for tomorrow.

- Work within the system to bring about new

improvement, ideas, and greater efficiencies.

- Value themselves for being:

-- Improvers

-- Resource Effective

-- Supportive

-- Consistent

-- Methodical

-- Masters of Structure

-- Sound

-- Prudent Risk-takers

- Prefer less structure and can tolerate less of it

consensually agreed

- Challenge or break the paradigm in order to solve

problems.

- May break the rules to solve problems.

- Catalyze the necessary turbulence.

- Help create break from worn-out systems.

- Work outside the system to bring about different

ideas and different structures for the high Adaptors

- Value themselves for being

-- Full of Ideas

-- Provocative

-- Assumption Challengers

-- Accepting of Change

-- Intuitive

-- Mold Breakers

-- Shocking

-- Daring Risk-takers


Progress Check

4. What is a more precise term for adaptors?

5. What is a more precise term for innovators?

6. Why is it important to know where you fall on the Adaption-Innovation continuum?

7. Why does a large gap in style offer greater potential/ability to solve problems?

8. What are some of the tendencies adaptors exhibit concerning “structure”?

9. What are some of the tendencies innovators exhibit concerning “structure”?

10. What are some of the tendencies adaptors exhibit concerning “the paradigm”?

11. What are some of the tendencies innovators exhibit concerning “the paradigm”?


Implications for Use of A-I Theory

Cognitive Gap:

There are two forms of cognitive gap. The first form is the distance between one’s preferred

style and the behavior actually needed in a particular situation (i.e. the distance between ones

preferred style and his/her task). The second form is, the distance in a social interaction,

between the preferred styles of 1) two people, 2) a person and a group, or 3) two groups (refer

back to figure 2).

According to A-I Theory, the larger the cognitive gap, the greater the potential for conflict and

for productive problem solving

Potential for Conflict

Small Gaps: A difference in cognitive styles becomes noticeable when the distance between

two individuals (or two groups) falls on the extreme edges of a style (e.g. Moderate

Innovators). The advantage of this small gap is there is very little, if any, conflict. If conflict

does occur, both individuals find it easy to manage. The disadvantage of this gap is like-

minded thinking can lead to less than optimal solutions.

Large Gaps: These are when one individual (or group) has one style and the other person or

group has an adjacent style (e.g. Mild Adaptor interacting with a Mild Innovator). With this

difference, individuals find they must consciously manage the relationship due to minor, but

very noticeable conflict caused by their difference in styles. The advantage here is that

different perspectives lead to better solutions to Problem A (i.e. the task at hand). The

disadvantage is that individuals must expend some energy and time coping and managing the

relationship (i.e. resolution of Problem B).

Significant Gaps: These are when one individual (or group) has one style and the other

person or group has a style that is separated by one style (e.g. Strong Adaptor interacting with

a Mild Adaptor). When the cognitive gap is at the extreme ends of the ranges for the groups,

these individuals (or groups) experience a great deal of conflict and need increasing amounts

of coping behavior to manage/maintain the relationship. Once again, the advantage of this

cognitive gap is a wider range of thinking that can lead to outstanding solutions to Problem A.

The disadvantage is that individuals usually end up expending way more energy and time

coping and trying to fix Problem B than they expend on solving Problem A. In many cases,

without help, these individuals or groups may never even get to Problem A.

When the cognitive gap is separated by two or more styles (e.g. Strong Adaptor. interacting

with a Mild Innovator), the effort required for successful coping rises exponentially with the

size of the gap. Moreover, coping becomes even more difficult when this gap lies between

two people, one of whom is the boss or when the rewards and penalties for success or failure

are high.


Potential for Problem Solving

Adaptors and innovators are equally good at solving problems…but optimal problem solving

results from both adaptors and innovators working on the problem together because it brings all

sides (perspectives) of a problem to light. Although this brings Problem B into the mix, leaders

who manage this cognitive diversity effectively end up with the best possible solutions.

Because all organizations naturally cycle through periods of steadiness-change-steadiness, they

need a mix of adaptors and innovators to help with the myriad of challenges that stem from this

cycle.

Imagine an organization (or team) comprised of only adaptors. Given the information in table 1

above, we’d have an organization full of people who are extremely good at solving problems by

“staying within the organization’s paradigm”, “working within the existing structure, rules, and

policies’, and by ensuring they had group consensus on every decision before implementing any

change. This organization would have great efficiency and operate like a well-oiled

machine…at first. However, nothing in the United State Air Force is static for long. Missions

change and when they do, the organization must be able to change and adapt as well.

Organizations with only adaptors handle small, incremental changes just fine…but major

changes send it into a death spiral.

Now imagine an organization (or team) comprised of only innovators. Given the information in

table 1 above, we’d have an organization full of people who are extremely good at solving

problems by “breaking the rules”, “working outside the existing structure, rules, and policies’,

and by having little or no concern for group consensus before implementing change. Although

this organization might experience major success when new, it would not be very efficient in the

long run because of the constant change and very little rule following (i.e. little stability).

In summary, organizations with only adaptors or innovators quickly perish (or fail in executing

its mission). The take away here is optimal problem solving results from both adaptors and

innovators working on the problem together which also requires effective management of the

cognitive gap (i.e. Problem B). An effective method for managing cognitive gap is through the

use of Bridgers.

Bridgers

Ways to manage cognitive gap include changing jobs, changing the job, position or duties,

delegating or reassigning team roles, reorganizing teams, and reassigning certain members.

Although these methods may work occasionally, as members of the military, we seldom have the

luxury of changing job or reassigning people. Thus, we must find another way to manage the

cognitive gap. That’s where Bridgers come in.

So what is a Bridger?

- First, and foremost, bridging is a social role that requires:

-- human relation skills (which can be taught)


-- bridger to be acceptable to those they bridge

-- a willingness to fulfill the role

To be a successful Bridger, one needs to be willing to undertake the role and ideally (albeit not

mandatory) have a cognitive preference (style) between those to be bridged. For example, a

Moderate Adaptor might help bridge the gap between a Strong Adaptor and Mild Adaptor.

Likewise, a Moderate Innovator might help bridge the gap between Mild Innovator and Strong

Innovator. Another example might be a Mild Innovator bridging between a Strong Adaptor and

a Strong Innovator.

Although being in the area between those to be bridged is ideal, a person can still bridge whose

style is outside those to be bridged can still act as a bridger. For example, a Strong Innovator

could bridge between a Strong Adaptor and a Mild Innovator.

Successful Bridgers help those being bridged understand each other’s approach through the use

of interpersonal skills, active listening, and effective questioning techniques. These help both

parties understand why and how the other party approaches problem solving and they help both

parties understand each other’s strengths and weakness, which helps both parties expend more

effort on Problem A.

Bridging is reaching out to people in the team and helping them to be part of it so that they may

contribute even if their contribution is outside mainstream. Bridgers are important in

maintaining group cohesion and can significantly reduce Problem B by redirecting group energy

to solving Problem A. (Kirton, 2003, p. 247).

The Bridger fills roles of counselor, mediator, and negotiator (Kirton, 2003, p. 253). Bridging is

a learned skill, one that effective NCOs must learn to be effective…there are no official Bridgers

as it is a learned skill.

Kirton also observes “Bridgers need the skills necessary to intervene and the motive to want to

risk it” (Kirton, 2003, p. 250). When we add the power of collaboration to Bridging, we add

another effective way of facilitating problem solving.

Although Cognitive Diversity increases the likelihood of coping behavior occurring, when used

positively it can also be used to increase the team’s ability to solve Problem B and subsequently

solve Problem A. When we build teams with Adaptors and Innovators, each provides or attend

to the following for their team:


Adaptors Innovators

- Supply consensus, sensitivity, and group

cohesion

- Provide stability and continuity

- Provide a safe testing group for risky

ventures

- Provide the break with accepted theory

- Provoke the group to reconsider consensus

related issues

- Supply the dynamics to bring about

discontinuous change

When no one is available (or willing) to fulfill the role of Bridger, NCOs may find themselves in

a situation where they have no choice but to act as a Bridger…just one more reason for

possessing a solid grasp of A-I Theory.

Coping Behavior

Having a Bridger certainly helps when there is a large cognitive gap between two people, a

person and a group, or two groups of people. However, there are times when all of us must

behave (i.e. problem solve) outside of our preferred style. To put it in simple terms:

“Coping Behavior is effort required to do something that is not our preference”

Why do we need Coping Behavior?

We need coping behavior because we cannot always solve problems using our preferred style.

There are two main reasons for operating outside our preferred style. The first reason is the

nature of the problem and the second reason is the nature of the solution (desired by oneself or

by authority).

The Cost of Coping Behavior

It is important to understand that everyone copes at some point, and that working outside one’s

preferred style is psychologically expensive.

When coping, adaptors must move away from familiar, consensually agreed structure into

territory with more of the kinds of risk they carefully avoid. Of course, they can (and do) use

techniques (which can be taught) to cope. However, there is a big difference between indulging

in a brain storming exercise in a comfortable setting away from the job and carrying out the

same exercise in an environment that is hostile. A person who is more innovative in the same

situation would worry less.

Innovators too have their difficulties when problem solving in adaptive modes/environments.

They must constantly remind themselves that to survive successfully in an established group,

they need to master the rules and operate intelligently and creatively within consensually agreed

constraints just as the more adaptive people do.

Why do people cope?

If operating outside our preferred style is psychologically expensive—why do we do it?


The answer is Motive which generates additional energy and discounts additional discomfort

until either the task is complete, or it becomes possible to solve the problem within limits closer

to one’s preferred style. Of course, if there is no opportunity, then there is no motive. Although

there are many definitions for motive and opportunity, for our purposes we define them as

follows:

Motive: “An emotion, desire, physiological need, or similar impulse that causes one to take

action.”

Opportunity: “An appropriate or favorable time, occasion, or situation favorable for attainment

of a goal”

When motive is switched off, coping behavior is also switched off! There at least four conditions

where we simply “turn off” our coping behavior.

Condition 1 When operating in an environment where we can use our preferred style

(i.e. little to no Cognitive Gap exists)

Condition 2 When operating in an environment where we cannot use our preferred

style because of a large Cognitive Gap (e.g. Mild Adaptor working with/for Strong

Innovator)

Condition 3 When the opportunity (need) for/to cope no longer exists (new position,

duties, assignment, boss, etc.)

Condition 4 When the motive for coping no longer exists or is no longer important

(unable to get promoted, recognized, or rewarded or something in life has changed, etc.)

Effective Leadership

Rarely do we get to work in an environment where we can operate entirely within our preferred

style. Therefore, as enlisted leaders, we must recognize that actual behavior is always a blend of

one’s preferred style and coping behavior.

Effective leaders create environments where they only ask for minimum coping behavior most of

the time and only have to ask for maximum coping behavior in times of crisis. The Cost of

Coping Behavior Figure on the next page is a visual representation of the cost of coping

behavior.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: What are the disadvantages of working with team

members that have the same cognitive style as the leader?


Cost of Coping Behavior

The Cost of Coping Behavior figure above shows us two very important points:

First, we can cope for long periods of time when the behavior required is not too far away from

our preferred style.

Second, the further we move away from our preferred style, the

harder it is to continue coping. If we are unable to walk away

from a situation for reasons outside our control, and must

continue coping, the effort takes a toll on our mental and

physical health. Eventually, the effort becomes so

psychologically costly that, regardless of the consequences, we

lose our motive and switch off our coping. When this happens,

we see people make life-changing choices in order to get away

from the situation so they can return to state where they can use

their preferred style. When people switch off their coping, we

often see a significant impact: switching career fields, no-notice

retirements, and separation from the service without benefits,

divorces, and suicides.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: How can an understanding of coping behavior

help you become a better leader?

http://www.psych.utah.edu/psych3120-classroom/head.jpg


17. What is bridging?

18. Why do we need coping behavior?

19. Effective leaders create environments where they only ask for __________ coping behavior

most of the time and only have to ask for __________ coping behavior in times of crisis.

Progress Check

12. What are the two forms of cognitive gap?

13. According to A-I Theory, the larger the cognitive gap, the greater the potential for conflict

and for __________.

14. Leaders who manage ______________ effectively end up with the best possible solutions.

15. Organizations with only adaptors or innovators quickly _______________.

16. An effective method for managing cognitive gap is through the use of ___________.


Matching Exercise

Match the terms on the left to their definitions on the right. Each term will be used only once.

1. ___ Problem A A. potential capacity: intelligence or talent

2. ___ Level B. preferred approach to problem solving, and decision

making.

3. ___ Coping Behavior C. precise terms use to describe the A-I Continuum

4. ___ More Adaptive or

Innovative

D. problem that two of more individuals come together

to solve.

5. ___ Style E. problems that stem from human interactions

6. ___ Problem B F. distance between one’s preferred style and the

behavior actually needed in a situation

7. ___ Cognitive Gap #1 G. social role requiring human relation skills, and an

intermediate score (ideally)

8. ___ Opportunity H. effort required to do something that is not one’s

preference

9. ___ Bridger I. emotion, desire, physiological need that causes one to

take action

10. ___ Cognitive Gap #2 J. All of us are intelligent and creative, at different

levels and with different styles

11. ___ Motive K. An appropriate or favorable time, occasion, or

situation favorable for attainment of a goal

12. ___ Basic Principle of

A-I Theory

L. distance in a social interaction between preferred

styles

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/goal



Why does that matter to you? The relationship between cognitive style and diversity of a team is

a strong relationship! Insufficient creativity /problem-solving diversity leads to poor problem

solving (e.g., teams with a closely grouped style hinder the diversity of the team). Teams should

not be all innovative or all adaptive, either can be fatal.

The A-I theory rests on the assumption that all of us are intelligent and creative, at different

levels and with different styles, and all of us are capable of contributing to team problem solving

as long as there is both motive and opportunity. A-I theory is concerned with our preferred way

of problem solving, so it is important to remember that no one style is better than the other; both

styles (more adaptive and more innovative) have advantages and disadvantages.

Kirton wrote, “To problem solve successfully . . . we need to view problems and conceive

solutions in terms of what is needed. . . we need to understand how each person in our problem-

solving team works, so as to get the best out of everyone as the nature of each problem changes”

(Kirton, 2003, p. 24).

If your team is efficient, you, your unit, and the mission benefit.


Key Terms

Adaptors, 172, 175 Bridgers, 178 Cognitive Diversity, 174, 178 Cognitive Gap, 177 Coping Behavior, 180 Innovators, 172, 175 Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory, 170

Level, 171 More Adaptive, 172 More Innovative, 172 Preferred Cognitive Approach, 170 Problem A, 170 Problem B, 170 Style, 171

References

Kirton, M. J., (2003). Adaption-Innovation in the Context of Diversity and Change

Kirton, M. J., (1999). Adaptors and Innovators: Why New Initiatives Get Blocked Paper



1. What is the difference between Problem A and Problem B?

Problem A is the ‘actual problem’ that two of more individuals come together to solve.

Problem B encompasses all of the problems (team dynamics, interpersonal skills,

communication, collaboration, etc.) that stem from ‘human interactions’.

2. The Adaption-Innovation Theory is only concerned with style.

3. What is the difference between style and level?

Level refers to potential capacity (intelligence or talent) and learned levels (such as

management, supervisory and leadership competency). Style: refers to “how we think,” our

preferred cognitive approach to problem solving, and decision making.

4. What is a more precise term for adaptors?

More adaptive

5. What is a more precise term for innovators?

More innovative

6. Why is it important to know where you fall on the Adaption-Innovation continuum?

How others perceive you and how you perceive them depends on where you are on the

continuum in relation to their position.

7. Why does a large gap in style offer greater potential/ability to solve problems?

Because of the cognitive diversity

8. What are some of the tendencies adaptors exhibit concerning “structure”?

Prefer more structure and more of it consensually agreed

9. What are some of the tendencies innovators exhibit concerning “structure”?

Prefer less structure and can tolerate less of it consensually agreed

10. What are some of the tendencies adaptors exhibit concerning “the paradigm”?

Improve or extend the paradigm in order to solve problems


11. What are some of the tendencies innovators exhibit concerning “the paradigm”?

Challenge or break the paradigm in order to solve problems

12. What are the two forms of cognitive gap?

The first form is the distance between one’s preferred style and the behavior actually needed

in a particular situation (i.e. the distance between ones preferred style and his/her task).

The second form is, the distance in a social interaction, between the preferred styles of 1) two

people, 2) a person and a group, or 3) two groups (refer back to figure 2).

13. According to A-I Theory, the larger the cognitive gap, the greater the potential for conflict

and for productive problem solving.

14. Leaders who manage cognitive diversity effectively end up with the best possible solutions.

15. Organizations with only adaptors or innovators quickly perish.

16. An effective method for managing cognitive gap is through the use of bridgers.

17. What is bridging?

Bridging is reaching out to people in the team and helping them to be part of it so that they

may contribute even if their contribution is outside mainstream.

18. Why do we need coping behavior?

Because we cannot always solve problems using our preferred style.

19. Effective leaders create environments where they only ask for minimum coping behavior

most of the time and only have to ask for maximum coping behavior in times of crisis.


Matching Exercise Answers

Match the terms on the left to their definitions on the right. Each term will be used only once.

1. D Problem A A. potential capacity: intelligence or talent

2. A Level B. preferred approach to problem solving, and

decision making.

3. H Coping Behavior C. precise terms use to describe the A-I

Continuum

4. C More Adaptive or

Innovative

D. problem that two of more individuals come

together to solve.

5. B Style E. problems that stem from human interactions

6. E Problem B F. distance between one’s preferred style and the

behavior actually needed in a situation

7. F Cognitive Gap #1 G. social role requiring human relation skills,

and an intermediate score (ideally)

8. K Opportunity H. effort required to do something that is not

one’s preference

9. G Bridger I. emotion, desire, physiological need that

causes one to take action

10. L Cognitive Gap #2 J. All of us are intelligent and creative, at

different levels and with different styles

11. I Motive K. An appropriate or favorable time, occasion, or

situation favorable for attainment of a goal

12. J Basic Principle of

A-I Theory

L. distance in a social interaction between

preferred styles

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/goal



THE EVOLUTION OF LEADERSHIP THEORY

Trait Theory

Psychodynamic Theory

Skills Theory

Styles Theory

Situational Leadership Theory

Contingency Theory

Path-Goal Theory

Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Authentic Leadership Theory

Why Full Range Leadership Development

FRLD Leadership Behaviors

Motivational Theories

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

McClelland’s Need Theory

Contemporary Motivation

Transformational Leadership

Right to Lead Model

CHAPTER SEVEN: Full Range Leadership Development

“The task of leadership is not to put greatness

into people, but elicit it, for the greatness is

already there.”

- John Buchan

Chapter Seven: Full Range Leadership Development 191

Recognizing and developing the leadership

potential of our people has become a strategic

initiative in many of today’s most successful

organizations to include the U.S. military.

The Air Force uses sociocultural concepts like

training and mentoring to develop leaders for

today and tomorrow’s air and space force. As

NCOs, we remain committed to discovering,

nurturing, and developing greatness in our

Airmen.

This chapter begins with background

information pertaining to the development and

evolution of leadership theory, focusing on

four theories that attempted to capture the

essence of effective leadership throughout

history. Next, it explains various motivational

theories and the methods we use to

individually motivate others. This chapter

then focuses on Full Range Leadership

Development or FRLD for short, and a model

that identifies various passive and active

leadership styles. This reading also compares

two formidable leadership styles

(Transactional and Transformational, then

concludes with an explanation of the Right to

Lead Model.


should be able to:

TERMINAL COGNITIVE

OBJECTIVE:

Comprehend Full Range Leadership

Development (FRLD) concepts and

their impact on NCO, subordinate,

unit, and mission effectiveness.


Behavior:

1. Explain FRLD and its impact on

subordinate, NCO, unit, and


2. Give examples of FRLD and

their impact on subordinate,

NCO, unit, and mission

effectiveness.

3. Predict the impact of FRLD on

subordinate, NCO, unit, and



Value FRLD concepts and their

impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and



1. Read about FRLD concepts with

an open mind and remember new

information (receiving).


checks, adult learning profile,

IDDP exercises, and self-

reflection), and question concepts,

models, etc. in order to fully

understand them (responding).

3. Accept the idea that effective use

of FRLD concepts positively

impacts individual, unit, and

mission effectiveness (value).

4. Willingly develop a preference for

using FRLD concepts to enhance

individual, unit, and mission

effectiveness (value).

5. Commit to using FRLD concepts

to enhance individual, unit, and

mission affective values.

192 Chapter Seven: Full Range Leadership Development

Today, leadership is more than just moving people and teams from point A to point B and

simply achieving goals. It includes displaying behaviors, designing structures, and

implementing policies that develop subordinates along the way. It involves the movement of

leaders and followers from a passive and ineffective form of leadership to one that is more

active…and effective. This will increase follower motivation and performance to higher levels

of excellence and sustaining both a positive and results-oriented organizational culture.

The Evolution of Leadership Theory

When was the concept of leadership first discovered? Why haven’t we mastered the art and

science of leadership and why do we continue to examine and remain fascinated by it today?

One could easily argue that leadership theory is as old as humanity itself. What is it that

enables some members of their society to rise up through the ranks to leadership positions

while others fail? The earliest attempts to answer these and other questions were the historical

biographies written about some of the world’s great leaders. Other works by various scholars,

psychologists, and sociologists not only attempted to define leadership, they revealed methods

and techniques to hone the very skills necessary in becoming a great leader. Let us briefly

explore some of history’s most prominent theories.

SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: Before you begin, how would you answer the

following questions?

Do you have a workable plan to cultivate the greatness of the people in your

organization?

How will you help them realize their potential to excel?

Are you able to carefully scrutinize and evaluate their actions?

Are you able to set goals for them and use rewards and discipline (even punishment)

to move them closer to their goals?

Can you (do you) role model in your own behavior what you expect from them?

Do you inspire them to cooperate with your organization’s internal and external

stakeholders?

Are you capable (and willing to) of challenging them to rethink their basic

assumptions and rework their ways of doing things?

Are you patient enough to coach them in a way that develops their strengths to their

full potential, while recognizing and addressing their weaknesses?


Trait Theory

The first studies of leadership focused on fixed personal characteristics and innate qualities

one possessed known as traits. Referred to as “The Great Man (or Woman) Theory,” one’s

leadership effectiveness was said to be influenced by their intelligence, self-confidence,

determination, integrity, and sociability. Trait-based leadership poses a few problems: how

does one develop a trait? Also, leaders who share the same traits oftentimes act differently.

For instance, throughout history, there have been self-confident and intelligent leaders.

However, some were leaders of righteousness while others led followers down paths of

destruction. Those that subscribe to trait-based leadership tend to favor the notion that leaders

are born not made. Although it is true that leaders who have certain traits tend to excel, the

evidence is equally clear that education and training can improve leadership effectiveness.

This supports the notion that leaders can certainly be made.40

Psychodynamic Theory

In the 1930s and 1940s, building upon the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud, experts

introduced the psychodynamic theory of leadership. This theory assumes that the world can be

a hostile, unpredictable, and unforgiving environment and that followers look for leaders who

can make sense of such a turbulent conditions and crisis situations. This is a personality-based

approach to leadership study that argues that followers and leaders are drawn to their roles, and

achieve success in those roles by virtue of personality type, overcoming personal challenges

and organizational crisis in their own lives, and sharing their lessons learned with their

followers. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® is related to this theory in it too concentrates on

one’s psychological make-up and personality. The ultimate goal of the psychodynamic theory

is for people to understand themselves, to identify their preferred approaches to situations and

then work within the constraints of their preferences to achieve success.41

Leaders who a more

self-aware have a better understanding of who they truly are and are able to use this

information to improve their leadership.

Skills Theory

This theory focuses on leaders who are emotionally intelligent and can successfully solve

problems. Emotional intelligence centers on emotional awareness and control one has of their

emotions and how this impacts their leadership effectiveness. Some see emotions as

“windows” to one’s psychological state or underlying intentions. Since people tend to think

and act with emotion, this theory argues that skill and knowledge are involved when properly

managing and dealing with emotion. For example, let’s say you just received a bout of

inaccurate, negative feedback from your supervisor-in front of your peers! How would you

respond? Would you retaliate right there to defend your image or compose yourself and

thoughts to rationally discuss the situation with the supervisor privately? The second element,

problem solving, proposes that leaders are effective if they can assist followers in solving

personal, organizational, and career-related problems. In these situations, a leader’s cognitive

and social skills, coupled with their own life experiences, influence their leadership

effectiveness.42


By the 1950s, scholars realized that these theories revolved around personal traits, which was

simply inadequate when attempting to identify and harness the power of leadership. It was

determined that effective leadership also relied on one’s behavior or style.

Style Theory

Is your supervisor friendly, approachable, and concerned about you, or does he or she consider

the work to be done more important? This theory concentrates on two types of leadership:

task- or production-oriented leadership which focuses on initiating structures and paths for

followers to perform effectively and people- or relationship-oriented leadership which

considers fostering good relationships between the leader and followers. Both leadership

styles influence followers’ performance and satisfaction. Leaders who lack either one of these

behaviors can be ineffective than those who possess both styles. The emphasis on one’s

behavior and style changed the view of developing leadership more promising since behaviors

are more easily changed than traits.43

Situational Leadership Theory

Introduced in the 1980s, management expert, Mr. Ken Blanchard

along with professor, Dr. Paul Hersey created the acclaimed

Situational Leadership Model (see Situation Leadership Model).

This theory focused on a follower’s competence and

commitment, or development level (DL) in completing a specific

task and the use of four different leadership styles to influence

the follower’s development. These styles are directive,

coaching, supporting, or delegating. For example, suppose the

task is to make a decision. If the leader determines the follower

has little competence and commitment to accomplish this task

(DL1), the leader will use a directive style, which may include

providing the follower detailed instructions and a mandatory

deadline.

Situational Leadership Model


If it is determined that the follower has a low level of competence but some commitment

(DL2), the leader should use a coaching style, presenting ideas to the follower and asking for

input. However, if the leader believes the follower is highly competent but lacks commitment

(a DL3), he or she will use a supportive style of leadership by soliciting solutions from the

follower and encouraging the follower in his or her efforts. Finally, when the follower

demonstrates high levels of competence and commitment (DL4), the leader will use a

delegating style, empowering the follower to make and implement decisions within limits set

by the leader.44

The crux of the Situational Leadership theory is that it is task specific. For

instance, a follower may be at DL 4 in one task and at DL2 for another. The arc in the model

with three arrows represent how a leader should move among leadership styles by

appropriately matching his or her leadership style with the follower’s development level based

on the task to effectively lead the follower.

Contingency Theory

Another popular situational approach to understanding leadership is Contingency Theory.

This theory matches specific leaders to particular situations in order to achieve the most

success. Unlike Situational Leadership, Contingency Theory suggests that leaders cannot

change their behaviors. Therefore, leaders are moved or “swapped” into and out of various

situations based on three critical situational factors. These are:

Leader-Member Relations. The degree to which the leaders is trusted and liked by

members of the group and their willingness to follow the leader.

Leader’s Position Power. The authority the leader has to reward or punish based on

his or her organizational position. The power of the leader is based on the position

held within the organizational position and authority.

The Task Structure. This refers to how well a group’s task(s) have been described.

Highly structured means the tasks are clearly understood and easy to understand.

Unstructured means the tasks are difficult to understand and are complex or difficult to

execute.45

To determine a leader’s effectiveness, Fred Fiedler suggests that the interaction between the

leader and the followers must be favorable to the situation. The most favorable situation is

when leader-member relations are good, the task is highly structured, and the leader has a

strong position power.

Research shows that task-oriented leaders are more effective in highly favorable and highly

unfavorable situations whereas relationship-oriented leaders are more effective in situations of

intermediate favorableness.

Fiedler also suggests that leaders may act differently in different situations.

Relationship-oriented leaders usually exhibit task-oriented behaviors under highly

favorable situations and display relationship-oriented behaviors under unfavorable

intermediate favorable situations.


Task-oriented leaders frequently display task-oriented in unfavorable or intermediate

favorable situations but display relationship-oriented behaviors in favorable

situations.46

Path-Goal Theory

In the Path-Goal Theory of leadership, once the leader assesses their followers and the

situation, leaders choose one of four behaviors: supportive, directive, participative or

achievement-oriented to lead their followers to success. Though somewhat similar to the

Situational Leadership approach, the Path-Goal Theory views the leader as a trail-blazer,

creating the conditions and paving the way for subordinates to succeed. Unlike the earlier trait

theories, it relies on behaviors which can be studied and taught.47

Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

In the 1990s, Leadership-Member Exchange Theory was introduced to better explain the

relationships between leaders and followers. It emphasized that leaders must develop

specialized relationships with each of their followers instead of treating all their followers the

same way. The LMX Theory identified two categories of followers: in-group and out-group.

The in-group followers received preferential treatment from the leader such as

receiving privileged information, highly sought after resources, and mentoring.

Out-group followers received support from their leader, but were not treated as well as

in-group followers. Therefore, the in-group followers enjoyed higher-quality

relationships with their leader then do out-group followers. Followers must

demonstrate their competence and loyalty (commitment) to their leader in order to

become in-group followers.48

Authentic Leadership Theory

Recent increases in corporate lies, corruption, and other dishonorable behaviors sparked a

demand for a more ethical approach to leadership. In 2005, Avolio and Gardner published

their work on Authentic Leadership Theory. This theory argues that effective leaders are true

to themselves and others, have positive psychological states, and adhere to strong morals and

values. The theory of authentic leadership is not new. In fact, it can be traced back some

2,400 years to ideas pondered by Socrates, an ancient Greek philosopher. His thoughts

inspired Shakespeare to include the statement,

“This above all: To thine own self be true, and it must follow, as the night the day.

Thou canst not then be false to any man.”

Authentic leaders must first understand where they came from, their life experiences, their

strengths, and how they behave toward others. This self-knowledge determines how they can

invest in and contribute to the development of self and others.


One’s positive psychological capital (a psychological state consisting of confidence, hope,

optimism, and resilience) coupled with a positive organizational vision, strategy, and culture

can produce a framework allowing the leader to respond favorably to events that can trigger

positive self-development.

Through increased self-awareness and self-regulated behavior, one becomes an authentic

leader.49

FRLD is not just another theory that was “pulled from a hat.” Theory and research on FRLD

is connected to and built upon a long and interesting history. For centuries, man has

considered the concept of leadership. But it was not until the 20th

century that the disciplines

of political science, psychology, sociology, history, anthropology, and management converged

to make major contributions toward our understanding of leadership. So how does FRLD

relate to the historical leadership theories that we’ve just reviewed. We should consider a

historical theory to be a useful tool that explains how and why things happen, rather than an

abstract and useless idea. Each of these historical theories had distinct advantages and

disadvantages which provided the foundation on which the FRLD model evolved (i.e. each of

them may be a useful tool at the appropriate time).

Effective leaders vary in the extent to which they display a repertoire of leadership behaviors,

ranging from active and more effective leadership to passive and less effective leadership. To

fully develop the potential of subordinates who can achieve extraordinary levels of success

requires an understanding of a full range of leadership behaviors suitable for today’s complex

world…thus FRLD was born.


Progress Check

1. The _________________Leadership Theory considers one’s ability to complete a specific

task and the use of four leadership styles to aid in his or her development.

2. The _________________ Leadership Theory states that a person’s ability to lead depends

on his or her intellect, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and social skills.

3. The _________________ Leadership Theory focuses on the argument that a person’s ability

to lead depends on his or her emotional intelligence, awareness, and control.

4. The _________________ Leadership Theory believes that pairing a leader to a specific

situation is the most effective method because leaders cannot adjust their behaviors.

5. The __________________ theory emphasizes that leaders must develop specialized

relationships with each of their followers instead of treating all their followers the same way.


Why Full Range Leadership Development (FRLD)?

The many dramatic changes and challenges we face today such as shifting demographics,

workforce diversity, international relations, geographic political power, innovations in

technology, threats to the environment, economic (global and national), and collaborative

business practices calls for a more proactive leader who motivates employees to perform

beyond expectations. Full Range Leadership Model is a leadership training system that

suggests leaders perform throughout a gamut of leadership behaviors ranging from active and

effective behavior to a more passive and less effective behavior. A full range of leadership

behaviors is essential in today’s complex world.

The Leadership System

FRLD is unique in that it requires us to view leadership as a system. Its success relies not only

on the leader’s actions but also the follower and the situation. Together, these three elements

working in concert with one another, like gears in a mechanical system, creating the core of

the leadership system (see graphic above). These three elements affect each other differently

and in different ways. What’s more, this core is surrounded by less-obvious components like

resources, peers and associates, evaluations, rewards and punishments, developmental

relationships, opportunities, and challenges which affect the three elements of the core.

Holistically, everything (the core elements and the other components) are susceptible to

change over time and are limited by existing boundaries and constraints.50

Leader

A leader is someone who influences others to achieve a goal. They are typical men and

women who, though not perfect, strive to display ethical behavior, virtues, and character

strengths in their actions as they battle their own vices and idiosyncrasies. They possess

certain personality traits like confidence and extraversion as well as a personal set of values,

beliefs, and ideas regarding how things are and how they should be.51


Follower

A follower is someone who chooses to follow a leader because of the leader’s character,

abilities, and vision. Like leaders, followers are not perfect and are usually not selected by the

leaders, but are inherited based on the situation. Encourage subordinates to be outstanding

followers and aspiring future leaders. Great followers possess a love of learning and a passion

to apply what they have learned. They are motivated, creative, and possess a high level of

commitment to each other, the leader, and the organization.

Situation

There are many ways to describe a situation. Merriam-Webster describes situation as a

“relative position or combination of circumstances at a certain moment” or a “critical, trying,

or unusual state of affairs.”52

According to FRLD principles, a situation describes the relative

circumstances, position, or context that surrounds the leaders and followers. From a historical

standpoint, social culture, world events, and the ways we thought in particular time influence

the situation. For example, consider American society during World War II and the 1940s.

Whether at home or abroad, every American felt they played an important part in the outcome

of the war. The US Government promoted rationing of food, clothing, fuel, and services and

concentrated on mass military recruitment, homeland defense, and air raid and invasion

response procedures. Military and civilians worldwide witnessed death and were vulnerable to

enemy propaganda that foretold a horrific future. All this influenced situations and leadership

actions throughout this time period.

In the 1960s and early 1970s, our nation experienced “Beatle mania” and dealt with

discrimination, drugs, the Vietnam War, and the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.

These significant events shaped the way people and leadership thought and acted which was

significantly different then the 1940s.

Today, America and its military face economic crisis with budget cuts and increased

unemployment and fuel prices as businesses compete fiercely for revenue and resources.

Terrorism, military manning reductions, environmental issues, and the search for an alternative

fuel are just a few of the many issues we face today which demand leaders who possess a full

range of leadership to navigate through these challenging times. Therefore, followers seek

dynamic and versatile leaders who can save them from difficult and complex situations like

these. Today, followers need full range leaders.

To help further clarify how a leader’s effectiveness is the result of the leader, follower and the

situation, consider the following analogy:

To form a tornado, warm moist air (leader) shoots upward where it meets colder, dryer air

(follower). The warm air is lighter than the cooler, air creating a strong updraft within a

thunderstorm environment (situation). As the warm moist air rises, it may meet varying wind

directions at different altitudes (both less-obvious components). If these varying winds are

staggered in just the right manner with sufficient speed (another less-obvious component), they

will act on the upward rising air, spinning it like a top. The storm will begin to show visible

rotation, often forming a wall cloud.


However, inside the storm these spinning winds can begin to form a tornado.53

To be full

range leaders, you must demonstrate the right behaviors and understand how and why these

behaviors influence others.

In the FRLD Process Model (see below), notice how the personal attributes of the leader and

follower, their relationship, and the use of the FRLD behaviors (passive, transactional, and

transformational) result in an array of follower responses based on the FRLD behavior used.

Transformational leadership (the most effective) generates the most significant outcomes that

begin with the follower themselves to include: empowerment, extra effort, increased

satisfaction with leader, more creativity, reduced stress, improved performance that lead to

promotions. FRLD improves leadership effectiveness by applying the right leadership

behavior to a particular follower and situation that produces the greatest outcomes.

FLRD Process Model

To summarize, FRLD, like other complex systems, is comprised of several parts that are

interdependent of one another. Throughout this system, energy (effort and motivation),

resources, and information “flows” exist between the components. The amounts of these

flows depend on the leader behaviors, follower actions, and the situation, which can either

contribute or detract from the system’s performance. FRLD requires today’s leaders to

consider all the components of the leadership system and be willing to work with all the other

components like:


Developing relationships with leadership, peers, and subordinates,

Taking advantage of opportunities as they come available,

Efficiently using available resources,

Properly evaluating situations and the performance of followers,

Rewarding appropriately (and disciplining accordingly), and

Identifying areas in yourself, your followers, and the work place to improve.

FRLD Leadership Behaviors

Passive Leadership Behaviors

Laissez-Faire

Those who exercise laissez-faire leadership view the development of their subordinates as

someone else’s problem and demonstrate laziness. They abandon or pass on their

responsibilities, fail to respond urgently to critical situations, remain indifferent toward

important issues, and are hesitant to make decisions or deal with chronic problems. Since

these leaders are usually absent from their duties and place of work, relationships with

subordinates suffers. Subordinates are less likely to consider those who use this laissez-faire

The Four I’s

Contingent

Rewards

Management by

Exception

(Active)

Management by

Exception

(Passive)

Laissez-Faire

Effective

Ineffective

Passive Active


behavior as their leader. You could say that this behavior of leadership is missing something:

the leadership.

Management by Exception-Passive (MBE-P)

MBE-P is the “if it isn’t broke, don’t fix it” leadership approach. MBE-P is where one elects

to sit back and wait for things to go wrong before taking action and intervenes only if

standards are not being met based on in-place control measures and standards. With that in

mind, MBE-P is considered a little more effective then the laissez-faire behavior since

subordinates know that leadership will hold them accountable if they fail to meet standards of

performance or comply with policies and procedures. As a result, followers will pay close

attention to what is important to leadership. However, followers tend to not trust those who do

not take a more active leadership approach and will demonstrate little commitment to this

person and the organization. Basically, the passive leadership behavior produces passive

employee compliance. Subordinates usually react to a leader’s passive behavior with two

typical responses: social loafing and free riding.

Social Loafing: occurs when group members put less effort in their collective work

than when they work alone. They are able to hide their inactivity in the group since

there are no mechanisms to keep them individually accountable for their performance.

Since passive leaders model loafing, followers typically feel justified in their own

laziness.

Free Riding: this can occur when group members pick up the lazy leader’s slack. The

free-riding leader will then unfairly reap the rewards earned by the rest of the group as

he or she dumps their responsibilities on the followers, catching a free ride to a desired

outcome. 54

Transactional Leadership Behaviors

Management by Exception-Active (MBE-A)

This leadership behavior keeps people and processes in control, monitoring and controlling

followers through forced compliance with rules, regulations, and expectations for meeting

performance standards and behavioral norms. MBE-A exists in structured system with

detailed instructions, careful observation, and active supervision.

Effectively using MBE-A reduces organizational uncertainties, avoids unnecessary risks, and

ensures important goals are being achieved. It also reduces the temptation for employees to

shirk their duties or act unethically and aids members in meeting defined performance

objectives. When used occasionally or in critical (life and death) situations, MBE-A is

appropriate. Followers even appreciate the MBE-A leadership behavior as it reduces

followers’ uncertainties regarding their purpose.

Though MBE-A may seem like it is not the most effective way to lead people (sounds more

like managing), it can be quite effective in a number of situations. When working in

dangerous or critical career fields, MBE-A is essential in ensuring obedience to rules and


regulations that maintain safety standards, organizational and environmental compliance, and

duty performance. It also plays an important role in providing unfailing support and services

that customers are dependent upon.

As explained later in Intellectual Stimulation, MBE-A also uses rational decision-making and

an active approach to solve problems. However, once a problem has been identified, consider

using collaboration by getting subordinates involved in devising solutions instead of

commanding them into a pre-determined action. A successful leader who involves their

followers in the decision-making process can improve employee engagement, commitment,

and attitude toward their organization as well as enhance their personal development.55

Contingent Reward

Transactional Leadership and Contingent Reward involve the constructive transaction

between the leader and the follower. These transactions formulate a sort of “contract” where

the leader sets goals, identifies ways for the subordinate to reach these goals, and supports the

follower in meeting these expectations. The follower is required to perform assigned tasks to a

specified performance level. When the follower fulfills the leader’s expectations, a reward is

provided to reinforce the demonstrated positive behavior.56

For example, Transactional Leadership can have a major impact on parenting, considered one

of the noblest forms of leadership. Children (followers) are motivated by a variety of rewards

like affection, attention, allowance, ice cream-even stickers! They will exhibit behaviors

desired by their parents (or leaders) like cleaning their rooms, acting appropriately in public,

and performing well in school. However, when their actions do not meet the expectations set

by the parents, punishment is used to curb those negative behaviors and rehabilitate the child’s

behavioral, and developmental, performance.

Rewards should be given to staff members when they earn them--that's the principle of

contingent rewards. It has been said, “Fat, happy rats don't run mazes.” B. F. Skinner

realized this since he had no success with lab rats running mazes by stuffing them with cheese

beforehand. A fundamental principle of motivation is to use rewards to reinforce desired

behaviors if they occur. When they don't occur (i.e., performance is poor), withhold the

rewards.57

Take a few moments to further examine the concept of motivation.

Motivational Theories

Motivation is a word used to refer to the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular

behavior, especially human behavior. These reasons may include basic needs such as food or

a desired object, hobbies, goal, state of being, or ideal. The motivation for a behavior may also

be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism or morality. According to Geen,58

motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of human behavior.

Motivation refers to the reason(s) for engaging in a particular behavior, especially human

behavior influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, etc. These reasons may include

things we need (food, job, etc.) and/or things we want (new car, hobbies, etc.). They may also

be more complex reasons such as morality, concern for others, or our own state of being.

According to Geen, motivation refers to the [level of] initiation, direction, intensity, and/or

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Culture

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Emotion

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)


persistence by which we engage in human behavior.

There are many motivational theories:

Drive Reduction Theories (Hull)

Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger)

Need Achievement Theory

(McClelland)

Interests Theory (Holland)

Need Hierarchy Theory (Maslow)

Two-factor theory (Herzberg)

Existence, Relatedness & Growth

(ERG) theory (Alderfer’s)

Self-determination theory (Deci and

Ryan)

Goal-setting theory (Locke)

Unconscious motivation (Freud)

Some of these theories use the term ‘intrinsic’ motivation, others use the term ‘extrinsic’

motivation, and some use both terms. (Some of these theories label motivation in two

categories: Intrinsic and Extrinsic.

Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an

outcome. It initiates from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are

rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the

threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator

because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others. A cheering crowd and

the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic motivators.

Educational psychologists have studied intrinsic motivation (motivation that initiates from

inside an individual) since the 1970s, but there is currently no universal theory to explain the

origin or elements of intrinsic motivation. Though it is thought that people are more likely to

be intrinsically motivated if they:

Attribute their results (work, family, education, etc.) to internal factors that they can

control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in),

Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not

determined by luck or chance),

Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just memorizing it in order to achieve

good grades or get recognition.

According to Steven Reiss (2009), emeritus professor of psychology and psychiatry at the

Ohio State University, human individuality may be too diverse to be described adequately in

terms of categories such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Reiss also states that theories

supporting intrinsic-extrinsic motivation cannot be validly defined because human motives do

not divide into just two kinds so easily (para. 3). Current research on intrinsic motivation

describes it as being more multifaceted (i.e. made up of 16 basic desires - see table on next

page). Dr. Reiss59 calls this the Theory of 16 Basic Desires or Sensitivity Theory (p. 7).


Motive Name Motive Animal Behavior Intrinsic Feeling

Curiosity

1. Desire to influence

(including leadership;

related to mastery)

Dominant animal eats more food Efficacy

2. Desire for knowledge Animal learns to find food more

efficiently and learns to avoid prey Wonder

Independence 3. Desire to be

autonomous Motivates animal to leave nest,

searching for food over larger area Freedom

Status 4. Desire for social

standing (including

desire for attention)

Attention in nest leads to better

feedings Self-importance

Social contact 5. Desire for peer

companionship (desire

to play)

Safety in numbers for animals in wild Fun

Vengeance

6. Desire to get even

(including desire to

compete, to win)

Animal fights when threatened Vindication

7. Desire to obey a

traditional moral code Animal runs back to herd when

stared at by prey Loyalty

Idealism 8. Desire to improve

society (including

altruism, justice)

Unclear: Do animals show true

altruism? Compassion

Physical Exercise 9. Desire to exercise

muscles Strong animals eat more and are less

vulnerable to prey Vitality

Romance 10. Desire for sex

(including courting) Reproduction essential for species

survival Lust

Family

11. Desire to raise own

children Protection of young facilitates

survival Love

12. Desire to organize

(including desire for

ritual)

Cleanliness rituals promote health Stability

13. Desire to eat Nutrition essential for survival Satiation (avoidance

of hunger)

Acceptance 14. Desire for approval

Unclear: animal self-concept?

Self-confidence

Tranquility 15. Desire to avoid

anxiety, fear Animal runs away from danger Safe, relaxed

Saving 16. Desire to collect, value

of frugality Animal hoards food and other

materials Ownership

16 Basic Desires


Dr. Reiss goes on to say:

All 16 basic motives have been validated against criterion behavior outside laboratories

and experiments (see Havercamp & Reiss, 2003). Concurrent validity and social

desirability studies also support the multifaceted model. The sensitivity model holds

that 16 genetically distinct desires combine to determine many psychologically

significant motives. The model supports numerous predictions about behavior and

provides standardized measures (such as the Reiss Profile self-report version) needed

to test the validity of the predictions (p. 191).

As a leader, it is important know about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and to know that at

least 10 theories try explain both concepts. However, it is more important to recognize that

“motivation” is more complicated than simply categorizing it as intrinsic or extrinsic. It

should be obvious from looking at Table 1, that many things play a role in determining

motivation and that, as Dr. Reiss points out, “Even though external factors have influence, the

motivation for our actions, decisions, and behaviors comes from within us.” Understanding

this concept is the key to your ability to apply Full Range Leadership most effectively.

The next few paragraphs expand on a few of the motivational theories referenced earlier.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant Conditioning Model

Renowned behaviorist, B.F. Skinner, believed that one’s internal thoughts and motivations

could not be validated to explain their behavior. Rather, he suggested that only external

(extrinsic), observable influences lead to one’s behavior. Therefore, Skinner developed a

theory that considers a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for

behavior. Operant conditioning associates a specific behavior and a consequence for that

behavior. Skinner coined the term operant that refers to any "active behavior that operates

upon the environment to generate consequences" (1953).60


Reinforcement

Reinforcement rewards a specific behavior and increases the likelihood the behavior will

continue. There are two types of reinforcement:

Positive Reinforcement involves favorable actions, results, or outcomes that a leader

presents to a follower after the follower demonstrates a desired behavior. In other

words, adding something the follower thinks is good in order to ‘reinforce’ a desired

behavior. Examples of positive reinforcement include public recognition, praise, or

awards.

Negative Reinforcement includes the removal of unpleasant, unfavorable actions or

events the follower is currently experiencing that occurs after they have displayed a

desirable behavior, or taking something away that the follower thinks is ‘bad’ in order

to ‘reinforce’ a behavior. Examples of this include removing member’s unfavorable

information file (UIF) and removing restrictions placed on a member.

Punishment

Punishment is where the leader presents an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in

undesirable behavior. There are two kinds of punishment:

Positive punishment occurs when the leader applies or presents an unfavorable action

or result to a follower who has demonstrated an undesirable behavior…adding

something to stop a behavior from occurring. Examples of positive punishment

include applying restrictions to a member, issuing a UIF, and implementing additional

duties.

Negative punishment occurs when a leader removes something valued by the follower

after they have demonstrated an undesirable or unacceptable behavior...taking

something away to stop a behavior from occurring. Examples of this include taking or

withholding a member’s freedoms and liberties, revoking a promotion, and taking

away one’s position and/or responsibilities.

McClelland’s Need Theory

This theory argues that for a reward to be appropriate, accepted, and effective; it must fulfill a

member’s needs. David McClelland, a well-known psychologist, has been studying the

relationship between needs and behavior since the late 1940s. Based on his theory, there are

three primary needs a person must satisfy to be motivated:

The need for achievement is a desire where one accomplishes something difficult or

masters particular objects, ideas, or tasks independently or with little help. The Army

considered this need with their slogan “Be All You Can Be.”


People with a high need for affiliation prefer to spend more time maintaining social

relationships and wanting to be accepted and cared for. Being part of a prominent or

successful organization is another example of the need for affiliation. This need is the

focal point for various organizations like the Marine Corps’ “The Few, The Proud, the

Marines.”

The need for power reflects an individual’s desire to influence, coach, teach, or

encourage others to achieve. People with this need prefer to work and consider

discipline and self-respect as priorities.61 People who are motivated by power prefer

positions where they can influence outcomes. For instance, corporate leaders pursue

upper-echelon positions within their organizations to control the direction in which

their business is going.

Contemporary Motivation

In the Leader Influence chapter you will learn more about contemporary motivation, which

categorizes a member’s commitment to the organization into three levels: membership (lowest

level), performance (moderate level), and involvement (highest level). You may remember

that intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external) motivation play a key role in one’s commitment

level.

Four Leadership Behaviors

With an understanding of transactional leadership, contingent reward, intrinsic and extrinsic

motivators, and contemporary motivation, let’s look at four leadership behaviors that allow

System Level

Rewards

Supervisory

Rewards Personal Rewards


supervisors to establish a constructive transaction with followers.

1. Setting Goals For and With Followers. Setting goals directs your followers’

attention to what needs to be achieved. Goals motivate followers by increasing their

persistence and persuades them to strategize ways to best achieve the objective or

develop action plans to meet their target.62

2. Suggest Pathways to Meet Performance Expectations. Aside from setting goals,

followers often need ideas on how to attain these goals. Here the leader can assist by

clarifying expectations and suggesting ways to accomplish the task(s). By offering

ways to achieve their goals and providing the necessary resources to do so, leaders are

able to provide a well-defined pathway allowing followers to reach desired

performance expectations.

3. Actively Monitor Followers’ Progress and Provide Supportive Feedback. Like

parenting, leaders must proactively monitor each follower’s progress and provide

resources that empower them physically, psychologically, and intellectually.

Supporting your followers is imperative to their success.

4. Provide Rewards when Goals are Attained. One’s successes need to be rewarded

which become “stepping stones” to a stronger self-image and greater achievements.

Providing extrinsic rewards and recognition for meeting performance expectations and

achieving goals is the hallmark of contingent reward leadership.63

Transformational Leadership

Do you have, or have had, a transformational leader in your life? One who helped you

recognize the greatness that grows within you? Who has encouraged you to become who you

are today? Who was it that transformed you into your best possible self?

The extent to which a leader is considered transformational is based on his or her ability to

influence and “transform” others. The followers of transformational leaders exhibit greater

trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect toward the leader and are willing to work harder for

them. This occurs because the transformational leader offers followers a vision and inspires

them to complete their mission. Transformational leadership is the most active and effective

form or leadership where leaders promote positive and meaningful changes in people, teams,

organizations, nations, and even societies, motivating their followers and developing them

with individual consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized

influence.

Individualized Consideration (Caring)

A transformational leader’s ultimate aim is to develop followers into leaders themselves.

Individualized Consideration is where leaders treat others as individuals with different needs,

abilities, and aspirations and not just a part of a group of subordinates.64

Transformational

leaders act as mentors or coaches to followers, listening to their concerns. The leader


empathizes and supports each follower and keeps channels of communication open.

Intellectual Stimulation (Thinking).

This is the degree a leader values their subordinates’ rationality and intellect, seeking different

perspectives and considering opposing points of view. Transformational leaders consider

learning a value and unexpected situations as opportunities to learn and grow by stimulating

and encouraging creativity in their followers.

They advocate rational thinking and use systematic analysis as a means to creatively solve

problems and innovation. They are not afraid to takes risks and solicit ideas from their

followers. This nurtures and develops subordinates and encourages independent thinking.

Inspirational Motivation (Charming)

This leader behavior involves developing and articulating visions that paint an optimistic and

enthusiastic picture of the future that is appealing and inspiring to followers. The status quo is

unacceptable to transformational leaders who present their vision as the “must achieve future.

These visions elevate performance expectations and inspire followers to put forth extra effort

to achieve the leader’s vision. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose. It is this

purpose that provides the energy that drives a person, team, and/or organization forward. The

leader must possess expert communication skills that enable the leader to present the vision in

an understandable, precise, powerful, and engaging manner.

Idealized Influence (Influencing)

Otherwise known as charisma, transformational leaders often display high levels of moral

behavior, virtues, and character strengths, as well as a strong work ethic. They also represent

the organizational values, beliefs, purpose in words and actions and champion trusting one

another. Transformational leaders also set aside their self-interests for the good of the group.


Progress Check

Match the concepts with their respective definitions by writing the letter of the definition in the

blanks provided for each concept.

CONCEPTs DEFINITION

6. __Trait Theory A. It emphasized that leaders must develop

specialized, individual relationships with their

followers.

7. __ Psychodynamic Theory B. This concentrates on two types of

leadership: task- or production and people- or

relationship-oriented leadership.

8. __ Skills Theory C. States one’s leadership effectiveness is

based on their intelligence, self-confidence,

and integrity.

9. __ Style Theory D. Focuses on leaders who are emotionally

intelligent and can solve problems

successfully.

10. __ Situational Leadership Theory E. Behavior where leaders hold followers

accountable when standards are not met or

when things go wrong.

11. __ Contingency Theory F. States effective leaders are true to

themselves and others and adhere to strong

morals and values.

12. __ Path-Goal Theory G. Followers appreciate this behavior as it

reduces uncertainties regarding their purpose.

13. __ Leadership-Member Exchange

Theory

H. Identifies four styles a leader uses that are

based on the subordinate’s development level

and the situation (task) at hand.

14. __ Authentic Leadership Theory I. This argues that followers and leaders are

drawn to their roles, and achieve success in

those roles by virtue of personality types.

15. __ Full Range Leadership Development J. This theory views leaders as trailblazers,

creating conditions for subordinate success.

16. __Laissez-Faire K. Leadership training system that suggests

leaders perform throughout a gamut of active

and passive leadership behaviors.


17. __ Management by Exception-Passive L. States that leaders are moved into and out

of various situations based on the leader-

follower relationship, the leader’s position

power, and the task structure.

18. __ Management by Exception-Active M. Leaders who are usually absent from their

duties, considered lazy, and have poor

relationships with their subordinates.

19. __ Transactional Leadership N. Theory that considers a method of

learning that occurs through rewards and

punishments for behavior.

20. __ Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Theory

O. This is the most active and effective form

or leadership behavior.

21. __ McClelland’s Needs Theory P. Refers to the performance of an activity in

order to attain an outcome..

22. __ Transformational Leadership Q. Refers to results (work, family, education,

etc.) to internal factors that can be controlled

(e.g. the amount of effort put in)

23. __ Intrinsic Motivation R. Leadership behavior where a reward is

provided for positive behavior

24. __ Extrinsic Motivation S. Theory that identifies three essential

requirements a person must satisfy to be

motivated.

25. __ Transformational Leadership T. Where leaders promote positive and

meaningful changes in followers by acting as

a coach and a mentor.


SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: Considering the material provided in this chapter

about Full Range Leadership Development, how will you use this information to enhance

your effectiveness as a leader?


Right to Lead Model

When was the last time you thought deeply about your own leadership; the process, the

product, the results, and the connection that you have with other people? Have you ever asked

yourself the question, "What gives me the right to lead?" Although straight-forward on the

surface, discerning a meaningful answer is not as easy as it might appear. Great leaders never

stop learning; reflection and self-awareness support continued growth and maturity, not only

as a leader, but also as a person.

The purpose of this primer is to provide a structured approach to the process of self-reflection

and, ultimately, self-assessment. Furthermore, using a systematic method to think about your

own leadership heightens self-awareness; self-aware leaders are better leaders.

The Right to Lead Assessment Model (RLAM), above, is one way of taking stock of your own

leadership and it is a useful framework to consider leadership in general. The model is

read bottom to top. The elements of competence and personality tend to be interactive and

might be emphasized to meet specific challenges. For instance, personality might take on

greater importance if morale is low, or you replace a toxic leader.


Competence might be emphasized to a greater degree if the unit is not trained to standard.

Character is usually constant, but not always. Leaders can and do act out of character.

As you study the RLAM, take time to reflect upon all elements in the model. Remember, no

one is questioning your right to lead; the goal is to help you become more self- aware.

The following paragraphs provide a detailed discussion of each component in the model:

Authority: What you are allowed to do

Your authority flows from the constitution, the congress, and powers vested in you by the

President, as Commander-in-Chief. These powers allow you to accomplish specific missions,

and to maintain good order and discipline. Constitutional and legislative authorities, such as

Title 10 of the US Code, codify in greater detail what you are allowed to do, as well

as, what you are prohibited or restricted from doing. Moreover, the lineage of your

authority is as old as the republic itself.

Authority, based on rank, position, and duty is ever present, the trick is to understand the

limits of your authority and to never abuse the authorities vested in you by our nation

and your superiors. Keep in mind, the most powerful authority a leader can possess is granted

by those being led--trust.

Obligations and Requirements: What you must do

Leaders incur obligations and assume responsibility for requirements through a variety of

means. Although easily conflated, requirements and obligations are not necessarily the same

thing.

Military leaders first incur a personal obligation by taking the oath of office or enlistment.

Furthermore, officers also accept the terms of a commission. Whereas leaders accept

obligations knowingly and freely, most requirements are imposed upon leaders. Regulations,

operating instructions, policies, orders, and position descriptions define many, if not most,

activities that leaders must accomplish.

Obligations and requirements are related, sometimes even overlapping; they are, however, not

the same thing. Leaders obligate themselves to a higher purpose for the privilege of leading

others; whereas, requirements are imposed, varied, sometimes onerous, often routine, but

never optional.

Competence: What you are capable of doing

At first glance, the topic of a leader's competence seems straight forward. Upon deeper

examination, however, it is not easy to state with certitude exactly what comprises

competence. People tend to have their own ideas and perspective as to what competence is

and what it looks like. To add to the challenge, the words "competence" and "competency" are

often used interchangeably--is there a difference?


Think of "competence" as the actual state (level) of skills and abilities you possess; whereas,

"competency" includes the specific skills and abilities required by a particular job or position.65

In other words, competence is the current state of your ability, what you are able to do;

competency is what is demanded of you by a position, duty, or situation. When what is

required (competency) is greater than your present abilities or skills (competence) you must

either develop the required skills or risk failure. It is not necessarily a bad thing to be in a

position where the skill required is greater than your current abilities; this is the very essence

of being "stretched" as a leader in order to grow and develop.

Character: What you will do?

The topic (and sometimes the issue) of character is significant to the discussion of what gives

you the right to lead. There are many definitions of character; some have a psychological

feature to them, others lean more heavily on moral or legal considerations. One can think of

character as a balance sheet, one that takes into account the positive and negative aspects of

who you are as a person, and a leader. Since everyone has character, the balance sheet

analogy is useful; people either possess positive (good) or negative (poor) overall character.

One definition that I keep coming back to, however, is one from the United States Air Force

Academy as stated in a 1996 (summer) article in Airpower Journal by Major Brian Hall and

Colonel David Wagie; these authors define character as:

“…the sum of those qualities of moral excellence that stimulates a person [leader] to

do the right thing, which is manifested through right and proper actions despite

internal or external pressures to the contrary”

Character, to a large extent, is determined by the decisions, choices you make, and action you

take. Maintaining strong character takes work, commitment and, sometimes, even sacrifice.

Personality: How you do what you do

Your personality is developed and defined by your DNA, environment, and experiences.

Personality is a leader’s delivery system; personality is the filter through which all talent,

qualities, and skills must pass in order to be delivered. Regardless of your competence or

character, you will not achieve your full potential as a leader if people do not want to be

around you.

Personality for the purpose of this primer can also be thought of as emotional maturity

or emotional intelligence. Daniel Goleman, who pioneered the term “emotional maturity,” attributed four competencies

66 (Goleman’s term) to a balanced and mature personality:

Self-awareness: the extent to which a leader has a realistic understanding of their

own being.

Self-management: the ability to control one’s emotions and actions.


Social-Awareness: the level at which a leader understands the value of

relationships and other people.

Relationship-management: the ability to establish a meaningful connection and

bond to others.67

A leader’s personality goes a long way in determining a personal milieu68

, (the physical and

emotional space surrounding the leader). A toxic personality, or more appropriately, a poor

delivery system, supersedes competence, character, and other positive qualities; therefore,

negatively affecting how the leader is perceived and often reducing the leader’s overall

effectiveness. You can’t lead if you can’t connect.

Relevance: The difference that you make

Relevance resides at the apex of the RLAM. A leader’s relevance is directly proportional to

the cumulative effect of all the other elements in the model: authority, obligations and

requirements, competence, character, and personality. Relevance is both an outcome and an

act, the act of being relevant.

Relevance occurs when all the elements of the RLAM are brought to bear in a manner that is

appropriate to the organization, environment, and people. The paragraphs below relate how

the concept of relevance applies to each of these areas:

Organizational-relevance: Every unit, business, or organization takes on a personality,

temperament, and culture. A leader is relevant when he or she understands the

organization, meets the needs of the organization or, when required, intentionally

changes the organization's culture. Some leaders, unfortunately, are overly rigid in

their approach, thinking that the organization must adapt to their needs, when in fact,

give-and-take is usually the best approach. If a leader is not able to fit within the

culture of the organization, or does not meet the needs of the organization, that leader

may become irrelevant.

Environmental-relevance: Environmental relevance is more encompassing than

organizational relevance; senior leaders’ have areas of interest that are typically much

larger than just the organization to which they belong. To be relevant a leader must

possess the ability to build bridges, represent their organization, and operate within the

interest of adjacent, higher, and lower organizations.

People-relevance: Good leaders make a positive difference in the lives of followers.

To be relevant, a senior leader must care for, encourage, coach, guide, develop, and

mentor both followers and other leaders.


Trust: The strength of the bond between you and those you lead

The author Stephen M. R. Covey argues that we lead at the Speed of Trust.69

The element of

trust is indicated as an arrow, or spectrum, on the right side of the RLAM. The idea, concept,

or element of trust is unique in that it is: essential for leadership to exist, it is hard to measure,

it takes time to establish, and is extremely fragile. Trust is both a byproduct of leadership and

an enabler for leadership.

The three levels of trust reflected in the RLAM are: respect, confidence and commitment.

Respect: Your rank, position and experience provide the basis for respect.

Hopefully, over time respect is given because of who you are, and not just rendered

solely due to the rank that you wear.

Confidence: Your followers will listen to what you say, but more importantly, they

will watch what you do. What you do, the decisions that you make, how you interact

with people, and your demonstrated level of competence, when properly executed, will

instill confidence in those you lead.

Commitment: If you make a positive impact difference in the lives of your people and

on your organization, then people will commit to you and your efforts. They will

“buy-into” your vision. People will commit to a leader who is relevant.

Progress Check

26. Your __________ flows from the constitution, the congress, and powers vested in you by

the President, as Commander-in-Chief.

27. ________ obligate themselves to a higher purpose for the privilege of leading others;

whereas, ____________requirements are imposed, varied, sometimes onerous, often routine,

but never optional.

28. ____________ is the current state of your ability, what you are able to do; competency is

what is demanded of you by a position, duty, or situation.

29. _____________Character, to a large extent, is determined by the decisions, choices you

make, and action you take.

30. _____________ is a leader’s delivery system; personality is the filter through which all

talent, qualities, and skills must pass in order to be delivered.

31. ______________ occurs when all the elements of the RLAM are brought to bear in a

manner that is appropriate to the organization, environment, and people.

32. _______ is both a byproduct of leadership and an enabler for leadership.



This chapter began by examining the evolution of leadership study and the many theories

developed to answer the million-dollar question: What is leadership? The reading continued

with a study of several motivational concepts and theories that able us to motivate others. All

this led to the creation of Full Range Leadership Development (FRLD) and why it is so

important for today’s leaders to operate from a full range of leadership styles instead of just

one and the four components that make up FRLD. The RLAM provided a framework to help

you answer the question “what gives me the right to lead?” Self-assessment, however, is only

useful is it leads to self- improvement. Please remember that your right to lead must be re-

earned daily, one person at a time.

As noncommissioned officers and enlisted leaders, we are responsible for providing our

Airmen the leadership and encouragement they need to successfully meet and complete the

mission. Full Range Leadership Development is the latest in leadership theory that explains

various active and passive leader behaviors that, depending on the leader, follower, and

situation; can help change, or transform, each Airman into becoming their best possible self.


Key Terms

Authentic Leadership Theory, 196

Contemporary Motivation, 209

Contingent Reward, 204

Contingency Theory, 195

Extrinsic Motivation, 205

Full Range Leadership Process Model, 201

Idealized Influence, 211

Individualized Consideration, 210

Inspirational Motivation, 211

Intellectual Stimulation, 211

Intrinsic Motivation, 205

Laissez-Faire, 202

Leadership-Member Exchange Theory, 196

Management by Exception-Active, 203

Management by Exception-Passive, 203

Need Theory, 208

Negative Punishment, 208

Negative Reinforcement, 208

Operant Conditioning Theory, 207

Path-Goal Theory, 196

Positive Punishment, 208

Positive Reinforcement, 208

Psychodynamic Theory, 193

Situational Leadership Theory, 194

Skills Theory, 193

Style Theory, 194

Trait Theory, 193

Transactional Leadership, 203

Transformational Leadership, 210

References

BusinessDictionary.com website. Management by Exception (MBE)

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/management-by-exception-MBE.html

(accessed 17 Jun 11).

Cherry, Kendra. Psychology: Introduction to Operant Conditioning.

http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htm (accessed 23 Jun

11).

Jung, Don I. and Sosik, John J. The Full Range Leadership Development: Pathways for

People, Profit, and Planet. Taylor & Francis Group, New York and London (2010).

Kinicki-Kreitner. Organizational Behavior: Key Concepts, Skills and Best Practices, Fourth

Edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies (2009).

Management Study Guide website. Fiedler’s Contingency Model.

http://www.managementstudyguide.com/fiedlers-contingency-model.htm (accessed 29 Jun

11).

Merriam-Webster website. “Situation.” http://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/situation?show=0&t=1308773258 (accessed 22 Jun 11).

Stafford, Mathew C., The Full Range Leadership Model: A Brief Primer (Air University,

2010).

Tornado Chaser website. Where is Tornado Alley?

http://www.tornadochaser.net/tornado.html (accessed 29 Jun 11).

Wright State University website. Motivating Others Through Goals and Rewards.

http://www.wright.edu/~scott.williams/LeaderLetter/motivating.htm (accessed 17 Jun 11).


Formative Exercise

1. MSgt Miller says, “TSgt Stevenson, I know you have a strong work ethic and you tend to set

aside your self-interests for the good of the group; however, how do you get your team to

perform at such high levels so consistently?” Stevenson replies, “I always provide them with

a clear direction and emphasize that what they are doing is important to the unit and the

mission. I listen to their concerns and I seek and value their input.” Miller says, “Now I

know why they work so hard and always speak highly of you.”

This scenario BEST illustrates _______ and its impact on NCO effectiveness.

a. Management by Exception – Active

b. Transactional Leadership

c. Transformational Leadership

2. TSgt Huff, the academy’s newest instructor, meets with MSgt Perry to begin training. Perry says,

“Sergeant Huff, I have prepared an intensive training process that requires you to teach at least 19

lessons during your first class and all 30 lessons during the following class.” After Huff instructs

each lesson, Perry discusses Huff’s performance and provides advice. At the graduation, Perry

says to Huff, “Congratulations on achieving your goal! For all your hard work, I plan to submit

you for Instructor of the Quarter. In the meantime, prepare to teach those remaining lessons.”

MSgt Perry’s use of _________, will MOST likely ________ SSgt Huff’s effectiveness.

a. Transformational Leadership; enhance

b. Transformational Leadership; hinder

c. Transactional Leadership; enhance

d. Transactional Leadership; hinder



1. The Situational Leadership Theory considers a one’s ability to complete a specific task and

the use of four leadership styles to aid in his or her development.

2. The Trait Leadership Theory states that a person’s ability to lead depends on their intellect,

self-confidence, determination, integrity, and social skills.

3. The Skills Leadership Theory focuses on the argument that a person’s ability to lead

depends on their emotional intelligence, awareness, and control.

4. The Contingency Leadership Theory believes that pairing a leader to a specific situation is

the most effective method because leaders cannot adjust their behaviors.

5. The Leadership-Member Exchange theory emphasizes that leaders must develop

specialized relationships with each of their followers instead of treating all their followers the

same way.

Match the concepts with their respective definitions by writing the letter of the definition in the

blanks provided for each concept.

CONCEPTs DEFINITION

6. _C_ Trait Theory A. It emphasized that leaders must develop

specialized, individual relationships with their

followers.

7. _I_ Psychodynamic Theory B. This concentrates on two types of

leadership: task- or production and people- or

relationship-oriented leadership.

8. _D_ Skills Theory C. States one’s leadership effectiveness is

based on their intelligence, self-confidence,

and integrity.

9. _B_ Style Theory D. Focuses on leaders who are emotionally

intelligent and can solve problems

successfully.

10. _H_ Situational Leadership Theory E. Behavior where leaders hold followers

accountable when standards are not met or

when things go wrong.

11. _L_ Contingency Theory F. States effective leaders are true to

themselves and others and adhere to strong

morals and values.

12. _J_ Path-Goal Theory G. Followers appreciate this behavior as it

reduces uncertainties regarding their purpose.


13. _A_ Leadership-Member Exchange

Theory

H. Identifies four styles a leader uses that are

based on the subordinate’s development level

and the situation (task) at hand.

14. _F_ Authentic Leadership Theory I. This argues that followers and leaders are

drawn to their roles, and achieve success in

those roles by virtue of personality types.

15. _K_ Full Range Leadership

Development

J. This theory views leaders as trailblazers,

creating conditions for subordinate success.

16. _M_ Laissez-Faire K. Leadership training system that suggests

leaders perform throughout a gamut of active

and passive leadership behaviors.

17. _E_ Management by Exception-Passive L. States that leaders are moved into and out

of various situations based on the leader-

follower relationship, the leader’s position

power, and the task structure.

18. _G_ Management by Exception-Active M. Leaders who are usually absent from their

duties, considered lazy, and have poor

relationships with their subordinates.

19. _R_ Transactional Leadership N. Theory that considers a method of

learning that occurs through rewards and

punishments for behavior.

20. _N_ Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Theory

O. This is the most active and effective form

or leadership behavior.

21. _S_ McClelland’s Needs Theory P. Refers to the performance of an activity in

order to attain an outcome..

22. T or O Transformational Leadership Q. Refers to results (work, family, education,

etc.) to internal factors that they can control

(e.g. the amount of effort they put in)

23. _Q_ Intrinsic Motivation R. Leadership behavior where a reward is

provided for positive behavior

24. _P_ Extrinsic Motivation S. Theory that identifies three essential

requirements a person must satisfy to be

motivated.

25. O or T_ Transformational Leadership T. Where leaders promote positive and

meaningful changes in followers by acting as

a coach and a mentor.


26. Your authority flows from the constitution, the congress, and powers vested in you by the

President, as Commander-in-Chief.

27. Leaders obligate themselves to a higher purpose for the privilege of leading others;

whereas, requirements are imposed, varied, sometimes onerous, often routine, but never

optional.

28. Competence is the current state of your ability, what you are able to do; competency is

what is demanded of you by a position, duty, or situation.

29. Character, to a large extent, is determined by the decisions, choices you make, and action

you take.

30. Personality is a leader’s delivery system; it is the filter through which all talent, qualities,

and skills must pass in order to be delivered.

31. Relevance occurs when all the elements of the RLAM are brought to bear in a manner that

is appropriate to the organization, environment, and people.

32. Trust is both a byproduct of leadership and an enabler for leadership.


Formative Exercise Answers

1. CORRECT ANSWER: c

RATIONALE:

a. This answer is incorrect. There is no evidence of Management by Exception – Active

(MBE-A) in the scenario. According to the Full Range Leadership Development

chapter, this leadership behavior keeps people and processes in control, monitoring

and controlling followers through forced compliance with rules, regulations, and

expectations for meeting performance standards and behavioral norms. MBE-A

exists in structured system with detailed instructions, careful observation, and active

supervision. See rationale for correct response for additional information.

b. This answer is incorrect. There is no evidence of Transactional Leadership in the

scenario. According to the Full Range Leadership Development chapter, involve the

constructive transaction between the leader and the follower. These transactions

formulate a sort of “contract” where the leader sets goals, identifies ways for the

subordinate to reach these goals, and supports the follower in meeting these

expectations. The follower is required to perform assigned tasks to a specified

performance level. When the follower fulfills the leader’s expectations, a reward is

provided to reinforce the demonstrated positive behavior. See rationale for correct

response for additional information.

c. This answer is CORRECT. According to the Full Range Leadership

Development chapter, the followers of transformational leaders exhibit greater

trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect toward the leader and are willing to work

harder for them. This occurs because the transformational leader offers

followers a vision (clear direction) and inspires them to complete their mission.

Transformational leadership motivate their followers and developing them with

individual consideration (listen to their concerns), intellectual stimulation (seek

and value their input), inspirational motivation (clear direction and emphasize

that what they are doing is important to the unit and the mission), and idealized

influence (strong work ethic and you set aside your self-interests for the good of

the group).


2. CORRECT ANSWER: c

RATIONALE:

a. This answer is incorrect. There is no evidence of MSgt Perry using Transformational

Leadership, which according to the Full Range Leadership Development chapter is

the most active and effective form or leadership where leaders promote positive and

meaningful changes in people, teams, organizations, nations, and even societies,

motivating their followers and developing them with individual consideration,

intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence. See

rationale for correct response for additional information.

b. This answer is incorrect. There is no evidence of MSgt Perry using Transformational

Leadership. See rationale for ‘a’ and correct response for additional information.

c. This answer is CORRECT. MSgt Perry used Transactional Leadership (with

contingent rewards) which, according to the Full Range Leadership

Development chapter, involves the constructive transaction between the leader

and the follower. These transactions formulate a sort of “contract” where the

leader sets goals, identifies ways for the subordinate to reach these goals, and

supports the follower in meeting these expectations. The follower is required to

perform assigned tasks to a specified performance level. When the follower

fulfills the leader’s expectations, a reward is provided to reinforce the

demonstrated positive behavior which will enhance his effectiveness.

d. This answer is incorrect. MSgt Perry used Transactional Leadership (with contingent

rewards) correctly and will most likely enhance Huff’s effectiveness (not hinder).

See rationale for correct response for additional information.


End Notes

1 General Swartz, Chief of Staff of the Air Force (address, Senior Enlisted Leader Summit 2010,

Maxwell AFB, AL, August 2011). http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123203113

2 Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain.

New York: David McKay Co Inc.

3 Halpern, Diane F. Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking. New

Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996.

4 Paul, Richard Dr. and Elder, Linda Dr., (2008). “The miniature guide to critical thinking:

concepts and tools,” Fifth edition, Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. Available from:

www.criticalthinking.org

5 Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: an introduction to critical thinking (3rd ed.).

Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.

6 Mason, Mark. Critical Thinking and Learning. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. p

4. http://site .ebrary.com/lib/apus/Doc?id=10300958&ppg=16 Copyright © 2009. Wiley-

Blackwell. All rights reserved.

7 Liu, Eric; Noppe-Brandon, Scott. Imagination First : Unlocking the Power of Possibility.

Hoboken, NJ, USA: Jossey-Bass, 2009. p 19.

http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/Doc?id=10342826&ppg=36 Copyright © 2009. Jossey-Bass.

All rights reserved.



http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/Doc?id=10342826&ppg=36 Copyright © 2009.




10 Dundon, Elaine. Seeds of Innovation : Cultivating the Synergy That Fosters New Ideas.

Saranac Lake, NY, USA: AMACOM Books, 2002. p 10-11.


11 Lussier, James; Shadrick, Scott. Adaptive Thinking Training for Tactical Leaders. U.S. Army

Research Institute.

12 Scheier, Ivan (1999). Introductory Notes on Futuring. Retrieved on 31 July 2013 from

http://academic.regis. edu/volunteer/Ivan/sect04.htm

13 Hoyle, John. Leadership and Futuring: Making Visions Happen (2nd ed.). Corwin Press.

http://www.amazon.com/Taxonomy-Educational-Objectives-Handbook-Cognitive/dp/0582280109/bigdogsbowlofbis/

http://www.criticalthinking.org/

http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/Doc?id=10342826&ppg=36





14

Gibbs, Leonard; Gambrill, Eileen. Critical Thinking for Helping Professionals : A Skills-

Based Workbook. Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, USA, 2009. p v.


15 Dunn, Dana S. (Editor); Halonen, Jane S. (Editor); Smith, Randolph A. (Editor). Teaching

Critical Thinking in Psychology : A Handbook of Best Practices. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley-

Blackwell, 2009. p xvii. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/Doc?id=10301397&ppg=17

Copyright © 2009. Wiley-Blackwell.

16 Dunn, Dana S. (Editor); Halonen, Jane S. (Editor); Smith, Randolph A. (Editor). Teaching

Critical Thinking in Psychology : A Handbook of Best Practices. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley-

Blackwell, 2009. p 1. http:// site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/Doc?id=10301397&ppg=21 Copyright

© 2009.

17 Facione, Peter. Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts. Retrieved on 2 Aug 13 from

http://www.student.uwa.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/1922502/Critical-Thinking-

What-it-is-and-why-it-counts.pdf p. 5.

18 Ibid. P. 5,

19 Ibid. p. 6.

20 Ibid. p. 7.

21 Ibid. p.6.

22 Gibbs, Leonard; Gambrill, Eileen. Critical Thinking for Helping Professionals : A Skills-

Based Workbook. Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, USA, 2009. p 15.

http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/Doc?id =10288505&ppg=38 Copyright © 2009.

23 Ibid. p. 7.

24 Barell, J. 1988, cited (p. 59) in Costa & O'Leary, “Co-cognition: The cooperative development

of the intellect.” In Davidson, J. and Worsham, T (Ed.) Enhancing Thinking through

Cooperative Learning. (Ed.) (1988, April). Cogitare: A Newsletter of the ASCD Network on

Teaching Thinking, 3(1).

25 Facione, Peter A., (2011) Think Critically – student edition. Pearson Education, Inc., Prentice

Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

26 Four Lenses, 4-Temperament Discovery: The Kit, Shipley Communication, 24-25

27 Keirsey, David, and Marilyn Bates. Please Understand Me: Character and Temperament

Types, 1-6 28

Four Lenses, 4-Temperament Discovery: The Kit, Shipley Communication, 25 29

Bryce, Nathan K. Four Lenses Unfolded, 39-48 30

Ibid, 23-30 31

Ibid, 30-39 32

Ibid, 48-56 33

Luft, J. and Ingham, H. The Johari Window, A Graphic Model of Interpersonal Awareness



http://site.ebrary.com/lib/apus/Doc?id%20=10288505&ppg=38


34

http://wellnessproposals.com/wellness-library/tobacco-cessation/tobacco-cessation-posters/ 35

Ibid 36

Ibid 37

Ibid 38

http://www.shipleycommunication.com/assessments/ 39

Bryce, Nathan K. Four Lenses Unfolded, 373-375 40

Ibid. Ch. 1 p 19. 41

Ibid. Ch. 1 p 22-23. 42

Ibid. Ch. 1 p 23-25. 43

Ibid. Ch. 1 p 23-26. 44

Ibid. Ch. 1 p 26-27. 45

Stafford, Mathew C., The Full Range Leadership Model: A Brief Primer. 46

Management Study Guide website. Fiedler’s Contingency Model. (Accessed 29 Jun 11). 47

Jung, Don I., and Sosik, The Full Range Leadership Development: Pathways for People,

Profit, and Planet. Ch. 1 p 28-29. 48

Ibid. Ch. 1 p 29-30. 49

Ibid. Ch1 p 30-32. 50

Ibid. Ch. 2, p 47-49. 51

Ibid. Ch. 2, p 50. 52

Merriam-Webster website. “Situation.” 53

Tornado Chaser website. Where is Tornado Alley? (Accessed 29 Jun 11). 54


People, Profit, and Planet. Ch 8, p 266. 55

Ibid. Ch. 7, p 227. 56

Ibid. Ch. 7, p 230. 57

Wright State University website. Motivating Others through Goals and Rewards. 58

Geen, R. (1994). Human motivation: A psychological approach. Wadsworth Publishing. 59

Reiss, S. (2004). Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation: The Theory of 16 Basic Desires.

Review Of General Psychology, 8(3), 179-193. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.3.179 60

Cherry, Kendra. About.com website. Psychology: Introduction to Operant Conditioning. 61

Kinicki-Kreitner, Organizational Behavior: Key Concepts, Skills, and Best Practices, Fourth

Edition. Ch. 6, p 146-147. 62


People, Profit, and Planet. Ch 7, p 234. 63

Ibid. Ch 7, p 236.

http://www.shipleycommunication.com/assessments/


64

Ibid. Ch 1, p 18. 65

The Social, Return Company, (Minner.org Ltd), Competence vs. Competency,”

http://www.minney.org/competence-vs-competency, accessed on 2 June 2013. 66

Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., and McKee, A. (2002). Primal Leadership. Havard Business

School Press: Boston MA 67

Ibid, Appendix B 68

A milieu is an environment, in this case the environment surrounding a leader. 69

Covey, S. (2008). Leading at the Speed of Trust.

http://www.minney.org/competence-vs-competency

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